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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urqe20
Psychological Changes Among Muslim Students Participating in a Faith-Based School Physical Activity Program a
Virginie Nicaise & David Kahan a
b
University of Claude Bernard Lyon 1
b
San Diego State University Published online: 20 Nov 2013.
To cite this article: Virginie Nicaise & David Kahan (2013) Psychological Changes Among Muslim Students Participating in a Faith-Based School Physical Activity Program, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84:4, 522-529, DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.839933 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2013.839933
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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84, 522–529, 2013 Copyright q AAHPERD ISSN 0270-1367 print/ISSN 2168-3824 online DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.839933
RESEARCH NOTE
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Psychological Changes Among Muslim Students Participating in a Faith-Based School Physical Activity Program Virginie Nicaise University of Claude Bernard Lyon 1
David Kahan San Diego State University
Purpose: Some religions espouse doctrines that (in)directly impact physical activity (PA) behavior. Yet limited PA interventions have been tailored to religious minorities. Thus, a formative study was conducted to examine the effect of a faith-based pedometer program (Virtual Umra) on psychological correlates of PA behavior and their contribution to schooltime changes in PA among Muslim adolescents. Method: Forty-three (27 girls, 16 boys; Mage ¼ 12.3 ^ 1.0 years) students at 1 Islamic middle school participated. Prebaseline and postprogram enjoyment and motivation were measured using the shortened PA Enjoyment Scale and the Situational Motivation Scale, respectively. Pedometer step counts were measured daily during a 2-week baseline and 8 weeks of Virtual Umra. The Reliable Change Index and Cohen’s d were used to analyze individual- and group-level changes in enjoyment and motivation, respectively. Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (RMMANOVA) was used to analyze program and gender effects over time. Partial correlations examined the relationships between psychological correlates and PA change. Results: One third of the sample expressed greater enjoyment postprogram ( p , .001, d ¼ 0.99), while motivation was unaffected ( p . .05; range, d ¼ 20.02 to 0.32). RM-MANOVA revealed that boys increased their steps, whereas girls reduced their step number through the program. Enjoyment increased and extrinsic motivation and amotivation decreased. Partial correlations revealed that enjoyment and more self-determined behavioral regulations were positively associated with non-physical education (PE)-day PA change; only intrinsic motivation was positively associated with PE-day PA change. Conclusion: Virtual Umra was associated with increased enjoyment of PA but needs further modification to more positively impact girls’ PA. Keywords: enjoyment, motivation, pedometer, religious minority
Ethnic-minority adolescent Americans are less likely to meet physical activity (PA) recommendations compared with nonminorities (Whitt-Glover et al., 2009). Among Submitted February 15, 2011; accepted February 10, 2013. Correspondence should be addressed to Virginie Nicaise, Universite´ Lyon 1 – UFRSTAPS, Centre de Recherche et d’Innovation sur le Sport – EA 647, 27-29, boulevard du 11 novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, Lyon, France. E-mail: [email protected]
these same youth, school-based PA represents a much greater proportion of total PA than in other communities (Institute of Medicine, 2006). Thus, understanding how to increase PA at school in this group is advisable. Though few in number, school-based interventions that target obesity-related health behavior (e.g., PA) and are culturally targeted and tailored have been shown to be effective with ethnic-minority youth (Wilson, 2009). There is a lack of research into PA promotion interventions
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PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PA AMONG MUSLIM YOUTH
tailored to Muslim Americans. Reasons for this oversight are unknown but may relate to: (a) Muslims’ relatively small population in the Americas by percentage compared with other regions of the world (Pew Research Center, 2011), which relegates inquiry into their health behavior behind more populous minority groups; and (b) a paucity of Muslim exercise scientists interested in the topic of PA. In response, we developed a PA program that was specifically tailored to an Islamic ritual—one that is infused with walking and in times predating modern travel modes required a physical pilgrimage to Mecca. A secondary objective was for religious girls to be attracted to the program. In Muslim countries, girls face many barriers to being physically active such as societal dissuasion, lack of role models, limited designated exercise facilities, and perceived lack of importance (Taymoori et al., 2008). In America, Muslim girls encounter similar barriers; they fully—or in modified ways—participate in an activity when it is consonant with their religious identity (Hamzeh & Oliver, 2012). Walking/hiking is the most common form of intentional PA among Arab-Muslim women in California, which was the location of the present study (Qahoush, Stotts, Alawneh, & Froelicher, 2010). Walking allows participants to increase PA volume without the need for specific skills, equipment, or facilities. In school settings, walking can be performed in multiple contexts and for various purposes (e.g., active transportation, intramurals, afterschool programs, physical education [PE]). Formalized walking lessons and programs are found in the Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids – Physical Education (SPARK – PE) curriculum’s health fitness units. Specifically, in the Map Challenges unit: Students travel to a destination by walking . . . . Students then convert either laps traveled or minutes moved into map miles. They will move on the map from a point or origin to a final destination. These activities integrate geography and math skills, and increase your students’ motivation for movement. (McKenzie, Rosengard, & Williston, 2006, Map Challenges Unit, p. 1)
Empirical research on particular SPARK units indicated that the Map Challenges unit was well-liked (M ¼ 3.37 on 4-point scale; McKenzie, Alcaraz, & Sallis, 1994). Culturally tailoring the unit to appeal to Muslim students should hypothetically increase enjoyment and motivation, two constructs positively associated with child and adolescent PA (van der Horst, Paw, Twisk, & van Mechelen, 2007). Additionally, pedometers are listed as optional equipment for this SPARK unit. School-based PA interventions that use pedometers have been shown to assist in goal setting and to increase motivation for and enjoyment of PA (Bravata et al., 2007; Dishman, Motl, Saunders, et al., 2005). Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) provides a theoretical framework for understanding how
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behavioral regulation may relate to PA in religious and cultural minorities (Wilson, 2009). SDT represents a continuum of behavioral regulations that span amotivation (AM), extrinsic motivation (a continuum itself: external regulation [ER], introjection, identification, integration), and intrinsic motivation (IM). Individuals possessing behavioral regulation that is more intrinsically motivated should experience more positive affective and behavioral consequences, which among minorities are unlikely to occur if programs are not culturally tailored to individual needs and targeted to cultural group-level traditions (Wilson, 2009). Such programs allow participants to take ownership toward discovering more about their culture and sharing common values and experiences related to PA (i.e., assuming high levels of IM and identified and integrated regulation are favored). The present study’s culturally tailored PA program provided instruction, self-monitoring of behavior, and contingent reward and performance feedback, which collectively have been identified as effective components of PA interventions (Abraham & Michie, 2008). Assuming these aforementioned features are not viewed as overly controlling and are viewed as salient, interesting, and enjoyable (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Wilson, 2009), increases in more self-determined styles of regulation, which in turn are related to positive changes in PA behavior, should result. Feedback from eighth graders who participated in a pilot study during the previous school year suggested elements of the program were thought to be novel, enjoyable, self-driven, and satisfying. According to SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2000), these attitudes along with those associated with feelings of relatedness, competence, and autonomy should elicit positive changes in more internalized behavioral regulations. Companion studies of the same students found that the PA program we created significantly changed boys’ PA for up to 4 weeks (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012a) and that students found novel methods and opportunities to accumulate steps (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012b). In these previous articles, we did not consider what psychological correlates of PA, if any, may be related to changes in PA. Certain psychological correlates have been linked to moderate-to-vigorous PA among ethnicminority youth and have been suggested to serve as intervention targets (Lawman, Wilson, Van Horn, Resnicow, & Kitzman-Ulrich, 2011). Attempts toward understanding psychological correlates’ association to PA in underserved populations—in this case a religious one—are a priority. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate whether a faithbased PA program delivered to Muslim middle school students resulted in changes in psychological correlates of PA and their relationship to any concomitant changes in PA. It was expected that more self-determined behavioral regulations and enjoyment, which itself is associated with IM, would be higher after the PA program and would be positively correlated to step-count changes. Based on previously cited literature, compared with girls, boys were
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thought to demonstrate greater preprogram and postprogram levels of enjoyment and intrinsic behavioral regulations and lower levels of extrinsic behavioral regulations. Additionally, greater changes in desirable directions of these same variables over time would favor boys.
METHOD
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Participants Forty-six of a possible 47 students (all ambulatory) in Grades 6 through 8 attending a private Islamic day school in Southern California participated in the study. Forty-three students completed all measures (27 girls, 16 boys; Mage¼12.3 ^ 1.0 years). Students self-identified as Somali (37%), Arab (33%), South Asian (20%), and Persian (10%). All participants provided written informed assent and parental consent. This study was approved by San Diego University’s Institutional Review Board. Program Design, Features, and Context Overview Umra is a voluntary pilgrimage to Mecca that can be taken at any time of the year (unlike the Hajj) and includes walking rituals that total several miles in length. The ritual provided the premise for a culturally- tailored adaptation of the SPARK Map Challenges unit that was implemented across the school day. Although highly desirable in PA interventions, manipulation of school policy and environment was not achievable. PE was sex-segregated, taught by nonspecialists, and offered twice weekly for 100 allocated min; ambulatory space around campus was limited; and campus outdoor space in practice was gender-segregated with boys occupying the open space area and engaging in active games. Girls, in contrast, stood on the perimeter or sat at adjacent lunch tables talking. Despite these limitations, students still developed unique strategies for accumulating steps during and between classes (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012b). The original unit was acknowledged as suitable for this age group (A. Hart, SPARK development director, personal communication, September 1, 2011). Tailoring Map Challenges Because PE was not altered to formally accommodate the SPARK unit, only the theme of Map Challenges was implemented. McKenzie et al. (2006) directed SPARK users to (a) get a map, (b) choose a route, (c) mark the route, and (d) make a track. We posted a 4-foot £ 6-foot (1.20 m £ 1.80 m) map in the school foyer and updated it weekly with YOU ARE HERE stickers by grade level. SPARK advises that students may need additional motivators such as modified activities (e.g., Pass the Hat, Card Run), but these are curricular in nature
and we were not granted access to recess or PE. We instead used a tiered award system based on step-count thresholds and destinations reached as well as step-count extra credit for voluntarily answering Umra booklet trivia questions about countries visited along the way (10 per destination). A raffle ticket was awarded for every 5,000 steps an individual accumulated. If one’s name was drawn, the student was awarded a banknote from a destination country (e.g., Brunei dollar, Qatari real). A toe token (fitnessfinders.net) worn on a ball chain necklace was awarded for every 10,000 steps an individual accumulated. Upon reaching a destination (15 in all), an individual was awarded a sticker of that country’s flag to affix to one’s Umra booklet. The booklet consisted of a passport, map, destination, and recording pages (i.e., daily and weekly step total chart, daily steps graph, extra-credit answer spaces, prediction/goal of days required to reach destination). A prize from a local dollar store chain was awarded when a student reached a destination. Upon completing the entire journey, a $10 gift card to a local sporting goods chain was awarded (the amount was not revealed to students). Point-ofdecision prompts depicting a sand dune and footsteps with a message challenging students to accumulate steps were positioned in the school hallway and outdoors on the playground. Because we could not directly influence PA and were mindful of the PA barriers Muslim girls face, we regularly encouraged girls when they picked up and returned pedometers at the start and conclusion of each school day and wrote motivational messages when auditing their booklet recording pages. At the initial meeting, we encouraged girls to walk in groups around the perimeter of the school/mosque during recess/lunch and compared the practice to circumambulating the Kaaba during one of the Umra rituals. They subsequently initiated but did not maintain this practice. Throughout the booklet, we embedded bonus step trivia questions about and pictures of Muslim women engaged in PA. Boys were not similarly encouraged because at our initial meeting with the student body, they exhibited more excitement (e.g., asked questions, were eager to handle the pedometers). Additionally, from previous observations, we were aware of the gender disparity in PA during recess and PE. Measures Physical Activity Originally, an ABA pretest–posttest design was used to evaluate the program’s effectiveness for increasing PA only (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012a). A 2-week baseline (i.e., wearing a pedometer for 1 week followed by another week of wear plus recording steps) was followed by the 8-week program, which was immediately followed by a 2-week reversed baseline. Only baseline and program steps were used in this study’s analyses because follow-up measurement of psychological correlates occurred only once immediately upon completion
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PA AMONG MUSLIM YOUTH
of the program (i.e., not performed after the reversal). Schooltime ambulatory PA was measured daily with the W4L MVP Walk 4 Life pedometer, which has been previously validated (DeVries et al., 2009). All students completed at least 2 days (M ¼ 3.36 ^ 0.52) of pedometer wear at baseline and postprogram. (Pedometers were worn Monday through Thursday each week during school hours.)
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Enjoyment Enjoyment of PA at school was measured using the shortened Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (S-PACES; Dishman, Motl, Sallis, et al., 2005), which consists of seven negatively worded items. The original stem was modified to read: When I am active at school (i.e., between classes, recess, lunch, PE). A 5-point Likert-type scale was used with higher scores signifying less enjoyment. The mean score was reversed for all data analyses. Satisfactory internal consistency was demonstrated in the present study (a ¼ .85time1, a ¼ .83time2). Motivation Motivation for PA at school was measured with the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2002). The SIMS is a 16-item scale that measures IM, identified regulation (IR), ER, and AM. A 5-point Likert-type scale was used with higher average subscale scores signifying greater behavioral regulation for a particular subscale. The original stem was modified to read: Why do you want to participate in this program: a pedometer-based PA program at school? (preprogram), and Looking back now, why did you participate in the Umra activity study? (postprogram). Acceptable internal consistency was demonstrated (a range ¼ .70 – .85time1, .70 – .83time2) and was similar to previous reports (Guay et al., 2002; a range ¼ .77–.91)
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and non-PE days. Students who had completed at least 2 days of pedometer monitoring each week were included in the analysis (Lubans & Morgan, 2008). Changes in steps over time were derived by subtracting the baseline mean from the program mean. (At midprogram, two boys ceased participation and their data were excluded from analysis.) First, we used the Reliable Change Index (RCI) to determine changes in psychological variables for individuals (Jacobson & Truax, 1991). The RCI is a statistical measure of change that takes into account the population variance (standard deviation) and the reliability of the test (alpha). Application of the RCI requires knowledge of scale and subscale test – retest reliability, which were obtained from relevant sources (Guay et al., 2002; Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991). An RCI of 1.96 was considered significant. Magnitude of change for the entire sample was evaluated through interpretation of effect sizes (Cohen’s d, .2 ¼ small, .5 ¼ medium, .8 ¼ large). Effect sizes were computed using an online application (www.uccs.edu/, faculty/lbecker). Second, repeated-measures multivariate analyses of variance (RM-MANOVAs) and post-hoc comparisons were computed to determine time, gender, and Time £ Gender effects on enjoyment, motivation, and PA. Data met the assumption of sphericity as all Mauchly’s tests were nonsignificant. MANOVA was selected because univariate correlations among these variables revealed multiple significant associations, which are controlled for in MANOVA (e.g., Pearson r correlations between PE days and non-PE days at the two measurement intervals ranged from .44 to .85, p , .01). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to examine the relationship between postprogram motivation subscales, enjoyment, and PA change. Specifically, partial correlations ( pr) were calculated based on the association of postprogram motivation and enjoyment scores with step-count change after controlling for the influence of preprogram scores.
Procedure Prior to baseline, all students completed a 30-item questionnaire composed of a demographic section and sections containing S-PACES and SIMS. Subsequently, students wore pedometers as previously noted. In personal logs, they optionally tallied and graphed daily steps and answered questions about countries en route for bonus steps. At the end of the 8th and final week of the program, the original questionnaire was administered in grade-level classrooms. Data Analyses The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (Version 17.0). Children have been shown to be more active on PE days (Brusseau, Hodges Kulinna, Tudor-Locke, van der Mars, & Darst, 2011); thus, total pedometer counts were divided by the number of days worn to provide mean steps/day for PE days
RESULTS Motivation and Enjoyment Motivation and enjoyment levels did not change for a majority of participants (Table 1). Based on the RCI, increased scores for enjoyment and IM scores were seen for 34.9% and 9.3%, respectively, while decreased scores for IM, IR, ER, and AM were seen for 9.3% each (Table 1). At the group level, time effects were significant for enjoyment (F ¼ 14.1, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .27) and motivation (F ¼ 2.6, p , .05, h 2 ¼ .10; Table 2). Post-hoc univariate F tests based on mean difference revealed that enjoyment increased (þ.63, p , .001, effect size [ES] ¼ .88), ER decreased (2.25, F ¼ 6.2, p , .01, ES ¼ .32), and AM decreased (2.27, F ¼ 5.2, p , .05, ES ¼ .30) at postprogram. Gender and Gender £ Time effects were not statistically significant for enjoyment and motivation (Table 2).
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V. NICAISE AND D. KAHAN TABLE 1 Levels of Enjoyment, Motivation, and Physical Activity Over Time
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Variable Enjoyment Boys Girls IM Boys Girls IR Boys Girls ER Boys Girls AM Boys Girls PANon-PE day Boys Girls PAPE day Boys Girls
Preprogram M (SD)
Postprogram M (SD)
ES d
No Changea n (%)
Increaseb n (%)
Decreaseb n (%)
3.78 (0.69) 3.78 (0.86) 3.78 (0.70) 3.96 (0.60) 3.98 (0.65) 3.95 (0.52) 3.93 (0.70) 3.93 (0.52) 3.89 (0.80) 1.83 (0.79) 1.96 (0.78) 1.77 (0.80) 2.21 (0.95) 2.20 (0.98) 2.28 (0.91) 2,352 (1,026) 2,933 (517) 1,989 (633) 4,350 (1,546) 5,512 (1,700) 3,625 (872)
4.41 (0.58) 4.69 (0.40) 4.20 (0.62) 3.97 (0.60) 4.03 (0.69) 3.92 (0.55) 3.75 (0.69) 3.83 (0.57) 3.70 (0.78) 1.58 (0.77) 1.48 (0.65) 1.57 (0.81) 1.94 (0.85) 1.81 (0.74) 2.01 (0.93) 2,402 (1,049) 3,325 (980) 1,826 (576) 4,534 (1,774) 6,516 (776) 3,296 (825)
0.99 1.36 0.64 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.26 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.67 0.25 0.3 0.45 0.29 20.04 0.52 20.27 0.07 0.81 20.38
26 (60.4)
15 (34.9)
2 (4.7)
35 (81.4)
4 (9.3)
4 (9.3)
38 (88.4)
1 (2.3)
4 (9.3)
38 (88.4)
1 (2.3)
4 (9.3)
38 (88.4)
1 (2.3)
4 (9.3)
Note. Highest possible score on enjoyment scale and motivation subscales is 5. ES ¼ effect size (Cohen’s d); IM ¼ intrinsic motivation; IR ¼ identified regulation; ER ¼ external regulation; AM ¼ amotivation; PA ¼ physical activity. a Based on Reliable Change Index (Jacobson & Truax, 1991). b Percentage based only on total number of students whose scores had statistically changed.
Physical Activity For time, no main effect was detected (Table 2). For gender (F ¼ 43.4, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .27), based on mean difference, boys were significantly more active than girls on PE days (þ 2,553 steps, F ¼ 82.3, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .69) and on nonPE days (þ 1,221 steps, F ¼ 41.5, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .52). For TABLE 2 RM-MANOVA of Enjoyment, Motivation, and Physical Activity Over Time
Time Variable Enjoyment Motivation IM IR ER AM PA PE day Non-PE day
p
F
14.1*** 2.6* 0.2 0.8 6.2** 5.2* 1.4 2.8
h
Fp
.27 .10
3.0 0.13 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.2 43.4*** 82.3*** 41.5***
.14 .12
0.9
Relationships Between Physical Activity, Motivation, and Enjoyment
Time £ Gender
Gender 2
h2
Fp
.70 .69 .52
1.9 0.9 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.3 7.3* 10.9** 5.5*
Time £ Gender interaction (F ¼ 7.3, p , .05, h 2 ¼ .18), on PE days, based on mean difference, boys significantly increased step counts at postprogram (þ 1,004 steps, F ¼ 10.9, p , .01, h 2 ¼ .23), while girls significantly decreased over the same span (2 328 steps, p ¼ .02). On non-PE days, a similar finding was detected (boys, þ 392 steps; girls, 2 163 steps; F ¼ 5.5, p , .05, h 2 ¼ .13).
h2
Partial correlations shown in Table 3 revealed that overall step-count change on non-PE days was moderately or slightly associated with postprogram enjoyment after controlling for baseline values ( pr ¼ .45, p , .01, R 2 ¼ .19), IM ( pr ¼ .31, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .18), and IR TABLE 3 Partial Correlations Between Psychological Variables and Physical Activity Change
.18 .23 .13
Note. IM ¼ intrinsic motivation; IR ¼ identified regulation; ER ¼ external regulation; AM ¼ amotivation; PA ¼ physical activity. ES: h 2 ¼ .02 (small), h 2 ¼ .15 (medium), h 2 ¼ .35 (large). * p , .05. **p , .01. ***p , .001.
Non-PE days PE days
Enjoyment
IM
IR
ER
AM
.45** .18
.31* .35*
.27* .19
.18 .25
.07 2.09
Note. IM ¼ intrinsic motivation; IR ¼ identified regulation; ER ¼ external regulation; AM ¼ amotivation. *p , .05. **p , .01.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PA AMONG MUSLIM YOUTH
( pr ¼ .27, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .07). On PE days, only IM ( pr ¼ .35, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .12) was slightly associated with overall step-count change. ER and AM were not related to step-count changes.
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DISCUSSION We examined changes in motivation and enjoyment levels and their relationship to PA changes resulting from a culturally tailored PA program aimed at increasing Muslim American school children’s school day ambulatory activity. Owing to the small sample, results should be considered preliminary and larger studies involving multiple schools should be conducted. At the individual level, based on RCI scores, one third of students claimed increased enjoyment after the program while behavioral regulation was unaffected. At the group level, ER and AM scores declined by 14% and 12%, respectively. More self-determined forms of behavioral regulation were far less affected: IR declined by 5% while IM was unchanged. The intervention as a whole appeared to differentially impact forms of behavioral regulation. Perhaps extrinsic components such as reward and feedback were not viewed as overly controlling (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Wilson, 2009); thus, initial levels of ER and AM declined. Correlates of PA increase on non-PE days were enjoyment, IM, and IR, and on PE days, the correlate of PA increase was IM. It was unclear why enjoyment was positively associated with PA change on days participants did not have PE but not on days they did, because enjoyment is associated with PA increases (Lubans, Foster, & Biddle, 2009). Notwithstanding, it is heartening that more self-determined behavioral regulations were associated with PA change on both PE and non-PE days. Although we did not have a say in PE classes, we offered regular direct (i.e., face-to-face at the beginning and end of the school day) and indirect (i.e., personalized notes in their recording booklets) interactions along with the program materials. These may have capably fulfilled students’ need support, which in adolescents has been shown to be positively associated with IM and PA in optional and mandatory PE contexts (Ntoumanis, 2005; Zhang, Solmon, Kosma, Carson, & Gu, 2011). The program was ineffective at changing girls’ PA (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012a). Interestingly, gender was not associated with any behavioral regulation. Relatively small (h 2 , .025) gender differences for related constructs (e.g., barrier self-efficacy and subjective norm) have been found among religiously/ethnically similar middle school children (Martin, McCaughtry, & Shen, 2008). In this age group in general, the processes and constructs of self-determined PA tend to be gender-invariant (Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2005). It is interesting to note that the magnitude of decrease—denoted by effect size—in ER and AM preprogram and postprogram was much larger among
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boys than among girls. Additionally, differences in effect size between boys and girls for these two behavioral regulations were wider (ER ¼ .42; AM ¼ .16) than they were for more intrinsic regulations (IR ¼ .06; IM ¼ .01). We are unsure what components of the program—if any— may have been responsible for more strongly reducing extrinsic forms of regulation among boys. Although concomitant increases in more intrinsic types of regulation were not seen, PA behavior is generally negatively associated with ER and AM (Texeira, Carrac a, Markland, Silva, & Ryan, 2012). It is important then to better understand the differential actions—by gender—that these regulations may exert on PA among Muslim adolescents.
CONCLUSION: SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Several take-home messages from this study bear recapitulation. The hypotheses of the study were partially supported: Cultural tailoring of a SPARK curriculum unit based on SDT was associated with (a) increased enjoyment; (b) positive associations between PA change and enjoyment, IM, and IR; and (c) unchanged motivational orientations. Null results for the latter finding may have resulted from motivation constituting intrapsychic processes, which among Arabs/Muslims are imbued by cultural collectivism (Dwairy, 2006). Arabs use the coping mechanisms of mosayara, which guides individuals to project subjective norms in thought, feeling, and behavior, and istighaba, which guides expression of true intention (Dwairy, 2006). These opposing forces are analogous to the construct of decisional balance whereby behavior change is strengthened when perceived benefits exceed perceived barriers. Mosayara may have been perceived as more strongly influencing behavior than did istighaba, which would effectively temper individuation (SDT does not account for this dynamic). Thus, PA motivation should have also been viewed more socially. Although we tried to include social components (e.g., suggesting girls walk together, posting grade-level progress), we were limited in capacity to interact with the whole group or subgroups. This study employed a pretest –posttest single-group design for measuring psychological correlates, which poses acknowledged threats to internal validity. Because the study was conducted in the only Islamic day school in the county, generalization to other adolescent Muslims attending Islamic schools is also cautioned. Based on our findings and potential methodological shortcomings, we suggest several directions for future study. First, as we were not able to directly impact PA among girls, organizing before-school and afterschool activity, recess periods, and lunchtime walking clubs for female students, teachers, and mothers could boost PA and related psychological states. Staggering recess and lunch
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times by gender would afford girls access to PA space that otherwise must be shared with boys. Second, we designed Umra materials ecumenically so that Muslim youth would find them relatable foremost. We ensured, however, that a cross-representation of information and pictures relatable to girls was included. Revision of materials to focus exclusively on Muslim women’s health and fitness issues and role models (e.g., http://muslimwomeninsports. blogspot.com) may be construed by girls as more salient and interesting than current materials. Third, we included many destinations in constituting the virtual pilgrimage. Revising program materials to travel to/within a single country that matches individual children’s national heritage may also increase IM orientations. Alternatively, in keeping with the construct of Ummah Wahida (i.e., all Muslims regardless of nationality are one nation), religious salience may be increased if the concept of travel to modern countries was replaced in favor of travel through the territory comprising the Muslim caliphates (632 A.D. – 1924). Fourth, it would be interesting to determine if the program may be potentiated by paring it to a single month and offering it as a lead-up to or cotemporal with particular Muslim observances (e.g., Islamic New Year and its associated month Muharram; Birth of the Prophet and its associated month Rabi’ al-awwal). Fifth, owing to Islam’s stress on collectivism, programmatic materials and pedagogical strategies might be modified to highlight a social component or group contingency and determine if doing so enhances individual motivation. Based on mixed findings, we recommend that future PA programs aimed at Muslim adolescents measure additional psychological, cultural, and religiosity variables with adequately powered samples. In the interim, a religiously tailored PA program such as Virtual Umra can create an enjoyable climate for PA that may be bolstered through involvement of additional school stakeholders and proactive measures aimed at bridging gender gaps in PA.
WHAT DOES THIS ARTICLE ADD? PA interventions designed specifically for religious-minority youth are scarce. Understanding the underlying mechanisms for why they (do not) work is important. Cultural/religious translation of proven curricula such as SPARK is novel. Theoretically, doing so should enhance internal psychological states associated with PA. Results from our study, however, demonstrated that this premise is not guaranteed. Changes, when they occurred, were not robust across variables nor were they universal. Boys psychologically responded to the program more strongly and in a more desirable direction compared with girls. As previous literature has focused on elucidating and explaining gender gaps in PA behavior among Muslims, redressing said gap through a curricular program alone is insufficient. Direct
approaches consonant with religious doctrine (e.g., group exercise led by credible female role models) may facilitate psychological changes associated with PA. Future studies should explore, implement, and evaluate the effects of such options in conjunction with this program or a similar one.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PA AMONG MUSLIM YOUTH Lubans, D. R., & Morgan, P. J. (2008). Evaluation of an extra-curricular school sport program promoting lifestyle and lifetime activity. Journal of Sport Sciences, 26, 519– 529. Martin, J. J., McCaughtry, N., & Shen, B. (2008). Predicting physical activity in Arab American school children. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 27, 205–219. McKenzie, T. L., Alcaraz, J. E., & Sallis, J. F. (1994). Assessing children’s liking for activity units in an elementary school physical education curriculum. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 13, 206 –215. McKenzie, T., Rosengard, P., & Williston, B. J. (2006). SPARK physical education program Grades 3–6. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University Foundation. Ntoumanis, N. (2005). A prospective study of participation in optional school physical education using a self-determination theory framework. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 444–453. Pew Research Center. (2011, January). The future of the global Muslim population: Projections for 2010–2030. Washington, DC: Author Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/ Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/FutureGlobalMuslimPopulation-WebPDFFeb10.pdf Qahoush, R., Stotts, N., Alawneh, M. S., & Froelicher, E. S. (2010). Physical activity in Arab women in Southern California. European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 9, 263–271. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54 –67.
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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urqe20
Psychological Changes Among Muslim Students Participating in a Faith-Based School Physical Activity Program a
Virginie Nicaise & David Kahan a
b
University of Claude Bernard Lyon 1
b
San Diego State University Published online: 20 Nov 2013.
To cite this article: Virginie Nicaise & David Kahan (2013) Psychological Changes Among Muslim Students Participating in a Faith-Based School Physical Activity Program, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84:4, 522-529, DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.839933 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2013.839933
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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84, 522–529, 2013 Copyright q AAHPERD ISSN 0270-1367 print/ISSN 2168-3824 online DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.839933
RESEARCH NOTE
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Psychological Changes Among Muslim Students Participating in a Faith-Based School Physical Activity Program Virginie Nicaise University of Claude Bernard Lyon 1
David Kahan San Diego State University
Purpose: Some religions espouse doctrines that (in)directly impact physical activity (PA) behavior. Yet limited PA interventions have been tailored to religious minorities. Thus, a formative study was conducted to examine the effect of a faith-based pedometer program (Virtual Umra) on psychological correlates of PA behavior and their contribution to schooltime changes in PA among Muslim adolescents. Method: Forty-three (27 girls, 16 boys; Mage ¼ 12.3 ^ 1.0 years) students at 1 Islamic middle school participated. Prebaseline and postprogram enjoyment and motivation were measured using the shortened PA Enjoyment Scale and the Situational Motivation Scale, respectively. Pedometer step counts were measured daily during a 2-week baseline and 8 weeks of Virtual Umra. The Reliable Change Index and Cohen’s d were used to analyze individual- and group-level changes in enjoyment and motivation, respectively. Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (RMMANOVA) was used to analyze program and gender effects over time. Partial correlations examined the relationships between psychological correlates and PA change. Results: One third of the sample expressed greater enjoyment postprogram ( p , .001, d ¼ 0.99), while motivation was unaffected ( p . .05; range, d ¼ 20.02 to 0.32). RM-MANOVA revealed that boys increased their steps, whereas girls reduced their step number through the program. Enjoyment increased and extrinsic motivation and amotivation decreased. Partial correlations revealed that enjoyment and more self-determined behavioral regulations were positively associated with non-physical education (PE)-day PA change; only intrinsic motivation was positively associated with PE-day PA change. Conclusion: Virtual Umra was associated with increased enjoyment of PA but needs further modification to more positively impact girls’ PA. Keywords: enjoyment, motivation, pedometer, religious minority
Ethnic-minority adolescent Americans are less likely to meet physical activity (PA) recommendations compared with nonminorities (Whitt-Glover et al., 2009). Among Submitted February 15, 2011; accepted February 10, 2013. Correspondence should be addressed to Virginie Nicaise, Universite´ Lyon 1 – UFRSTAPS, Centre de Recherche et d’Innovation sur le Sport – EA 647, 27-29, boulevard du 11 novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, Lyon, France. E-mail: [email protected]
these same youth, school-based PA represents a much greater proportion of total PA than in other communities (Institute of Medicine, 2006). Thus, understanding how to increase PA at school in this group is advisable. Though few in number, school-based interventions that target obesity-related health behavior (e.g., PA) and are culturally targeted and tailored have been shown to be effective with ethnic-minority youth (Wilson, 2009). There is a lack of research into PA promotion interventions
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PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PA AMONG MUSLIM YOUTH
tailored to Muslim Americans. Reasons for this oversight are unknown but may relate to: (a) Muslims’ relatively small population in the Americas by percentage compared with other regions of the world (Pew Research Center, 2011), which relegates inquiry into their health behavior behind more populous minority groups; and (b) a paucity of Muslim exercise scientists interested in the topic of PA. In response, we developed a PA program that was specifically tailored to an Islamic ritual—one that is infused with walking and in times predating modern travel modes required a physical pilgrimage to Mecca. A secondary objective was for religious girls to be attracted to the program. In Muslim countries, girls face many barriers to being physically active such as societal dissuasion, lack of role models, limited designated exercise facilities, and perceived lack of importance (Taymoori et al., 2008). In America, Muslim girls encounter similar barriers; they fully—or in modified ways—participate in an activity when it is consonant with their religious identity (Hamzeh & Oliver, 2012). Walking/hiking is the most common form of intentional PA among Arab-Muslim women in California, which was the location of the present study (Qahoush, Stotts, Alawneh, & Froelicher, 2010). Walking allows participants to increase PA volume without the need for specific skills, equipment, or facilities. In school settings, walking can be performed in multiple contexts and for various purposes (e.g., active transportation, intramurals, afterschool programs, physical education [PE]). Formalized walking lessons and programs are found in the Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids – Physical Education (SPARK – PE) curriculum’s health fitness units. Specifically, in the Map Challenges unit: Students travel to a destination by walking . . . . Students then convert either laps traveled or minutes moved into map miles. They will move on the map from a point or origin to a final destination. These activities integrate geography and math skills, and increase your students’ motivation for movement. (McKenzie, Rosengard, & Williston, 2006, Map Challenges Unit, p. 1)
Empirical research on particular SPARK units indicated that the Map Challenges unit was well-liked (M ¼ 3.37 on 4-point scale; McKenzie, Alcaraz, & Sallis, 1994). Culturally tailoring the unit to appeal to Muslim students should hypothetically increase enjoyment and motivation, two constructs positively associated with child and adolescent PA (van der Horst, Paw, Twisk, & van Mechelen, 2007). Additionally, pedometers are listed as optional equipment for this SPARK unit. School-based PA interventions that use pedometers have been shown to assist in goal setting and to increase motivation for and enjoyment of PA (Bravata et al., 2007; Dishman, Motl, Saunders, et al., 2005). Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) provides a theoretical framework for understanding how
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behavioral regulation may relate to PA in religious and cultural minorities (Wilson, 2009). SDT represents a continuum of behavioral regulations that span amotivation (AM), extrinsic motivation (a continuum itself: external regulation [ER], introjection, identification, integration), and intrinsic motivation (IM). Individuals possessing behavioral regulation that is more intrinsically motivated should experience more positive affective and behavioral consequences, which among minorities are unlikely to occur if programs are not culturally tailored to individual needs and targeted to cultural group-level traditions (Wilson, 2009). Such programs allow participants to take ownership toward discovering more about their culture and sharing common values and experiences related to PA (i.e., assuming high levels of IM and identified and integrated regulation are favored). The present study’s culturally tailored PA program provided instruction, self-monitoring of behavior, and contingent reward and performance feedback, which collectively have been identified as effective components of PA interventions (Abraham & Michie, 2008). Assuming these aforementioned features are not viewed as overly controlling and are viewed as salient, interesting, and enjoyable (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Wilson, 2009), increases in more self-determined styles of regulation, which in turn are related to positive changes in PA behavior, should result. Feedback from eighth graders who participated in a pilot study during the previous school year suggested elements of the program were thought to be novel, enjoyable, self-driven, and satisfying. According to SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2000), these attitudes along with those associated with feelings of relatedness, competence, and autonomy should elicit positive changes in more internalized behavioral regulations. Companion studies of the same students found that the PA program we created significantly changed boys’ PA for up to 4 weeks (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012a) and that students found novel methods and opportunities to accumulate steps (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012b). In these previous articles, we did not consider what psychological correlates of PA, if any, may be related to changes in PA. Certain psychological correlates have been linked to moderate-to-vigorous PA among ethnicminority youth and have been suggested to serve as intervention targets (Lawman, Wilson, Van Horn, Resnicow, & Kitzman-Ulrich, 2011). Attempts toward understanding psychological correlates’ association to PA in underserved populations—in this case a religious one—are a priority. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate whether a faithbased PA program delivered to Muslim middle school students resulted in changes in psychological correlates of PA and their relationship to any concomitant changes in PA. It was expected that more self-determined behavioral regulations and enjoyment, which itself is associated with IM, would be higher after the PA program and would be positively correlated to step-count changes. Based on previously cited literature, compared with girls, boys were
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thought to demonstrate greater preprogram and postprogram levels of enjoyment and intrinsic behavioral regulations and lower levels of extrinsic behavioral regulations. Additionally, greater changes in desirable directions of these same variables over time would favor boys.
METHOD
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Participants Forty-six of a possible 47 students (all ambulatory) in Grades 6 through 8 attending a private Islamic day school in Southern California participated in the study. Forty-three students completed all measures (27 girls, 16 boys; Mage¼12.3 ^ 1.0 years). Students self-identified as Somali (37%), Arab (33%), South Asian (20%), and Persian (10%). All participants provided written informed assent and parental consent. This study was approved by San Diego University’s Institutional Review Board. Program Design, Features, and Context Overview Umra is a voluntary pilgrimage to Mecca that can be taken at any time of the year (unlike the Hajj) and includes walking rituals that total several miles in length. The ritual provided the premise for a culturally- tailored adaptation of the SPARK Map Challenges unit that was implemented across the school day. Although highly desirable in PA interventions, manipulation of school policy and environment was not achievable. PE was sex-segregated, taught by nonspecialists, and offered twice weekly for 100 allocated min; ambulatory space around campus was limited; and campus outdoor space in practice was gender-segregated with boys occupying the open space area and engaging in active games. Girls, in contrast, stood on the perimeter or sat at adjacent lunch tables talking. Despite these limitations, students still developed unique strategies for accumulating steps during and between classes (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012b). The original unit was acknowledged as suitable for this age group (A. Hart, SPARK development director, personal communication, September 1, 2011). Tailoring Map Challenges Because PE was not altered to formally accommodate the SPARK unit, only the theme of Map Challenges was implemented. McKenzie et al. (2006) directed SPARK users to (a) get a map, (b) choose a route, (c) mark the route, and (d) make a track. We posted a 4-foot £ 6-foot (1.20 m £ 1.80 m) map in the school foyer and updated it weekly with YOU ARE HERE stickers by grade level. SPARK advises that students may need additional motivators such as modified activities (e.g., Pass the Hat, Card Run), but these are curricular in nature
and we were not granted access to recess or PE. We instead used a tiered award system based on step-count thresholds and destinations reached as well as step-count extra credit for voluntarily answering Umra booklet trivia questions about countries visited along the way (10 per destination). A raffle ticket was awarded for every 5,000 steps an individual accumulated. If one’s name was drawn, the student was awarded a banknote from a destination country (e.g., Brunei dollar, Qatari real). A toe token (fitnessfinders.net) worn on a ball chain necklace was awarded for every 10,000 steps an individual accumulated. Upon reaching a destination (15 in all), an individual was awarded a sticker of that country’s flag to affix to one’s Umra booklet. The booklet consisted of a passport, map, destination, and recording pages (i.e., daily and weekly step total chart, daily steps graph, extra-credit answer spaces, prediction/goal of days required to reach destination). A prize from a local dollar store chain was awarded when a student reached a destination. Upon completing the entire journey, a $10 gift card to a local sporting goods chain was awarded (the amount was not revealed to students). Point-ofdecision prompts depicting a sand dune and footsteps with a message challenging students to accumulate steps were positioned in the school hallway and outdoors on the playground. Because we could not directly influence PA and were mindful of the PA barriers Muslim girls face, we regularly encouraged girls when they picked up and returned pedometers at the start and conclusion of each school day and wrote motivational messages when auditing their booklet recording pages. At the initial meeting, we encouraged girls to walk in groups around the perimeter of the school/mosque during recess/lunch and compared the practice to circumambulating the Kaaba during one of the Umra rituals. They subsequently initiated but did not maintain this practice. Throughout the booklet, we embedded bonus step trivia questions about and pictures of Muslim women engaged in PA. Boys were not similarly encouraged because at our initial meeting with the student body, they exhibited more excitement (e.g., asked questions, were eager to handle the pedometers). Additionally, from previous observations, we were aware of the gender disparity in PA during recess and PE. Measures Physical Activity Originally, an ABA pretest–posttest design was used to evaluate the program’s effectiveness for increasing PA only (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012a). A 2-week baseline (i.e., wearing a pedometer for 1 week followed by another week of wear plus recording steps) was followed by the 8-week program, which was immediately followed by a 2-week reversed baseline. Only baseline and program steps were used in this study’s analyses because follow-up measurement of psychological correlates occurred only once immediately upon completion
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PA AMONG MUSLIM YOUTH
of the program (i.e., not performed after the reversal). Schooltime ambulatory PA was measured daily with the W4L MVP Walk 4 Life pedometer, which has been previously validated (DeVries et al., 2009). All students completed at least 2 days (M ¼ 3.36 ^ 0.52) of pedometer wear at baseline and postprogram. (Pedometers were worn Monday through Thursday each week during school hours.)
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Enjoyment Enjoyment of PA at school was measured using the shortened Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (S-PACES; Dishman, Motl, Sallis, et al., 2005), which consists of seven negatively worded items. The original stem was modified to read: When I am active at school (i.e., between classes, recess, lunch, PE). A 5-point Likert-type scale was used with higher scores signifying less enjoyment. The mean score was reversed for all data analyses. Satisfactory internal consistency was demonstrated in the present study (a ¼ .85time1, a ¼ .83time2). Motivation Motivation for PA at school was measured with the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2002). The SIMS is a 16-item scale that measures IM, identified regulation (IR), ER, and AM. A 5-point Likert-type scale was used with higher average subscale scores signifying greater behavioral regulation for a particular subscale. The original stem was modified to read: Why do you want to participate in this program: a pedometer-based PA program at school? (preprogram), and Looking back now, why did you participate in the Umra activity study? (postprogram). Acceptable internal consistency was demonstrated (a range ¼ .70 – .85time1, .70 – .83time2) and was similar to previous reports (Guay et al., 2002; a range ¼ .77–.91)
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and non-PE days. Students who had completed at least 2 days of pedometer monitoring each week were included in the analysis (Lubans & Morgan, 2008). Changes in steps over time were derived by subtracting the baseline mean from the program mean. (At midprogram, two boys ceased participation and their data were excluded from analysis.) First, we used the Reliable Change Index (RCI) to determine changes in psychological variables for individuals (Jacobson & Truax, 1991). The RCI is a statistical measure of change that takes into account the population variance (standard deviation) and the reliability of the test (alpha). Application of the RCI requires knowledge of scale and subscale test – retest reliability, which were obtained from relevant sources (Guay et al., 2002; Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991). An RCI of 1.96 was considered significant. Magnitude of change for the entire sample was evaluated through interpretation of effect sizes (Cohen’s d, .2 ¼ small, .5 ¼ medium, .8 ¼ large). Effect sizes were computed using an online application (www.uccs.edu/, faculty/lbecker). Second, repeated-measures multivariate analyses of variance (RM-MANOVAs) and post-hoc comparisons were computed to determine time, gender, and Time £ Gender effects on enjoyment, motivation, and PA. Data met the assumption of sphericity as all Mauchly’s tests were nonsignificant. MANOVA was selected because univariate correlations among these variables revealed multiple significant associations, which are controlled for in MANOVA (e.g., Pearson r correlations between PE days and non-PE days at the two measurement intervals ranged from .44 to .85, p , .01). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to examine the relationship between postprogram motivation subscales, enjoyment, and PA change. Specifically, partial correlations ( pr) were calculated based on the association of postprogram motivation and enjoyment scores with step-count change after controlling for the influence of preprogram scores.
Procedure Prior to baseline, all students completed a 30-item questionnaire composed of a demographic section and sections containing S-PACES and SIMS. Subsequently, students wore pedometers as previously noted. In personal logs, they optionally tallied and graphed daily steps and answered questions about countries en route for bonus steps. At the end of the 8th and final week of the program, the original questionnaire was administered in grade-level classrooms. Data Analyses The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (Version 17.0). Children have been shown to be more active on PE days (Brusseau, Hodges Kulinna, Tudor-Locke, van der Mars, & Darst, 2011); thus, total pedometer counts were divided by the number of days worn to provide mean steps/day for PE days
RESULTS Motivation and Enjoyment Motivation and enjoyment levels did not change for a majority of participants (Table 1). Based on the RCI, increased scores for enjoyment and IM scores were seen for 34.9% and 9.3%, respectively, while decreased scores for IM, IR, ER, and AM were seen for 9.3% each (Table 1). At the group level, time effects were significant for enjoyment (F ¼ 14.1, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .27) and motivation (F ¼ 2.6, p , .05, h 2 ¼ .10; Table 2). Post-hoc univariate F tests based on mean difference revealed that enjoyment increased (þ.63, p , .001, effect size [ES] ¼ .88), ER decreased (2.25, F ¼ 6.2, p , .01, ES ¼ .32), and AM decreased (2.27, F ¼ 5.2, p , .05, ES ¼ .30) at postprogram. Gender and Gender £ Time effects were not statistically significant for enjoyment and motivation (Table 2).
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V. NICAISE AND D. KAHAN TABLE 1 Levels of Enjoyment, Motivation, and Physical Activity Over Time
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Variable Enjoyment Boys Girls IM Boys Girls IR Boys Girls ER Boys Girls AM Boys Girls PANon-PE day Boys Girls PAPE day Boys Girls
Preprogram M (SD)
Postprogram M (SD)
ES d
No Changea n (%)
Increaseb n (%)
Decreaseb n (%)
3.78 (0.69) 3.78 (0.86) 3.78 (0.70) 3.96 (0.60) 3.98 (0.65) 3.95 (0.52) 3.93 (0.70) 3.93 (0.52) 3.89 (0.80) 1.83 (0.79) 1.96 (0.78) 1.77 (0.80) 2.21 (0.95) 2.20 (0.98) 2.28 (0.91) 2,352 (1,026) 2,933 (517) 1,989 (633) 4,350 (1,546) 5,512 (1,700) 3,625 (872)
4.41 (0.58) 4.69 (0.40) 4.20 (0.62) 3.97 (0.60) 4.03 (0.69) 3.92 (0.55) 3.75 (0.69) 3.83 (0.57) 3.70 (0.78) 1.58 (0.77) 1.48 (0.65) 1.57 (0.81) 1.94 (0.85) 1.81 (0.74) 2.01 (0.93) 2,402 (1,049) 3,325 (980) 1,826 (576) 4,534 (1,774) 6,516 (776) 3,296 (825)
0.99 1.36 0.64 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.26 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.67 0.25 0.3 0.45 0.29 20.04 0.52 20.27 0.07 0.81 20.38
26 (60.4)
15 (34.9)
2 (4.7)
35 (81.4)
4 (9.3)
4 (9.3)
38 (88.4)
1 (2.3)
4 (9.3)
38 (88.4)
1 (2.3)
4 (9.3)
38 (88.4)
1 (2.3)
4 (9.3)
Note. Highest possible score on enjoyment scale and motivation subscales is 5. ES ¼ effect size (Cohen’s d); IM ¼ intrinsic motivation; IR ¼ identified regulation; ER ¼ external regulation; AM ¼ amotivation; PA ¼ physical activity. a Based on Reliable Change Index (Jacobson & Truax, 1991). b Percentage based only on total number of students whose scores had statistically changed.
Physical Activity For time, no main effect was detected (Table 2). For gender (F ¼ 43.4, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .27), based on mean difference, boys were significantly more active than girls on PE days (þ 2,553 steps, F ¼ 82.3, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .69) and on nonPE days (þ 1,221 steps, F ¼ 41.5, p , .001, h 2 ¼ .52). For TABLE 2 RM-MANOVA of Enjoyment, Motivation, and Physical Activity Over Time
Time Variable Enjoyment Motivation IM IR ER AM PA PE day Non-PE day
p
F
14.1*** 2.6* 0.2 0.8 6.2** 5.2* 1.4 2.8
h
Fp
.27 .10
3.0 0.13 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.2 43.4*** 82.3*** 41.5***
.14 .12
0.9
Relationships Between Physical Activity, Motivation, and Enjoyment
Time £ Gender
Gender 2
h2
Fp
.70 .69 .52
1.9 0.9 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.3 7.3* 10.9** 5.5*
Time £ Gender interaction (F ¼ 7.3, p , .05, h 2 ¼ .18), on PE days, based on mean difference, boys significantly increased step counts at postprogram (þ 1,004 steps, F ¼ 10.9, p , .01, h 2 ¼ .23), while girls significantly decreased over the same span (2 328 steps, p ¼ .02). On non-PE days, a similar finding was detected (boys, þ 392 steps; girls, 2 163 steps; F ¼ 5.5, p , .05, h 2 ¼ .13).
h2
Partial correlations shown in Table 3 revealed that overall step-count change on non-PE days was moderately or slightly associated with postprogram enjoyment after controlling for baseline values ( pr ¼ .45, p , .01, R 2 ¼ .19), IM ( pr ¼ .31, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .18), and IR TABLE 3 Partial Correlations Between Psychological Variables and Physical Activity Change
.18 .23 .13
Note. IM ¼ intrinsic motivation; IR ¼ identified regulation; ER ¼ external regulation; AM ¼ amotivation; PA ¼ physical activity. ES: h 2 ¼ .02 (small), h 2 ¼ .15 (medium), h 2 ¼ .35 (large). * p , .05. **p , .01. ***p , .001.
Non-PE days PE days
Enjoyment
IM
IR
ER
AM
.45** .18
.31* .35*
.27* .19
.18 .25
.07 2.09
Note. IM ¼ intrinsic motivation; IR ¼ identified regulation; ER ¼ external regulation; AM ¼ amotivation. *p , .05. **p , .01.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PA AMONG MUSLIM YOUTH
( pr ¼ .27, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .07). On PE days, only IM ( pr ¼ .35, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .12) was slightly associated with overall step-count change. ER and AM were not related to step-count changes.
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DISCUSSION We examined changes in motivation and enjoyment levels and their relationship to PA changes resulting from a culturally tailored PA program aimed at increasing Muslim American school children’s school day ambulatory activity. Owing to the small sample, results should be considered preliminary and larger studies involving multiple schools should be conducted. At the individual level, based on RCI scores, one third of students claimed increased enjoyment after the program while behavioral regulation was unaffected. At the group level, ER and AM scores declined by 14% and 12%, respectively. More self-determined forms of behavioral regulation were far less affected: IR declined by 5% while IM was unchanged. The intervention as a whole appeared to differentially impact forms of behavioral regulation. Perhaps extrinsic components such as reward and feedback were not viewed as overly controlling (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Wilson, 2009); thus, initial levels of ER and AM declined. Correlates of PA increase on non-PE days were enjoyment, IM, and IR, and on PE days, the correlate of PA increase was IM. It was unclear why enjoyment was positively associated with PA change on days participants did not have PE but not on days they did, because enjoyment is associated with PA increases (Lubans, Foster, & Biddle, 2009). Notwithstanding, it is heartening that more self-determined behavioral regulations were associated with PA change on both PE and non-PE days. Although we did not have a say in PE classes, we offered regular direct (i.e., face-to-face at the beginning and end of the school day) and indirect (i.e., personalized notes in their recording booklets) interactions along with the program materials. These may have capably fulfilled students’ need support, which in adolescents has been shown to be positively associated with IM and PA in optional and mandatory PE contexts (Ntoumanis, 2005; Zhang, Solmon, Kosma, Carson, & Gu, 2011). The program was ineffective at changing girls’ PA (Kahan & Nicaise, 2012a). Interestingly, gender was not associated with any behavioral regulation. Relatively small (h 2 , .025) gender differences for related constructs (e.g., barrier self-efficacy and subjective norm) have been found among religiously/ethnically similar middle school children (Martin, McCaughtry, & Shen, 2008). In this age group in general, the processes and constructs of self-determined PA tend to be gender-invariant (Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2005). It is interesting to note that the magnitude of decrease—denoted by effect size—in ER and AM preprogram and postprogram was much larger among
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boys than among girls. Additionally, differences in effect size between boys and girls for these two behavioral regulations were wider (ER ¼ .42; AM ¼ .16) than they were for more intrinsic regulations (IR ¼ .06; IM ¼ .01). We are unsure what components of the program—if any— may have been responsible for more strongly reducing extrinsic forms of regulation among boys. Although concomitant increases in more intrinsic types of regulation were not seen, PA behavior is generally negatively associated with ER and AM (Texeira, Carrac a, Markland, Silva, & Ryan, 2012). It is important then to better understand the differential actions—by gender—that these regulations may exert on PA among Muslim adolescents.
CONCLUSION: SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Several take-home messages from this study bear recapitulation. The hypotheses of the study were partially supported: Cultural tailoring of a SPARK curriculum unit based on SDT was associated with (a) increased enjoyment; (b) positive associations between PA change and enjoyment, IM, and IR; and (c) unchanged motivational orientations. Null results for the latter finding may have resulted from motivation constituting intrapsychic processes, which among Arabs/Muslims are imbued by cultural collectivism (Dwairy, 2006). Arabs use the coping mechanisms of mosayara, which guides individuals to project subjective norms in thought, feeling, and behavior, and istighaba, which guides expression of true intention (Dwairy, 2006). These opposing forces are analogous to the construct of decisional balance whereby behavior change is strengthened when perceived benefits exceed perceived barriers. Mosayara may have been perceived as more strongly influencing behavior than did istighaba, which would effectively temper individuation (SDT does not account for this dynamic). Thus, PA motivation should have also been viewed more socially. Although we tried to include social components (e.g., suggesting girls walk together, posting grade-level progress), we were limited in capacity to interact with the whole group or subgroups. This study employed a pretest –posttest single-group design for measuring psychological correlates, which poses acknowledged threats to internal validity. Because the study was conducted in the only Islamic day school in the county, generalization to other adolescent Muslims attending Islamic schools is also cautioned. Based on our findings and potential methodological shortcomings, we suggest several directions for future study. First, as we were not able to directly impact PA among girls, organizing before-school and afterschool activity, recess periods, and lunchtime walking clubs for female students, teachers, and mothers could boost PA and related psychological states. Staggering recess and lunch
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V. NICAISE AND D. KAHAN
times by gender would afford girls access to PA space that otherwise must be shared with boys. Second, we designed Umra materials ecumenically so that Muslim youth would find them relatable foremost. We ensured, however, that a cross-representation of information and pictures relatable to girls was included. Revision of materials to focus exclusively on Muslim women’s health and fitness issues and role models (e.g., http://muslimwomeninsports. blogspot.com) may be construed by girls as more salient and interesting than current materials. Third, we included many destinations in constituting the virtual pilgrimage. Revising program materials to travel to/within a single country that matches individual children’s national heritage may also increase IM orientations. Alternatively, in keeping with the construct of Ummah Wahida (i.e., all Muslims regardless of nationality are one nation), religious salience may be increased if the concept of travel to modern countries was replaced in favor of travel through the territory comprising the Muslim caliphates (632 A.D. – 1924). Fourth, it would be interesting to determine if the program may be potentiated by paring it to a single month and offering it as a lead-up to or cotemporal with particular Muslim observances (e.g., Islamic New Year and its associated month Muharram; Birth of the Prophet and its associated month Rabi’ al-awwal). Fifth, owing to Islam’s stress on collectivism, programmatic materials and pedagogical strategies might be modified to highlight a social component or group contingency and determine if doing so enhances individual motivation. Based on mixed findings, we recommend that future PA programs aimed at Muslim adolescents measure additional psychological, cultural, and religiosity variables with adequately powered samples. In the interim, a religiously tailored PA program such as Virtual Umra can create an enjoyable climate for PA that may be bolstered through involvement of additional school stakeholders and proactive measures aimed at bridging gender gaps in PA.
WHAT DOES THIS ARTICLE ADD? PA interventions designed specifically for religious-minority youth are scarce. Understanding the underlying mechanisms for why they (do not) work is important. Cultural/religious translation of proven curricula such as SPARK is novel. Theoretically, doing so should enhance internal psychological states associated with PA. Results from our study, however, demonstrated that this premise is not guaranteed. Changes, when they occurred, were not robust across variables nor were they universal. Boys psychologically responded to the program more strongly and in a more desirable direction compared with girls. As previous literature has focused on elucidating and explaining gender gaps in PA behavior among Muslims, redressing said gap through a curricular program alone is insufficient. Direct
approaches consonant with religious doctrine (e.g., group exercise led by credible female role models) may facilitate psychological changes associated with PA. Future studies should explore, implement, and evaluate the effects of such options in conjunction with this program or a similar one.
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