Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

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Research Paper

Promising medicinal plants for bioprospection in a Cerrado area of Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil Daiany Alves Ribeiro a,n, Liana Geraldo Souza de Oliveira a, Delmacia Gonçalves de Macêdo a, Irwin Rose Alencar de Menezes b, José Galberto Martins da Costa c, Maria Arlene Pessoa da Silva a, Sírleis Rodrigues Lacerda a, Marta Maria de Almeida Souza a a b c

Universidade Regional do Cariri, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Botânica, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil Universidade Regional do Cariri, Departamento de Química Biológica, Laboratório de Farmacologia e Química Molecular, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil Universidade Regional do Cariri, Departamento de Química Biológica, Laboratório de Pesquisa de Produtos Naturais, 63105-000 Crato, CE, Brazil

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 15 February 2014 Received in revised form 4 July 2014 Accepted 18 July 2014

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Traditional medical systems represent an important source of knowledge about the use of biodiversity. Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological studies can encourage bioprospecting in the pursuit and selection of promising medicinal plants. This study investigated the diversity of medicinal plants in a disjunct area of cerrado in Chapada do Araripe, Ceará, Brazil, and assessed the species of interest for bioprospecting. Materials and methods: Structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted through free listing, and the informants were recruited using the “snowball” technique. The relative importance and informant consensus factor were analyzed for the selection of plant species with therapeutic potential. Results: A total of 68 species were recorded and cited for 91 therapeutic purposes. Of these, 10 species showed great versatility of use, including Copaifera langsdorffii Desf., Caryocar coriaceum Wittn., Himatanthus drasticus (Mart.) Plumel, Stryphnodendron rotundifolium Mart., and Dimorphandra garderiana Tull. The therapeutic citations were grouped into 16 categories of body systems, of which Injuries, Poisonings and Other Consequences of External Causes, and Neoplasias showed the highest agreement of use. Conclusions: Regarding the diversity of the species, some including Tocoyena Formosa (Cham. & Schlecht.) Schum., Himatanthus drasticus, Caryocar coriaceum, Roupala montana Aubl. and Stryphnodendron rotundifolium showed both high relative importance and strong consensus among informants, and although many have already been investigated scientifically, others are almost unknown with respect to their medicinal properties and can be targets for bioprospecting. & 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ethnobotany Ethnopharmacology Traditional knowledge Herbal medicine Cerrado

1. Introduction Difficulties of access to medical health systems have contributed to the growing demand for natural medicinal products in recent years. More than 80% of the world's population benefits from phytotherapeutic treatments for primary health care (WHO, 2001; Kong et al., 2009). Knowledge about the use of plants in traditional medicine is an important source for obtaining new substances of biological interest. The discovery of these compounds has been driven by ethnobiological research on the use of biodiversity (Harvey, 2008; Shelley, 2009). This information promotes bioprospecting studies as a potential tool for n Correspondence to: University Cariri Regional, Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Department of Biology, Laboratory of Botany, Rua Cel. Antonio Luis, 1161, Pimenta, CEP: 63100-000, Crato, Ceará, Brazil. Tel.: þ 55 88 3102 1212. E-mail address: [email protected] (D.A. Ribeiro).

new strategies in the research, development and rational exploitation of medicinal resources derived from flora (Coley et al., 2003; Patwardhan and Mashelkar, 2009; Albuquerque, 2010). Brazil is known for having the greatest biodiversity on the planet with about 20% of the total number of species distributed in its various biomes (Giulietti et al., 2005). Biodiversity is associated with a wide variety of ethnic groups, which results in a considerable richness of knowledge about the vegetation (Alves et al., 2008; Lima et al., 2012a). The Brazilian savannah area, also known as “cerrado”, has one of the world's richest flora (Souza and Felfili, 2006; MMA, 2011) and occupies about 24% of Brazilian lands, where approximately 35% of plant species are endemic (Myers et al., 2005; Mendonça et al., 2008; IBGE, 2012). In the Northeast, disjunct areas can be found in the states of Pernambuco, Paraíba and Ceará (Costa et al., 2004). In Ceará, the largest concentrations of cerrado are mainly in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.042 0378-8741/& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Ribeiro, D.A., et al., Promising medicinal plants for bioprospection in a Cerrado area of Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.042i

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the coastal tablelands in the northern area of the Ibiapaba Plateau and Chapada do Araripe, at altitudes above 800 m (Costa et al., 2004). Chapada do Araripe is located in a semi-arid region and serves as an island for certain vegetation types, where it is the only preserved cerrado area (Costa et al., 2004). Among existing plant resources in the cerrado, there are plants for different types of uses, including medicinal, which are widely known among the traditional communities (Guarim Neto and Morais, 2003; Souza and Felfili, 2006). However, there is still a lack of studies on the cited therapeutic uses of the plants in disjunct cerrado areas. Information regarding the plant species used contributes to the discovery of active principles that may have promise in the development of new drugs. There is a shortage of ethnobotanical studies in the disjunct cerrado areas of Northeast Brazil, which could provide important information about plants with therapeutic activities and their representativeness within local communities. Accordingly, the aim of this work was to conduct a survey of the medicinal plants used in a disjunct cerrado area in the state of Ceará, to determine the most important species with high agreement of knowledge and/or use, and to evaluate and indicate the medicinal species of interest for bioprospecting studies.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area This research was conducted in the Serra do Zabelê community (71 100 S and 391 370 W), located in Chapada do Araripe, which is situated in the micro-region of Cariri, in the southern part of the state of Ceará. (IPECE, 2011) (Fig. 1). The climate is warm tropical sub-humid, warm tropical mildly semi-arid and warm tropical semi-arid, showing an average temperature of 24 to 26 1C. The cerrado is the predominant vegetation type (48.53%) in an isolated form within a semi-arid region (Costa et al., 2004; Bezerra, 2004). In some areas, there is a confluence of plant species, mainly of “caatinga” (semi-arid region in Northeast Brazil), featuring ecotonal environments. The Serra do Zabelê community is composed of approximately 60 families. The majority did not complete elementary school, and most people over 50 years of age were illiterate. The community did not have a health center and the local residents had access to medical care through a health agent who made weekly visits, which fostered the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases. The main activity of the local residents was subsistence agriculture, followed by other practices, such as the handling and sale of Dimorphandra gardneriana Tul. beans for the pharmaceutical and poultry industries.

specific induction (Albuquerque et al., 2010a). The therapeutic citations of each species were grouped into categories of body systems based on the international classification of diseases proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2007). The study was approved by the Ethics and Research Committee of the Regional University of Cariri, under Opinion no. 251,677. 2.3. Floristic research The medicinal species that were under reproductive stage and available in the community were collected through a guided tour and taken to the Botany Laboratory at the Regional University of Cariri. The plant material collected was stored and handled in accordance with conventional herbarium techniques (Mori et al., 1989) and sent to the Prisco Bezerra Herbarium at the Federal University of Ceará, Sergio Tavares Herbarium at the Federal Rural University of Pernambuco and Caririense Dárdano de Andrade Lima Herbarium at the Regional University of Cariri to be identified by taxonomists. The botanical material was incorporated into the collection of the Caririense Dárdano de Andrade Lima Herbarium. Permission to collect botanical material was granted by the Authorization and Information on Biodiversity System of the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources, registered under no. 35157-1. 2.4. Data analysis 2.4.1. Versatility and agreement of the use of species The versatility of medicinal plants was calculated using the index of relative importance (RI) (Bennett and Prance, 2000). RI is a quantitative measure that demonstrates the importance of a species based on the number of medical properties given by the informants (Bennett and Prance, 2000), with “2“ being the maximum value obtained for a species: RI ¼NBS þNP, NBS¼ NBSS/ NBSSV, NP ¼NPS/NPSV, where: NBS is the number of body systems, determined by a species (NBSS), divided by the total number of body systems treated by the most versatile species (NBSSV); NP corresponds to the number of properties assigned to a particular species (NPS), divided by the total number of properties assigned to the most versatile species (NPSV). The agreement of use of medicinal species was analyzed by the informant consensus factor (ICF). This measure is aimed at identifying the body systems that have more knowledge consensus and/or use (Troter and Logan, 1986). ICF ranges from 0 to 1, and determined by the following formula: ICF ¼nur – nt/ nur – 1, where: (nur) is the number of citations of usage in each category, and (nt) is the number of species indicated in each category.

3. Results and discussion 2.2. Ethnobotanical research 3.1. Ethnobotanical research on medicinal species The information was obtained through structured and semistructured interviews based on standardized forms (Martin, 1995; Albuquerque et al., 2010a; Cartaxo et al., 2010), in which the respondents' knowledge was used after reading, giving permission and signing an informed consent form. The interviews were conducted with main informants or local experts, selected through the “snowball” technique (Albuquerque et al., 2010b). Thirty informants were interviewed (13 men and 17 women who were the head of households visited), with ages ranging from 22 to 83 years. The interviews were held through direct observation, aimed at obtaining socioeconomic characteristics and information about the local plants used and/or known to be for medicinal purposes with their respective citations, using the technique of free list and non-

Sixty-eight species were used for medicinal purposes, and they belonged to 64 genera and 30 families (Table 1). This is consistent with the findings of other ethnobotanical studies performed in cerrado areas of Brazil, showing the considerable diversity of native medicinal plants available, such as 41 to 103 species in the state of Minas Gerais (Rodrigues and Carvalho, 2001; Botrel et al., 2006; Calábria et al., 2008), 27 to 142 species in the state of Mato Grosso (Amorozo, 2002; Souza, 2007; Moreira and Guarim Neto, 2009), 44 to 71 species in the state of Goiás (Vila Verde et al., 2003; Souza and Felfili, 2006; Silva and Proença, 2008), and 10 to 106 species in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul (Alves et al., 2008; Ustulin et al., 2009; Cunha and Bortolotto, 2011; Pereira et al., 2012a).

Please cite this article as: Ribeiro, D.A., et al., Promising medicinal plants for bioprospection in a Cerrado area of Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.042i

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CEARÁ STATE

Fig. 1. Geographical location of the area of study in Serra do Zabelê community, Chapada do Araripe, Ceará, Brazil.

The family Fabaceae had the largest number of species (15) followed by Apocynaceae (6) and Anacardiaceae (5). The Fabaceae have also been noted in studies of the flora of Chapada do Araripe (Costa et al., 2004; Alencar et al., 2007; Ribeiro-Silva et al. 2012a) and in ethnobotanical studies conducted in the central cerrado (Guarim Neto and Morais, 2003; Moreira and Guarim Neto, 2009; Oliveira et al., 2010a; Cunha and Bortolotto, 2011; Lima et al., 2012a). The species of this family have chemical components that are used in the manufacture of medicines and other products, such as rutin present in Dimorphandra gardneriana Tull (Ribeiro-Silva et al., 2012b), coumarin from Amburana cearensis (Allemão) A. C. (Leal et al., 2003) and kaurenoic acid from Copaifera langstorffii Desf. (Paiva et al., 2003). As for the habit of the species, the predominant was arboreal (62%), followed by shrubby (15%), while 12% showed a herbaceous habit, and climbing plants and lianas together accounted for 11%.

Guarim Neto and Morais (2003) reviewed the literature concerning medicinal flora of the cerrado in the state of Mato Grosso and found a predominance of arboreal habit (31%) among medicinal plants, followed by herbaceous and shrubby, indicating a dominance of trees in the pharmacopoeia of the cerrado. This is also a recurring fact in the caatinga, where Almeida et al. (2005) noted that woody plants have been predominant in ethnobotanical studies of native medicinal plants. With respect to the parts of plants used, the bark of the stems had the highest number of citations (34%), followed by leaves (18%), fruits (15%), roots (14%), inner stem bark (10%), and seeds, latex, root-tuber and resin (8%). The predominant use of stem bark is common among people in the semi-arid region for different therapies, even when other structures, such as leaves, are available (Júnior et al., 2011; Albuquerque et al., 2012).

Please cite this article as: Ribeiro, D.A., et al., Promising medicinal plants for bioprospection in a Cerrado area of Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.042i

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Table 1 Medicinal species cited by interviewees in Serra do Zabelê community, Chapada do Araripe, Ceará, Brazil. Family/scientific name

Vernacular name

Habit Therapeutic indication

Part Preparation used

Forms of use

RI

Anacardiaceae Anacardium microcarpum L.

Cajuí

Tr

Ulcer, wound, inflammation of the external organs, snakebite

Sb, Fr

0.65 9252

Cajú

Tr

Gonçaloalves

Tr

Healing, diabetes, toothache, inflammation in the tooth, inflammation of the skin Cough, influenza, expectorant

Sb, Fr Si, Sb

Apply at the affected site, Oral ingestion Oral ingestion, gargling Oral ingestion

Aroeira

Tr

Inflammation of the uterus, genital disease, gynecological inflammation, inflammation of the skin, itch, healings, inflammation of the external organs

Spondias lutea L.

Cajazeira

Tr

inflammation of internal organs, bone fracture, muscle aches

Sb

Immersed in water

Annonaceae Annona coriacea Mart.

Araticum

Sh

Snakebite

Sb, Le

Maceration, Stem bark Apply at the immersed, decoction affected site

Caninana

Cp

Rheumatism

Ro

Hancornia speciosa Mangaba Gomes.

Tr

Janaguba Himatanthus drasticus (Mart.) Plumel

Tr

Rauvolfia sp. Rauvolfia sp.

Chacuaça QuinaQuina

He Tr

Secondatia floribunda A.DC.

Catuaba-de- Cp rama

Aphrodisiac, sexual impotence

Le, Sb

Infusion, immersed in water

Asteraceae Acanthospermum hispidum DC.

Espinho de sigano

He

Cough, influenza, expectorant, asthma

Ro

Sh

Ear pain

Pau d’arco roxo

Tr

Mandacarú

Anacardium occidentale L. Astronium fraxinifolium Schott. Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão

Apocynaceae Ditassa sp.

Cactaceae Cereus jamacaru DC. Caryocaraceae Caryocar coriaceum Wittn. Celastraceae Maytenus sp. Convolvulaceae Operculina macrocarpa (L.) Urb. Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum vacciniifolium Mart. Euphorbiaceae Cronton sp. Croton zehntneri Pax & K. Hoffm.

Immersed in water, Stem bark with water Stem bark with water, decoction, Immersed in water Sb, Immersed in water, Le, Si Stem bark with water

Immersed in water in wine La, Blow, inflammation of the uterus, stomach pains, gastritis, Latex with water, Sb, varicose veins, hernia (Abdominal), ulcer, inflammation, Immersed in water, healing, cancer, uterine myoma, inflammation of the skin juice Fr Latex with water, Cancer, cough, gastritis, ulcer, diabetes, inflammation of the Sb, Immersed in water, liver, Hernia (abdominal), worms Le, decoction, stem bark La with water Dysentery, stomach ache Ro Decoction Coryza, Sinusitis, influenza, headache, fever, inflammation of Sb, Stem bark immersed, internal organs, rheumatism, nasal congestion nasal, bone pain Si, Le decoction, infusion

0.75 9250 0.35 9256

0.90 8908 Baths, oral ingestion, apply at the affected site Oral ingestion 0.60 0.20 9261

Oral ingestion

0.20 9841

Oral ingestion

1.63 9254

Oral ingestion

1.31 9253

Oral ingestion Oral ingestion, inhalations, baths Oral ingestion

0.27 9281 1.19 nc

Infusion, sirup

Oral ingestion

0.42 nc

Fr

Maceration

Aplica no local

0.20 9260

Tuberculosis

Sb

Immersed in water

Oral ingestion

0.20 nc

Tr

Blood thinner, asthma, fever, renal failure

Sb

Decoction

Oral ingestion

0.80 nc

Pequi

Tr

Asthma, cough, knee swelling, influenza, rheumatism, expectorant, Throat inflammation, blow, fever, burns, indigestion, body pain

Fr, Fl Oil extracted from the fruit, decoction

Applied at the affected site, oral ingestion

1.62 9245

Engordabode

Tr

Hair tonic

Fr

Decoction

Applied at the affected site

0.20 9290

Batata de purga

Cp

Worms

Rot

Infusion, homemade sweet

Oral ingestion

0.20 nc

Catuaba

Tr

Aphrodisiac, sexual impotence

Sb, Le

Infusion, immersed in water

Oral ingestion

0.40 nc

Marmeleiro VelameBranco

Tr He

Stomach ache Blood thinner, inflammation of the skin, wound

Sb Ro, Le

Stem bark with water Infusion, immersed in water, in ‘cachaça’n, decoction

Oral ingestion Oral ingestion, aplica no local

0.20 9283 0.60 9286

Boraginaceae Cordia rufescens A. Uva-brava DC. Bignoniaceae Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart. ex DC.) Standl.

Stem bark immersed

HN

0.40 9259

Please cite this article as: Ribeiro, D.A., et al., Promising medicinal plants for bioprospection in a Cerrado area of Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.042i

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Table 1 (continued ) Family/scientific name

Vernacular name

Habit Therapeutic indication

Part Preparation used

Forms of use

RI

Sh

Epilepsy, thrombosis, snakebite

0.60 nc

Influenza, cough

Infusion, latex with water Infusion, dehydrated fruit

Oral ingestion

He

Se, La Ro, Fr

Oral ingestion

0.27 10561

Imburanade-Cheiro

Tr

Inflammation of the skin, throat inflammation, gynecological inflammation, influenza, cough

Sb

Immersed in water, decoction

Oral ingestion, gargling, inhalations

0.75 nc

Angico

Tr

Intestinal infection, cough, influenza

Sb, Si

Immersed in water

Oral ingestion

0.48 nc

Mororó

Tr

Diabetes, high blood pressure

Le

Decoction, immersed in water

Oral ingestion

0.40 9266

Sucupira

Tr

Spine pain, rheumatism, aphrodisiac (sexual impotence), bone Sb pain, inflammation of the skin

Immersed in water

0.75 9268

Catingueira

Tr

Cough, influenza

Fl

Infusion

Oral ingestion, applied at the affected site Oral ingestion

Pau d'óleo/ Copaíba

Tr

Tr

Sb, Le, Re Fr

Immersed in water, decoction

Faveira

Influenza, rheumatism, headache, pain, inflammation of the uterus, bone fracture, wounds, renal complications, gastritis, angina, knee swelling, blow Cancer, pain, conjunctivitis, cough, healing, influenza

Mucunã

Cp

Wound, inflammation of the skin

Tamboril

Tr

Asthma, ulcer

Sb, Se Sb, Ro

Infusion, immersed in water Decoction, immersed in water

Jatobá

Tr

Cough, influenza, asthma, expectorant

Si

Pau-Ferro

Tr

Blow, spine pain, cough, pains, influenza, inflammation of internal and external organs, bone pain, bone fracture

Angelim

Tr

Coração de Negro Juremapreta Barbatimão

Murici

Jatropha molissima Pinhão(Pohl) Baill. branco Manihot sp. Maniçoba Fabaceae Amburana cearensis (Allemão) A.C. Sm. Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil (Griseb.) Altschul Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Steud. Bowdichia virgilioides Kunth. Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. Dimorphandra garderiana Tull. Dioclea grandiflora Mart. ex. Benth. Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell.) Morong Hymenaea courbaril L. Libidibia férrea (Mart. ex Tul.) L. P.Queiroz Lochocarpus araripensis Benth. Machaerium acutifolium Vogel Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir. Stryphnodendron rotundifolium Mart. Malpighiaceae Byrsonima sericea DC.

Malvaceae Barriguda Ceiba glaziovii (Kuntze) K. Schum. Guazuma ulmifolia Cabeça de Lam. Negro/ Mutamba MalvaPavonia branca malacophylla (Link & Otto) Garcke Sida sp. Relógio Myrtaceae Myrcia sp.

Chumbinho

Cambuí Paramyrciaria cf. strigipes (O. Berg.) Sobral Psidium myrsinites Araçá/ DC. Goiabinha

HN

0.40 10559

Oral ingestion, applied at the affected site Oral ingestion

1.08 10564

Oral ingestion

0.40 9257

Oral ingestion

0.40 9277

Immersed in water

Oral ingestion

0.42 9837

Sb, Se

Immersed in water, maceration

Oral ingestion

1.19 9273

Skin allergy

Fr

Powder in water

Applied at the affected site

0.20 9244

Tr

Pain, Inflammation of external and internal organs

Rot, Si

In ‘cachaça’n, dehydrated, decoction

Oral ingestion

0.35 4368

Tr

Pain, inflammation of the external organs

Sb

decoction

Oral ingestion

0.27 9251

Tr

Inflammation of the uterus, genital disease, wound, inflammation, cancer, healing, inflammation of the skin

Sb

Immersed in water, decoction

Oral ingestion, baths, applied at the affected site

1.15 9263

Tr

Hypercholesterolemia, healing

Sb

Immersed in water, stem bark with water

Applied at the affected site, oral ingestion

0.40 9291

Tr

Spine pain, pain

Sb

Sirup

Oral ingestion

0.40 nc

Tr

Snakebite

Si

In ‘cachaça’n

Oral ingestion

0.20 nc

He

Cough, influenza

Ro, Le

Sirup

Oral ingestion

0.27 9258

He

Blood thinner

Ro

Infusion

Oral ingestion

0.20 10560

Sh

Skin allergy, itch

Decoction

Inflammation, toothache

Applied at the affected site Oral ingestion

0.27 nc

Sh

Sb, Fr Sb, Fr

0.40 9246

Sh

Stomach ache, diarrhea

Oral ingestion

0.27 9279

Le, Sb, Fr

Decoction

Immersed in water

Infusion, Stem bark with water, immersed in water

2.00 9833

Please cite this article as: Ribeiro, D.A., et al., Promising medicinal plants for bioprospection in a Cerrado area of Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.042i

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Table 1 (continued ) Family/scientific name

Vernacular name

Habit Therapeutic indication

Part Preparation used

Forms of use

RI

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

Oliveira

Tr

Diabetes, high blood pressure

Le, Fr

Decoction, immersed in water

Oral ingestion

0.40 9835

Olacaceae Ximenia americana Ameixa L.

Tr

Inflammation of the skin, healing, spine pain, wound, gynecological inflammation, inflammation of internal organs, throat inflammation, kidney pain, bone bruise, gallbladder, prostate problems, blow

Sb

Immersed in water, decoction, in ‘cachaça’n

Baths, oral ingestion, applied at the affected site

1.79 nc

Passifloraceae Passiflora Maracujácincinnata Mast. do-Mato

Cp

Calmative, nervousness, insomnia, renal failure

Fr, Ro

Juice, infusion

Oral ingestion

0.67 9276

Vassourinha He

Cough, influenza, teething, renal inflammation

Ro

Decoction, Sirup

Oral ingestion

0.67 9288

Mauvizinho

Tr

Kidney pains4, dor na coluna22, spine pain

Sb

Stem bark immersed

Oral ingestion

0.27 9834

Paugemada

Cp

Restorative, stomach problems

Sb, Ro

Stem bark with water

Oral ingestion

0.40 nc

Congonha

Tr

Nervousness, calmative, menstrual colic, high blood pressure, migraine, Muscle cramp, heart disease

Le

Infusion

Oral ingestion

1.15 9267

Joãovermelho

Sh

Wounds, healing

Le

Maceration

Oral ingestion

0.40 nc

Juazeiro

Tr

Dental cavity, seborrhea, wounds, influenza, asthma, cough

Sb, Decoction, immersed Si, Le in water, Stem bark with water, infusion

Applied at the affected site, oral ingestion

0.96 9836

Quinaquina roxa Angélica

Tr

Rheumatism, influenza

Sb

Immersed in water

Oral ingestion

0.40 9289

Tr

Throat inflammation, pain

Le, Sb

Infusion, decoction

Gargling

0.40 9287

JenipapoBrabo

Tr

Bone fracture, twists, bone bruise, blow, swelling by blow

Le, Sb, Si

Immersed in water, Stem bark with water, maceration, poultice

Applied at the affected site, compresses

0.50 9274

QuebraFaca

Tr

Inflamed wound, influenza, diarrhea, headache

Si

Infusion, Stem bark with water

Oral ingestion

0.80 nc

Croapé

Cp

Toothache, inflammation in the tooth, inflammation of the gums

Le, Ro

Infusion, maceration

Oral ingestion

0.27 9249

Quixaba

Tr

inflammation of internal organs, constipation, blow, edema, inflammation of the uterus

Sb, Si

Immersed in water, decoction, in ‘cachaça’n

Oral ingestion

1.00 nc

Japecanga

Cp

Inflammation in the tooth

Ro

Decoction

Applied at the affected site

0.20 9839

Jurubeba

Sh

Cough, influenza, pains in the liver, gallbladder problems

0.55 9275

Sh

Hemorrhoid, worm

Oral ingestion

0.20 9284

VelameRoxo

He

Rheumatism

Ro

Sirup, maceration, infusion Decoction, immersed in water Infusion

Oral ingestion

Sacatinga

Ro, Fr Ro

Oral ingestion

0.20 9285

Toré

Tr

Renal complications

Le, Sb

Immersed in water, infusion

Oral ingestion

0.20 nc

Plantaginaceae Scoparia dulcis L. Polygalaceae Bredemeyera brevifolia (Benth.) Klotzsch ex A.W. Benn. Bredemeyera floribunda Willd. Proteaceae Roupala montana Aubl. Rhamnaceae Colubrina cordifolia Reissek Ziziphus joazeiro Mart. Rubiaceae Coutarea haxandra (Jacq.) K. Schum Guettarda viburnoides Cham. & Schltdl. Tocoyena formosa (Cham. & Schlecht.) Schum. Rutaceae Zanthoxylum gardneri Engl. Sapindaceae Serjania laruotteana Cambess. Sapotaceae Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Roem. & Schult.) T.D. Penn. Smilacaceae Smilax japecanga Griseb. Solanaceae Solanum paniculatum L. Solanum sp. Solanum sp. Urticaceae Cecropia pachystachya Trécul

HN

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Table 1 (continued ) Family/scientific name

Vernacular name

Habit Therapeutic indication

Part Preparation used

Forms of use

RI

Verbenaceae Lantana camara L.

Camará

Sh

Le

Oral ingestion

0.20 9269

Body pain

Decoction

HN

Tr: Tree; Sh: Shrubby; He: Herbaceous; Cp: Climbing plants; RI: Relative importance; Le:Leaf; Fl:Flower; Ro:Root; Rt: Root-tuber; Se:Seed; Sb: Stem bark; Si: Stem inner bark; Fr:Fruit; La: Latex; Re: Resin; HN: Herbarium Number; nc: number of collection in process by Herbarium; n Brazilian distilled alcoholic beverage.

Fourteen different preparation methods were reported for the use of medicinal plants. Stem bark, stem inner bark, roots, and seeds were generally used immersed in water, which accounted for a large percentage (30%), followed by decoction with 22% and infusion with 17%, mostly using leaves. Latex, stem bark, seeds, dried and powdered seeds, corresponding to 12%, were used mixed with water for immediate consumption. Maceration was used in 6% of cases, roots in ‘cachaça' (Brazilian distilled alcoholic beverage) or wine in 5% and sirup in 4%. The rest of the preparation methods (poultice, oil extracted from the fruit, juice, and homemade sweets) accounted for 4%. Some studies report the preference of decoction and infusion by local communities (Amorozo, 2002; Oliveira et al., 2010a). Oral ingestion was the most common form of administration (72%), which is in agreement with other studies (Amorozo, 2002; Cunha and Bartolotto, 2011), followed by application on the area affected (baths, gargling, inhalations, and compresses) with 28%.

3.2. Versatility of medicinal species Among all species reported, 52 (76%) were administered for the treatment of more than one disease and/or symptom, whereas 16 (24%) were used for one purpose each (Table 1). Ten species showed a high RI (greater than 1) with respect to their medicinal purposes. They were considered highly versatile, where they were cited for the treatment of up to fourteen categories of body systems and 55 different health disorders. Fourteen (21%) species had a low RI (0.20), including species already known in other ethnobotanical studies. The RI of the rest of the species (44) ranged from 0.27 to 1. The species with greater RI were Copaifera langsdorffii (2.00), Ximenia americana (1.79), Hancornia speciosa (1.63), Caryocar coriaceum (1.62), Himatanthus drasticus (1.31), Rauvolfia sp. (1.19), Libidibia ferrea (1.19), Roupala montana (1.15), Stryphnodendron rotundifolium (1.15) and Dimorphandra garderiana (1.08). Some of these species have been pointed out in ethnobotanical studies of medicinal plants conducted in the cerrado (Franco and Barros, 2006; Moreira and Guarim- Neto, 2009; Lima et al., 2012a) and also caatinga areas (Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Albuquerque et al., 2007; Cartaxo et al., 2010). The use of species originating from other ecosystems in the area of study is explained by the fact that it is a fragmented area with influence of other vegetation types. Copaifera langsdorffii stood out with the highest RI, where it was associated with the largest number of body systems (8), and it had highest number of properties attributed to it (13) and was mostly cited for the treatment of wounds with application of its oil resin on the spot affected. This oil resin is of great medical and commercial interest with more than 40 different chemical constituents already identified (Gramosa and Silveira, 2005), with the main constituents being kaurenoic acid and copalic acid (Alencar Cunha et al., 2003; Souza et al., 2011). Several studies have assessed its biological properties, such as antitumor (Oshaki et al., 1994), gastroprotective (Paiva et al., 1998), anti-inflammatory and diuretic (Paiva et al., 2003), antioxidant (Paiva et al., 2004), antinociceptive

(Gomes et al., 2007), antimicrobial (Souza et al., 2011) and antineoplastic (Senedese et al., 2013) effects. Ximenia americana, received 12 therapeutic use citations in seven body systems, and Rauvolfia sp. and Libidibia ferrea, with nine properties and four body systems each, are common species in caatinga areas, often showing high importance values (Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Albuquerque et al., 2007; Cartaxo et al., 2010). These species are mainly cited for inflammation in various body systems. Some studies point out anti-inflammatory properties for Ximenia americana, mainly due to its content of tannins (Brasileiro et al., 2008), and Libidibia ferrea, which has an analgesic action (Carvalho et al., 1996; Lima et al., 2012b; Pereira et al., 2012b; Dias et al., 2013), as well as antibacterial (Sampaio et al., 2009) and cancer chemopreventive activities (Nakamura et al., 2002). Among the most versatile species, six of them did not show RI values in other studies to date. Hancornia speciosa is used for the treatment of twelve therapeutic treatments, with ulcer, uterine inflammation and varicose veins being the most reported. Moraes et al. (2008) reported anti-ulcer action for the species, as well as Marinho et al. (2011), who demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity. The use of Caryocar coriaceum was cited twelve times especially for treating respiratory disorders, as well as rheumatism and burns. In other studies, the species was also referred to for treating influenza, bronchopulmonary infections and rheumatic pains (Agra et al., 2007; Oliveira et al., 2007; Gonçalves, 2008). The information about the species is important and it suggests the need for further studies to assess its action on the respiratory system. Himatanthus drasticus was cited for nine properties of use, and in this study it was cited by about 80% of the interviewees. The species is characterized by its latex, mainly used for the treatment of cancer and ulcers, with already proven pharmacological activities (Sousa et al., 2010; Mousinho et al., 2011). Roupala montana was used to treat seven different diseases, where it was mainly used against nervousness by featuring a tranquilizing effect. The species was also cited for the treatment of wounds and ulcerations (Alexandre Junior and Soares Junior, 2009), but there are no studies proving its pharmacologic properties. Stryphnodendron rotundifolium was the most cited for cutaneous inflammation and as a wound-healing agent. According to Rodrigues et al. (2008) and Oliveira et al. (2011), the species has anti-ulcer and antimicrobial activities. Dimorphandra garderiana was mainly cited for the treatment of diseases such as cancer and conjunctivitis and pain. 3.3. Agreement about the species for therapeutic purposes and biological activity The medicinal species were cited for 91 therapeutic indications, grouped into 16 categories of body systems. The categories that showed the highest ICF values were: Injuries, Poisonings and Other Consequences of External Causes (IPOCEC); and Neoplasias (N), both featuring an ICF of 0.85 (Table 2). The rest of the body systems had values that ranged from 0.84 to 0.50, showing agreement between informants, even though they did not show the maximum value of 1.

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The category IPOCEC showed 18 species and 112 citations of use. Tocoyena formosa had the largest number of citations within this category (13) using fresh and macerated leaves for the treatment of fractures and bone bruising, sprains and blows. However, there are no studies on the properties of this species related to the medical purposes cited. It has only been reported by Bolzani et al. (1996, 1997) as having antifungal action against Cladosporium cladosporioides, due to the presence of iridoid constituents. Cancer was treated with four species, Himatanthus drasticus, Stryphnodendron rotundifolium, Dimorphandra garderiana and Hancornia speciosa, which showed high versatility in this study. Himatanthus drasticus was the most cited species (40) for the treatment and “cure“ of various cancers (17). Recent pharmacological studies revealed an antitumor action for the species (Sousa et al., 2010; Mousinho et al., 2011). Through a phytochemical analysis, Colares et al. (2008) identified the presence of lupeol cinnamate, to which they attributed this activity. Respiratory system disorder (RSD) was the category with the largest number of uses cited (153). It corresponded to 21.85% of the total (700), resulting in the second highest number of species reported (25), which was 15.1% of all species, with an ICF of 0.84. Usually, this body system is part of the categories most often cited in semi-arid areas of Northeast Brazil (Almeida et al., 2006; Cartaxo et al., 2010). Caryocar coriaceum was most cited for respiratory disorders (influenza, cough and bronchitis), with 27 citations. Pharmacological activities related to this species indicated antiinflammatory activity (Quirino et al., 2009; Oliveira et al., 2010b; Saraiva et al., 2011a). Saraiva et al. (2011b) demonstrated antibiotic resistance modifying activity. Araruna et al. (2013) identified phenolic, tannin and flavonoid compounds that could reduce bacterial drug resistance. The category of Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System and Connective Tissue (DMSCT) had an ICF of 0.76 and, as well as for RSD, C. coriaceum was the most cited species (18) for diseases such as rheumatism and knee swelling. The oil of the fruit was to be applied on the affected area. The information gathered was consistent with the biological activities already cited for the species and the antiinflammatory action has been proven (Oliveira et al., 2010b; Saraiva et al., 2011a). Mental and Behavioral Disorders involved two species (Roupala montana and Passiflora cincinnata), and eight reported uses, mainly as a tranquilizer with one having the highest consensus value (ICF¼ 0.83), which is unusual when compared to the results obtained in other studies conducted in the Northeast, where this category has scored poorly (Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Almeida et al., 2006; Cartaxo et al., 2010). For Diseases of the Skin and Subcutaneous Cellular Tissue (DSSCT), 16 species were cited and 51 uses reported, showing an ICF of 0.80. In this category, Stryphnodendron rotundifolium was the species most cited for cutaneous inflammation showing wound healing properties. The presence of tannins, flavonoids and alkaloids in this species has been shown to account for antiulcer and antimicrobial activities (Rodrigues et al., 2008; Oliveira et al., 2011). Costa et al. (2012) identified the presence of gallic acid, catechin, rutin, and caffeic acid, conferring antioxidant activity to the species. Diseases of Blood and Hematopoietic Organs (DBHO) (ICF¼0.78), obtained ten citations for its use, primarily as a blood thinner, and Croton zehntneri was the most mentioned (8). It had different biological activities reported. For example, Siqueira et al. (2006) found that the essential oil from C. zehntneri had cardiovascular effects, decreasing blood pressure and aortic vasoconstriction. Cavalcanti et al. (2012) found that it accelerated the healing of skin wounds, which was attributed to anethole. The Disorders of the Circulatory (DCS), Digestive (DDS) and Genitourinary (DGS) Systems, along with the category Sexual

Impotence (SI), showed an ICF of 0.77 each. DCS was mentioned 27 times, with regard to heart problems, high blood pressure, varicose veins and especially hemorrhoids with 10 citations, including seven species. This body system was among those most mentioned in studies conducted by Pasa et al. (2005), Botrel et al. (2006) and Silva and Proença (2008) in cerrado areas. Seventeen therapeutic treatments were cited for DDS, totaling 89 citations of use distributed in 21 species. On the basis of the prevalence of this category in several studies and the number of citations (Gazzaneo et al., 2005; Almeida et al., 2006; Pilla et al., 2006; Albuquerque et al., 2007; Cunha and Bortolotto, 2011), this body system is considered one of the most commonly involved in traditional medicine of the area studied. With 58 citations, DGS included 14 species used for genital and uterine diseases and inflammations and kidney disorders. Many of the diseases related to this system are among the most known by local populations that have already preferred species for the treatments (Albuquerque et al., 2007; Mosca and Loiola, 2009; Júnior et al., 2011; Cartaxo et al., 2010). The most cited species for DCS, DDS and DGS were Solanum sp. for hemorrhoids, Himatanthus drasticus for gastritis and Cecropia pachystachya for kidney disorders. Regarding Solanum sp., it was not possible to find studies on its activities, because the species has only been identified at the genus level. However, among their most often studied substances, species of this genus have flavonoids and alkaloids (Silva and Carvalho, 2003), related to the treatment of gastrointestinal and liver diseases as well as inflammation (Mesia-Vela et al., 2002). H. drasticus, already mentioned in this study in the category of Neoplasias, also features activities for DDS. Lucetti et al. (2010) reported that lupeol isolated from the latex has antiinflammatory activity. Leite et al. (2009) observed a cytoprotective effect against the formation of ulcers. With respect to therapeutic evidence of Cecropia pachystachya for DGS, Consolini and Migliori (2005) reported a hypotensive effect. Consolini et al. (2006) shows the cardiotonic and sedative effects of the plant. However, not all uses of C. pachystachya were tested pharmacologically and further studies to assess the medicinal properties of the species are necessary. Sexual Impotence had three species cited for use as an aphrodisiac, namely Erythroxylum vacciniifolium, Secondatia floribunda and Bowdichia virgilioides. E. vacciniifolium was the most cited as an aphrodisiac. Zanolari et al. (2003, 2005) conducted chemical studies of the extract of the stem bark of E. vacciniifolium and isolated up to 24 tropane alkaloids and revealed the constituent catuabine. There are no studies proving the efficacy of E. vacciniifolium with respect to popular citations. Non-Defined Disorders or Pain (NDDP), with ICF of 0.70, was linked to the use of 20 species. Among the most common annoyances, pain was the most cited, followed by internal and external inflammation with 25 citations. The therapeutic information provided for this category usually causes uncertainty when referring to the selection of promising species. The reason is the number of citations for health problems without known causes, which results in the use of these plants mentioned in this category for widespread treatments. Inflammation has been often cited for this and other categories of body systems, where it has been considered one of the most important (Albuquerque et al., 2007; Araújo et al., 2008), mainly due to the range of species used and because it is a common health problem in local communities in different parts of the world (Balick and Lee, 2005; Namsa et al., 2009; Júnior et al., 2011). For this category, Dimorphandra gardneriana was the species most cited for pain. Using crude methanolic extract from beans of this species, Landim et al. (2013) separated and quantified the three main flavonoids that characterize the plant; they were rutin, quercetin, and isoquercitrin, which are important compounds for the pharmaceutical industry. For Diseases of the Nervous System (DNS) (ICF ¼0.64), six species and four therapeutic purposes were cited and nervous

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Table 2 Informant consensus factor based on citings of use of medicinal species by informants in Serra do Zabelê community, Chapada do Araripe, Ceará, Brazil. Body systems categories: Diseases

Number Main therapeutic of species/ indication citations

Main medicinal plant cited

IPOCEC: Bone bruise, inflamed wound, wounds, bone fracture, swelling due to blow, blows, snakebite, burns, sprains. N [tumors]: Cancer

18/112

Bone fracture

4/21

Cancer

25/153

Influenza

RSD: Cough, influenza, expectorant, asthma, coryza, sinusitis, nasal congestion.

Chemical constituents/ Chemical classes

Biological activity

ICF

Tocoyena formosa Triterpene saponin, flavonoids, iridoids and genipin (Bolzani et al., 1997)

Antifungal (Bolzani et al., 1996)

0.85

Himatanthus drasticus Caryocar coriaceum

Antitumor (Sousa et al., 2010; Mousinho et al., 2011) Antiinflammatory (Saraiva et al., 2011a), in healing gastric lesions and gastroprotective (Quirino et al., 2009), skin healing (Oliveira et al., 2010b), bacterial resistance (Saraiva et al., 2011b; Araruna et al., 2013) – Antiulcerogenic and antimicrobial, (Rodrigues et al., 2008; Oliveira et al., 2011), antioxidant (Costa et al., 2012)

0.85

Triterpene lupeol cinnamate (Colares et al., 2008) Oleic acid and palmitic acid (Oliveira et al., 2010b), tannins, flavonoids and phenolic compounds (Araruna et al., 2013)

DBHO: Blood thinner

3/10

SI: Aphrodisiac (sexual impotence)

3/10

DCS: Angina, heart disease, edema, hemorrhoids, high blood pressure, thrombosis, varicose veins. DDS: Dental cavity, diarrhea, dysentery, stomach ache, toothache, stomach pains, pains in the liver, gastritis, hernia (abdominal), throat inflammation, inflammation of the gums, inflammation of tooth, inflammation of liver, indigestion, teething, constipation, gallbladder problems, stomach problems, ulcer, gallbladder. DGS: Genital disease, menstrual colic, renal complications, kidney pain, gynecological inflammation, prostate problems, inflammation of uterus, renal inflammation, renal failure, uterine myoma. DMSCT: Muscle cramp, muscle aches, spine pain, bone pain, knee swelling, rheumatism. NDDP: Pains, body pain, fever, inflammation,inflammation of external and internal organs, inflammation of the external organs, inflammation of internal organs. DNS: Headache, Migraine, Epilepsy, Nervousness. DEGNM: Hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, restorative.

7/27

Roupala montana – Stryphnodendron Tannins, flavonoids and rotundifolium alkaloids (Rodrigues et al., 2008), gallic acid, catechin, rutin and caffeic acid (Costa et al., 2012) Blood thinner Croton zehntneri trans-anethole, estragole (Siqueira et al., 2006; Cavalcanti et al., 2012) Aphrodisiac Erythroxylum Tropane alkaloids, catuabine vacciniifolium and the pyrrole substituent (Zanolari et al., 2003; 2005) Hemorrhoid Solanum sp. –

21/89

Gastritis

Himatanthus drasticus

14/58

Kidney disorders

14/57

MBD: Calmative, insomnia 2/8 16/51 DSSCT: Skin allergy, healing, inflammation of the skin, itching, hair tonic, seborrhea.

Calmative Inflammation of the skin

0.84

0.83 0.80

Healing (Cavalcanti et al., 2012) and antihypertensive (Siqueira et al., 2006)

0.78

–

0.77

–

0.77

Lupeol (Lucetti et al., 2010)

Antiinflammatory(Lucetti et al., 2010) cytoprotective (Leite et al., 2009)

0.77

Cecropia pachystachya

–

0.77 Hypotensive (Consolini and Migliori, 2005), cardiotonic and sedative (Consolini et al., 2006)

Rheumatism

Caryocar coriaceum

Antiinflammatory (Oliveira et al., 2010b; Saraiva et al., 2011a).

0.76

20/64

Pain

Dimorphandra garderiana

Tannins, flavonoids and phenolic compounds (Araruna et al., 2013) Flavonoids rutin, quercetin and isoquercitrin (Landim et al., 2013)

–

0.70

6/14

Nervousness

–

Antioxidant (David et al., 2007)

0.64

6/13

Diabetes

Passiflora cincinnata Syzygium cumini

Phenolic compounds, tannins and anthocyanins (Banerjee et al., 2005) –

Antiinflammatory (Muruganandan et al., 2001) antidiabetic (Oliveira et al., 2005) and antioxidant (Banerjee et al., 2005) –

0.58

IPD: Intestinal infection, tuberculosis, worms. DVSS-E: Conjunctivitis

5/10

Worm

Solanum sp

2/1

Conjunctivitis

Dimorphandra garderiana

DASS-E: Ear pain

2/1

Ear pain

Cordia rufescens

Ophthalmic viscosurgical (Pires et al., Galactomannan polysaccharide (Cunha et al., 2010) 2009) Saponins and lignins (Silva et Immunomodulatory (Costa et al., 2008) al., 2004), caffeic acid and rufescenolide (Vale et al., 2012)

0.55 0.50

0.50

NDDP: Non-Defined Disorders or Pain; DEGNM: Disease of the Endocrine Glands, Nutrition and Metabolism; IPD: Infectious and Parasitic Diseases; MBD: Mental and Behavioral Disorders; DBHO: Diseases of Blood and Hematopoietic Organs; DMSCT: Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System and Connective Tissue; IPOCEC: Injuries, Poisonings and Other Consequences of External Causes; N: Neoplasias; DDS: Disorder of the Digestive System; DGS: Disorder of the Genitourinary System; DNS: Diseases of the Nervous System; RSD: Respiratory System Disorder; DASS-E: Disorders of the Auditory Sensory System (Ears); DVSS-E: Both Disorders of the Visual Sensory System (Eyes); DCS: Diseases of the Circulatory System; DSSCT: Diseases of the Skin and Subcutaneous Cellular Tissue; SI: Sexual Impotence.

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disorders stood out with four and three citations, respectively. P. cincinnata was the most cited species for diseases that affect the nervous system, such as nervousness and insomnia. Few studies have reported some activity of the species and none has assessed its main therapeutic purpose so far. It has been discussed in the study by David et al. (2007), who found antioxidant activity due to the large amount of total phenols. In the category Disease of the Endocrine Glands, Nutrition and Metabolism (DEGNM), with ICF of 0.58, the most common species noted were Syzygium cumini and Bredemeyera floribunda, both with three citations for the treatment of diseases such as diabetes and for use as tonic. Diabetes was one of the main diseases, which is the target of research on potential plants based on traditional medicine (Andrade-Cetto et al., 2006; Leduc et al., 2006; Santos et al., 2012). S. cumini has been subjected to different tests. For example, Muruganandan et al. (2001) showed that this species had potent antiinflammatory action, without any side effect on the gastric mucosa. With respect to its main citation as an antidiabetic agent, Oliveira et al. (2005) confirmed this effect. Banerjee et al. (2005) found that the phenolic compounds, tannins and anthocyanins isolated had antioxidant properties, which could help prevent diseases. For Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (IPD), five species and 10 uses were cited with ICF of 0.58. The most frequent use cited in this category was against worms with eight citations and five of them were for Solanum sp. (sacaatinga), the most cited in this category. The use of its roots for decoction and oral ingestion was cited. Both Disorders of the Visual Sensory System (Eyes) (DVSS-E) and Disorders of the Auditory Sensory System (Ears) (DASS-E) showed an ICF of 0.50, each with one species each (Dimorphandra garderiana and Cordia rufescens) and two citations of use for conjunctivitis and earache. Using the seeds of Dimorphandra garderiana, Cunha et al. (2009) isolated a galactomannan, a neutral polysaccharide, which according to Pires et al. (2010) has potential use in ophthalmologic surgery. Silva et al. (2004) showed the presence of saponins and lignin naphthalene. More recently, Vale et al. (2012) were first to report the isolation of rufescent compounds and caffeic acid present in the stem and leaves of this species. Costa et al. (2008) highlight the existence of bioactive metabolites in C. rufescens, which showed immunomodulatory activity by suppressing the in vitro proliferation of lymphocytes. Although many studies have assessed the species preferentially important to local communities, little is known about the species composing the disjunct cerrado of Chapada do Araripe, especially regarding their pharmacological properties. Tocoyena formosa, Himatanthus drasticus, Caryocar coriaceum, Roupala montana, Passiflora cincinnata, Croton zehntneri, Cecropia pachystachya, Erythroxylum vacciniifolium, Stryphnodendron rotundifolium, Dimorphandra garderiana, Syzygium cumini and Cordia rufescens were considered the species preferred by the informants for the treatment of a specific body system. Therefore, they represent promising targets for future studies searching for effective compounds for the treatment and/or cure of diseases. Few studies based on the ethnobotanical approach assess adverse effects in clinical trials with medicinal plants. Caso et al. (2006) using ethnobotanical information of plants used for breathing problems performed an vitro assay against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The test results did not show statistical significance when compared with of the results of the anthropological models. Some species have pharmacological potential but may also possess various toxic substances. For example, Copaifera langsdorffii has various pharmacological activities due to the presence of kaurenoic acid, but this plant has also been shown to be cytotoxic (Costa-Lotufo et al., 2002) and mutagenic (Chen-Chen and Sena, 2002). It is thus also important to conduct studies to

elucidate the efficacy and safety of these plants used in traditional medicine.

4. Conclusions The species considered most important for the users are those possessing action to combat the greatest number of health problems within the community. Copaifera langsdorffii, Ximenia americana, Hancornia speciosa, Caryocar coriaceum, Himatanthus drasticus, Libidibia ferrea, Stryphnodendron rotundifolium and Dimorphandra garderiana showed great versatility and high consensus of knowledge and/or use among the informants for the most reported body systems. Given the richness of medicinal species and the scarcity of studies conducted in disjunct cerrado areas, there is a need for more studies to assess plants as an important source of biologically active natural products, opening new paths for bioprospecting and the development of effective drugs.

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Please cite this article as: Ribeiro, D.A., et al., Promising medicinal plants for bioprospection in a Cerrado area of Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.07.042i