Perceptualand MotorSkilh, 1990, 7 0 , 915-921. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1990
PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S COGNITIVE STYLES AND THEIR SOCIAL ORIENTATIONS ' OLIVIA N. SARACHO University of Mary land Summary.-300 children ages 3 to 5 yr. were tested for their cognitive style, measured by the Preschool Embedded Figures Test, and their play preferences, measured by the Play Rating Scale, observed and recorded. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance showed that ( 1 ) field-independent children favored all types of play more than field-dependent children, ( 2 ) field-dependent and -independent boys engaged more in physical and block play than did the girls, (3) order of preference for play ddfered between field-dependent and field-independent children (e.g., field-dependent children preferred physical, dramatic, and manipulative play, while field-independent children preferred dramatic, physical, manipulative and block play), (4) boys engaged more in all forms of play than girls, and (5) order of preference for play differed between boys and girls. Boys preferred physical, block, dramatic and manipulative play, while girls preferred dramatic, manipulative, physical, and block play.
Cognitive styles determine indvidual differences in an individual's mode of perceiving, remembering and thinking. Consistent responses in the indviduals' behavior indicate their cognitive style. A cognitive response is conceived as a relatively stable tendency to react to a particular stimulus condition. This stability extends over a variety of tasks with similar task demands and/or stimulus properties. Thus, cognitive styles are generally considered to be information-processing habits where individuals have unique characteristic ways of interpreting and responding to the environment. The field dependencelindependence dimension, the most researched cognitive style, describes individual tendencies to rely primarily on visual cues to overcome perceptual embedding contexts. This dimension of cognitive style distinguishes between field-dependent and field-independent individuals in much the same way as perceptual styles, personality, intelligence, and social behavior. For example, field-dependent persons are more socially oriented than their field-independent peers. Research shows that field-dependent adults are more aroused by and attentive to social simulation (Eagle, Goldberger, & Breitman, 1969; Fitzgibbons & Goldberger, 1971; Fitzgibbons, Goldberger, & Eagle, 1965). They are also better at remembering faces seen (Crutchfield, Woodworth, & Albrecht, 1958; Messick & Damarin, 1964) and spontaneously generating words indicative of social interest, whereas field-independent people remember and prefer nonsocial stimuli (Goldberger & Bendich, 1972). 'Address correspondence to 0 . N. Saracho, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742.
916
0. N . SARACHO
Studies with school-age children indicate that field-dependent children are more likely to look at the examiner's face than are field-independent children (Ruble & Nakamura, 1972; Konstadt & Forman, 1965), and they tend to be more interpersonally dependent (Beller, 1958). Also, such children tend to be better able to make use of social cues in problem-solving situations (Ruble & Nakamura, 1972) than are field-independent children. Most studies investigating the relationship between social orientation and field-dependencelindependence have tested older children or adults. Only two studies of social orientation and field-dependence/independence have studied these variables with preschool children (Coates, 1972; Coates, Lord, & Jakabovics, 1975). Both studies indicate that field-dependent children are more socially oriented in their play, whereas field-independent children prefer solitary activities. Coates (1972) showed that field-dependent 4- and 5-yr.-old girls prefer to play with others in the doll corner, while field-independent girls prefer to work alone on individual projects. Coates, Lord, and Jakabovics (1975) found that field-dependent girls play with others in the doll corner, but field-independent girls play with blocks alone or with others. These researchers recommend that the variables be further explored in settings where children are provided an opportunity to express their interests. I t is also essential to explore how these variables interact with each other. The present study investigated the relationship between social orientation and field-dependencelindependence in young children in a naturalistic setting. It was hypothesized that (1) those children who show a preference for activities which require social participation will be relatively field-dependent and (2) those children who prefer nonsocial activities, such as playing alone, are expected to be relatively field-independent. Sex differences were also examined, even though patterns of relationship between play preferences and field-dependencelindependence are expected to be the same for both sexes.
METHOD Participants were 300 chddren ages 3 to 5 yr., 50 girls and 50 boys in each age group, from private nursery schools and child-care centers. Participants from the private nursery schools were from middle- and upper-class homes who enrolled their children to begin an early education program. In contrast, the participants from the child-care centers were from lower socioeconomic parents who left their children in this setting to go to work. It would have been better for gener&zing had the sample been more heterogeneous. However, the three different groups provide important information. The settings permitted children to choose and engage in play activities during some portion of the school day. Each child was tested individually with the Preschool Embedded Fig-
917
CHILDREN'S COGNITIVE STYLE, SOCIAL PLAY
ures Test (Coates, 1972) in a room adjacent to their classroom. The standardized test assesses the cognitive style of children ages 3 to 5 yr. The score for each participant was the number correct, and this is the unit in which the data are reported. A low score indicates field-dependence, while a high score indicates field-independence. The cut-off scores for the PEFT were 5 for 3-yt-olds and 10 for 4- and 5-yr.-olds. Those participants who scored less than the cut-off score were considered field-dependent while those who scored more than the cut-off score were considered field-independent. Children's play in the different play areas was recorded on the Play Rating Scale (Saracho, 1984) on which one can identify four forms of play: physical, block, manipulative and dramatic. Since the purpose of the study was to examine the children's preferences in social versus nonsocial play, the frequency of each child's play in the four types of play was the unit for analysis. Interrater reliabdity for the scale ranges from .92 to .94 (Saracho, 1984).
RESULTS The hypotheses were tested by a repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance. Means were computed to describe the variance in the variables, cognitive style, sex, age, and types of play. These are presented in Table 1. The analysis showed main effects for the different types of play and two interactions, cognitive style, sex and type of play and also sex and type of play. TABLE 1 ~ - -
-
N ANDSSUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCEOF CHILDREN'SPLAYPREFERENCES
-
Forms of Play
Cognitive Style
15.38 2.82
15.06 2.92
14.26 2.34
19.03$
7.837
14.55 2.86
15.14 2.62
14.85 2.74
13.31 2.96
19.19$
5.70'
13.77 2.69
13.31 2.37
14.97 2.48
14.14 2.43
13.96 2.56
50.38$
.05
14.22 3.29
13.57 3.23
15.18 3.12
14.37 3.18
14.30 3.23
21.19$
1.21
Total
Fielddependent
13.93 3.13
13.47 1.76
14.74 301
11.68 3.01
11.88 3.32
11.78 3.17
13.49 2.76
14.05 2.61
14.09 14.34 3.24 3.35 * p < . 0 5 . t p < . O l . $p
PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S COGNITIVE STYLES AND THEIR SOCIAL ORIENTATIONS ' OLIVIA N. SARACHO University of Mary land Summary.-300 children ages 3 to 5 yr. were tested for their cognitive style, measured by the Preschool Embedded Figures Test, and their play preferences, measured by the Play Rating Scale, observed and recorded. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance showed that ( 1 ) field-independent children favored all types of play more than field-dependent children, ( 2 ) field-dependent and -independent boys engaged more in physical and block play than did the girls, (3) order of preference for play ddfered between field-dependent and field-independent children (e.g., field-dependent children preferred physical, dramatic, and manipulative play, while field-independent children preferred dramatic, physical, manipulative and block play), (4) boys engaged more in all forms of play than girls, and (5) order of preference for play differed between boys and girls. Boys preferred physical, block, dramatic and manipulative play, while girls preferred dramatic, manipulative, physical, and block play.
Cognitive styles determine indvidual differences in an individual's mode of perceiving, remembering and thinking. Consistent responses in the indviduals' behavior indicate their cognitive style. A cognitive response is conceived as a relatively stable tendency to react to a particular stimulus condition. This stability extends over a variety of tasks with similar task demands and/or stimulus properties. Thus, cognitive styles are generally considered to be information-processing habits where individuals have unique characteristic ways of interpreting and responding to the environment. The field dependencelindependence dimension, the most researched cognitive style, describes individual tendencies to rely primarily on visual cues to overcome perceptual embedding contexts. This dimension of cognitive style distinguishes between field-dependent and field-independent individuals in much the same way as perceptual styles, personality, intelligence, and social behavior. For example, field-dependent persons are more socially oriented than their field-independent peers. Research shows that field-dependent adults are more aroused by and attentive to social simulation (Eagle, Goldberger, & Breitman, 1969; Fitzgibbons & Goldberger, 1971; Fitzgibbons, Goldberger, & Eagle, 1965). They are also better at remembering faces seen (Crutchfield, Woodworth, & Albrecht, 1958; Messick & Damarin, 1964) and spontaneously generating words indicative of social interest, whereas field-independent people remember and prefer nonsocial stimuli (Goldberger & Bendich, 1972). 'Address correspondence to 0 . N. Saracho, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742.
916
0. N . SARACHO
Studies with school-age children indicate that field-dependent children are more likely to look at the examiner's face than are field-independent children (Ruble & Nakamura, 1972; Konstadt & Forman, 1965), and they tend to be more interpersonally dependent (Beller, 1958). Also, such children tend to be better able to make use of social cues in problem-solving situations (Ruble & Nakamura, 1972) than are field-independent children. Most studies investigating the relationship between social orientation and field-dependencelindependence have tested older children or adults. Only two studies of social orientation and field-dependence/independence have studied these variables with preschool children (Coates, 1972; Coates, Lord, & Jakabovics, 1975). Both studies indicate that field-dependent children are more socially oriented in their play, whereas field-independent children prefer solitary activities. Coates (1972) showed that field-dependent 4- and 5-yr.-old girls prefer to play with others in the doll corner, while field-independent girls prefer to work alone on individual projects. Coates, Lord, and Jakabovics (1975) found that field-dependent girls play with others in the doll corner, but field-independent girls play with blocks alone or with others. These researchers recommend that the variables be further explored in settings where children are provided an opportunity to express their interests. I t is also essential to explore how these variables interact with each other. The present study investigated the relationship between social orientation and field-dependencelindependence in young children in a naturalistic setting. It was hypothesized that (1) those children who show a preference for activities which require social participation will be relatively field-dependent and (2) those children who prefer nonsocial activities, such as playing alone, are expected to be relatively field-independent. Sex differences were also examined, even though patterns of relationship between play preferences and field-dependencelindependence are expected to be the same for both sexes.
METHOD Participants were 300 chddren ages 3 to 5 yr., 50 girls and 50 boys in each age group, from private nursery schools and child-care centers. Participants from the private nursery schools were from middle- and upper-class homes who enrolled their children to begin an early education program. In contrast, the participants from the child-care centers were from lower socioeconomic parents who left their children in this setting to go to work. It would have been better for gener&zing had the sample been more heterogeneous. However, the three different groups provide important information. The settings permitted children to choose and engage in play activities during some portion of the school day. Each child was tested individually with the Preschool Embedded Fig-
917
CHILDREN'S COGNITIVE STYLE, SOCIAL PLAY
ures Test (Coates, 1972) in a room adjacent to their classroom. The standardized test assesses the cognitive style of children ages 3 to 5 yr. The score for each participant was the number correct, and this is the unit in which the data are reported. A low score indicates field-dependence, while a high score indicates field-independence. The cut-off scores for the PEFT were 5 for 3-yt-olds and 10 for 4- and 5-yr.-olds. Those participants who scored less than the cut-off score were considered field-dependent while those who scored more than the cut-off score were considered field-independent. Children's play in the different play areas was recorded on the Play Rating Scale (Saracho, 1984) on which one can identify four forms of play: physical, block, manipulative and dramatic. Since the purpose of the study was to examine the children's preferences in social versus nonsocial play, the frequency of each child's play in the four types of play was the unit for analysis. Interrater reliabdity for the scale ranges from .92 to .94 (Saracho, 1984).
RESULTS The hypotheses were tested by a repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance. Means were computed to describe the variance in the variables, cognitive style, sex, age, and types of play. These are presented in Table 1. The analysis showed main effects for the different types of play and two interactions, cognitive style, sex and type of play and also sex and type of play. TABLE 1 ~ - -
-
N ANDSSUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCEOF CHILDREN'SPLAYPREFERENCES
-
Forms of Play
Cognitive Style
15.38 2.82
15.06 2.92
14.26 2.34
19.03$
7.837
14.55 2.86
15.14 2.62
14.85 2.74
13.31 2.96
19.19$
5.70'
13.77 2.69
13.31 2.37
14.97 2.48
14.14 2.43
13.96 2.56
50.38$
.05
14.22 3.29
13.57 3.23
15.18 3.12
14.37 3.18
14.30 3.23
21.19$
1.21
Total
Fielddependent
13.93 3.13
13.47 1.76
14.74 301
11.68 3.01
11.88 3.32
11.78 3.17
13.49 2.76
14.05 2.61
14.09 14.34 3.24 3.35 * p < . 0 5 . t p < . O l . $p
