J Forensic Sci, 2014 doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.12624 Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com
PAPER ANTHROPOLOGY
M. Katherine Spradley,1 Ph.D.; Bruce E. Anderson,2,3 Ph.D.; and Meredith L. Tise,4 M.A.
Postcranial Sex Estimation Criteria for Mexican Hispanics*
ABSTRACT: Population-specific reference data are necessary for sex estimation in forensic anthropological practice. Currently, there are no population-specific data for Hispanics equivalent to data available for American Blacks and Whites. Individuals of Mexican origin represent the largest group of Hispanics in the United States (Spradley and Jantz. 2011. J Forensic Sci;56:289). This paper presents new population-specific sex estimation criteria for postcranial measurements for Mexican Hispanics. Metric data come from positively identified border-crossing fatalities at the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner and documented cemetery collections curated at Universidad Nacional Aut onoma de Mexico and Universidad Aut onoma de Yucatan. Stepwise variable selection procedures and discriminant function analyses were utilized to generate classification functions for postcrania. Sectioning points were also created for select measurements. Both the cross-validated classification rates and sectioning points achieved accuracy rates as high as 95% and 92%, respectively. These new criteria will improve sex estimation for US Mexico border crossers and Hispanics in the US.
KEYWORDS: forensic science, forensic anthropology, sex estimation, Mexico, Hispanic, identification Previous research has demonstrated a need for postcranial sex estimation criteria for two reasons: the postcranium provides the second best estimate of sex (1,2); and the pelvis is not always found within a forensic context due to taphonomic processes and/or trauma. More recently, the Scientific Working Group in Forensic Anthropology suggests that best practice in sex assessment should include sound methodologies that utilize appropriate, population-specific, and period-specific data (3). Various criteria exist for American Blacks and Whites (2,4–6); however, until recently a large, population-specific data set was not available for Hispanics. Tise et al. (7) published a paper providing new postcranial sex estimation criteria for Hispanics using data from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME). The main goal of the article was to demonstrate that using population-specific criteria improves sex estimation in Hispanics. The Tise et al. (7) article provided an important starting point; however, the preliminary criteria are derived from small sample sizes, and most of the individuals used are unidentified and presumed Hispanic with no reference to geographic origin.
1 Department of Anthropology, Texas State Univeristy, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX, 78666. 2 Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ, 85714. 3 School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Emil Haury Building, Tucson, AZ, 85721. 4 Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler, Tampa, FL, 33620. *This project was supported by Award No. 2008-DN-BX-K464, awarded by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice. Received 18 Sept. 2013; and in revised form 10 Jan. 2014; accepted 29 Jan. 2014.
© 2014 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Since the initial Tise et al. (7) publication, more data have accumulated from the PCOME and more positive identifications have been made on the border-crossing fatalities, creating a data set of positively identified individuals from Mexico. In the United States, the term Hispanic is applied to peoples from Mexico and other areas of Latin America and Europe (8). This generic term erases the diversity of languages, cultures, and nationalities of groups from these regions (9). The various geographic locations in Latin America and Europe that are considered Hispanic all have unique population histories that provide diverse population structures (10–13). When grouped by country of origin, the majority of U.S. Hispanics are from Mexico (67%), followed by Puerto Rico (9.2%), Cuba (3.7%), El Salvador (3.6%), Dominican Republic (3.0%), Guatemala (2.2%), Columbia (1.9%), Honduras (1.4%), Ecuador (1.3%), and Peru (1.2%) (14). Additional data suggest that 37% of the residents from Mexico are foreign born (1). As the majority of Hispanics in the U.S. originate from Mexico and the biological variation of many Hispanic groups is unknown, a Mexican reference sample can be considered population-specific for the majority of Hispanics in the U.S. The purpose of this paper is to provide new postcranial sex estimation criteria developed from positively identified border-crossing fatalities and twentieth century documented cemetery skeletal collections from Mexico.
Methods Reference Samples Mexican reference samples come from three sources: the PCOME, located in Tucson, Arizona, and two twentieth century Mexican cemetery collections from Zimapan, Hidalgo, and Merida, Yucatan. During a 2008–2012 large-scale data collection 1
2
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
effort, Project Identification,1 533 skeletons were measured at the PCOME. At the time of this writing 203 from Mexico are positively identified. As more skeletons are identified at the PCOME, data collected will be continually updated and submitted to the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank (FDB), and subsequently FORDISC 3.0. Data previously collected at the PCOME from the FDB (15) were included to increase sample sizes. Only positively identified individuals from Mexico are used in subsequent analyses. The Zimapan, Hidalgo cemetery collection is curated at the Universidad Nacional Aut onoma de Mexico (UNAM) in Mexico City and represents individuals with birth years spanning the early to mid-20th century. This collection resulted from a cemetery relocation project in the municipality of Zimapan. During the relocation, families donated the remains of their next of kin to UNAM if they could not afford reburial (16). The Xoclan cemetery is an overflow cemetery for the main burial ground located in Merida, Yucatan, in the state’s capital (V. Tiesler, pers. commun.). Cemetery plots in Xoclan are leased for a specific amount of time, after which the lease is renegotiated or the interred individual is moved to the overflow cemetery. In 2006, the Facultad de Ciencias Antropol ogicas (School of Anthropological Sciences) of the Universidad Aut onoma de Yucatan (UADY) began to curate a portion of the documented skeletons in need of relocation (V. Tiesler, personal communication). Of the 203 positively-identified individuals at the PCOME, only 68 (6 female, 62 male) have postcranial measurements and are used in the present analyses. As future positive identifications are made, the data set will be updated. In total, 40 postcrania were measured from Xoclan (16 female, 24 male) and 42 from Zimapan (18 female, 24 male). Each individual in the PCOME sample may only have a few measurements due to incomplete recoveries and taphonomic events. Therefore, the total sample sizes presented in analyses that follow are reduced. Standard postcranial metric data were collected following the definitions outlined in Moore-Jansen et al. (17) and recorded in mm. Additional postcranial measurements outlined in Zobeck (18) were included to determine whether or not those additional measurements better capture sexual dimorphism useful in sex estimation. In cases where the left side was missing a measurement, the value for the right side was substituted when available. Analyses To provide new population-specific criteria for sex estimation, both multivariate and univariate methods were performed. A discriminant function analysis (DFA) was employed to generate classification functions for each long bone, clavicle, scapula, and calcaneus. A stepwise discriminant analysis (STEPDISC) was performed in SAS 9.3 (19) using the Wilks’ lambda criterion and an alpha of 0.05 to find the best subset of variables, per individual bone, for discrimination of sex. The stepwise selected variables were then run in a DFA for each bone to generate Mahalanobis D2 and cross-validated classification rates. The STEPDISC process was run using both standard measurements and Zobeck measurements. To generate sectioning points, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was run on all postcranial measurements. The F-statistic was then used to assess which measurements exhibited the most 1
National Institute of Justice Award No. 2008-DN-BX-K464.
sexual size dimorphism. Descriptive statistics were then obtained for the most dimorphic measurements, and sectioning points were calculated by taking the average of the male and female means, per measurement, and dividing by two. For each sectioning point, the male and female sample size, mean, and standard deviation of each measurement are provided along with the F-statistic and associated p-value, as well as the overall cross-validated classification rate from a DFA. All analyses were performed in SAS 9.3 (2002–2010) (19). A test sample of 22 individuals (20 male and 2 female) from the PCOME was used to test the classification functions derived from the DFA and the sectioning points. Of the 22 individuals, only two are positively identified and are from Mexico. The remaining sample has known sex through DNA and these individuals fit within the biological and cultural profiles for migrant fatalities (20). The small size of the test sample is a result of the availability of the data. It took the first author 5 years to collect sample sizes large enough to statistically analyze. Furthermore, most border-crossers are male, between the ages of 18 and 40 (21) resulting in disproportionate number of males and females. The classification rates and posterior probabilities are provided for the classification functions. The overall classification accuracy is provided for the sectioning points. Results DFA results using the standard measurements indicate that the scapula provides the highest classification rate of 95.55%. The femur, tibia, radius, and clavicle provide classification rates that meet or exceed 90%. The lowest classification rate, from the fibula, is 80.36%. Table 1 provides sample sizes, Mahalanobis D2, female and male cross-validated classification rates, and overall classification rates. The stepwise selected measurements are provided in Table 2 along with classification functions. For the long bones, only the length measurements were found significant for inclusion in the DFA for the radius, fibula, and ulna, with the radius exhibiting the most size dimorphism and the fibula the least. The femur, tibia, and humerus exhibit the most size dimorphism based on joint surfaces rather than length. Femoral distal epiphyseal breadth, head diameter, and medio-lateral mid-shaft diameter provide a cross-validated classification rate of 93%. Tibia distal epiphyseal breadth and maximum nutrient foramen diameter provide a classification rate of 91.5%. The Zobeck measurements found significant in the stepwise discriminant analyses are associated with the scapula, radius, ulna, and femur (see Table 2). For these particular bones, classifications improved for the radius and ulna, although the Mahalanobis D2 increased for all bones. The radius classification rate
TABLE 1––Sample sizes, means, standard deviations, and cross-validated classification rates for Mexican Hispanics by skeletal element. Bone Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Fibula Calcaneus
Female n
Male n
D2
Female %
Male %
Overall %
35 31 32 35 32 27 32 32 22
52 41 60 53 46 64 65 56 30
5.19 8.30 6.00 4.95 3.64 6.20 6.56 2.27 4.39
91.43 93.55 90.63 94.29 90.63 100 96.88 87.5 90.91
86.54 97.56 85.00 86.79 71.74 85.94 86.15 73.21 73.33
88.99 95.55 87.82 90.54 81.19 92.97 91.52 80.36 82.12
KATHERINE SPRADLEY ET AL.
.
SEX ESTIMATION FOR MEXICAN HISPANICS
3
TABLE 2––Stepwise selected variables and classification functions for Mexican Hispanics.* Bone Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Ulna† Femur Tibia Fibula Calcaneus
Classification Function* (0.214 (0.233 (0.306 (0.070 (0.104 (0.641 (0.153 (0.612 (0.067 (0.323
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
maximum length) + (0.586 9 anterior–posterior diameter) + ( 36.980) height) + (0.322 9 breadth) + ( 64.974) epiphyseal breadth) + (0.385 9 maximum head diameter) + (0.534 9 minimum diameter mid-shaft) + ( 41.584) maximum length) + (1.466 9 anterior–posterior diameter mid-shaft) + ( 31.026) maximum length) + (0.310 9 dorso-volor diameter mid-shaft) + ( 29.136) ORL) + (0.417 9 BOP) + (0.517 9 MBO) + ( 40.919) epiphyseal breadth) + (0.589 9 maximum head diameter) + (0.355 9 medio-lateral diameter at mid-shaft) + ( 44.912) maximum distal epiphyseal breadth) + (0.506 9 anterior–posterior diameter at nutrient foramen) + ( 45.420) maximum length) + ( 22.302) maximum length) + (0.349 9 middle breadth) + ( 37.484)
*Values below 0 are female, above 0 male. Measurements should be in mm. † Ulna-olecranon process to radial notch length (ORL): from the most anterior projection point on the olecranon process to the interior most margin of the radial notch, Ulna-maximum breadth of the olecranon process (BOP): measured from the medial and lateral margins of the olecranon process’ articular surface at its greatest breadth, Ulna-minimum breadth of the olecranon process (MBO): measured from the medial and lateral margins of the olecranon process’ articular surface where the construction on the medial margin becomes apparent.
TABLE 3––Male and female means, standard deviations, and ANOVA results. Female
Male
ANOVA results
Measurement
N
Mean
SD
N
Mean
SD
F Stat.
p-value
Tibia max breadth of distal epiphysis Tibia ant/post diam nutrient foramen Fem max vert diam of head Ulna physiological length Humerus least circumference shaft Humerus epicondylar breadth Hum max diam of head Scapula maximum height Maximum clavicle length
32 34 34 32 33 33 32 32 35
45.06 28.88 38.71 225.86 51.63 52.21 39.31 133.56 134.09
2.30 2.28 1.70 8.03 3.23 2.78 2.91 7.37 6.37
65 78 78 46 57 64 63 41 52
51.57 34.08 44.64 253.74 60.32 59.70 45.29 153.15 151.44
3.14 2.71 2.89 18.80 4.94 4.02 3.02 8.12 9.36
108.65 95.35 124.32 62.20 81.31 91.62 85.07 113.37 91.67
PAPER ANTHROPOLOGY
M. Katherine Spradley,1 Ph.D.; Bruce E. Anderson,2,3 Ph.D.; and Meredith L. Tise,4 M.A.
Postcranial Sex Estimation Criteria for Mexican Hispanics*
ABSTRACT: Population-specific reference data are necessary for sex estimation in forensic anthropological practice. Currently, there are no population-specific data for Hispanics equivalent to data available for American Blacks and Whites. Individuals of Mexican origin represent the largest group of Hispanics in the United States (Spradley and Jantz. 2011. J Forensic Sci;56:289). This paper presents new population-specific sex estimation criteria for postcranial measurements for Mexican Hispanics. Metric data come from positively identified border-crossing fatalities at the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner and documented cemetery collections curated at Universidad Nacional Aut onoma de Mexico and Universidad Aut onoma de Yucatan. Stepwise variable selection procedures and discriminant function analyses were utilized to generate classification functions for postcrania. Sectioning points were also created for select measurements. Both the cross-validated classification rates and sectioning points achieved accuracy rates as high as 95% and 92%, respectively. These new criteria will improve sex estimation for US Mexico border crossers and Hispanics in the US.
KEYWORDS: forensic science, forensic anthropology, sex estimation, Mexico, Hispanic, identification Previous research has demonstrated a need for postcranial sex estimation criteria for two reasons: the postcranium provides the second best estimate of sex (1,2); and the pelvis is not always found within a forensic context due to taphonomic processes and/or trauma. More recently, the Scientific Working Group in Forensic Anthropology suggests that best practice in sex assessment should include sound methodologies that utilize appropriate, population-specific, and period-specific data (3). Various criteria exist for American Blacks and Whites (2,4–6); however, until recently a large, population-specific data set was not available for Hispanics. Tise et al. (7) published a paper providing new postcranial sex estimation criteria for Hispanics using data from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME). The main goal of the article was to demonstrate that using population-specific criteria improves sex estimation in Hispanics. The Tise et al. (7) article provided an important starting point; however, the preliminary criteria are derived from small sample sizes, and most of the individuals used are unidentified and presumed Hispanic with no reference to geographic origin.
1 Department of Anthropology, Texas State Univeristy, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX, 78666. 2 Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ, 85714. 3 School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Emil Haury Building, Tucson, AZ, 85721. 4 Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler, Tampa, FL, 33620. *This project was supported by Award No. 2008-DN-BX-K464, awarded by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice. Received 18 Sept. 2013; and in revised form 10 Jan. 2014; accepted 29 Jan. 2014.
© 2014 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Since the initial Tise et al. (7) publication, more data have accumulated from the PCOME and more positive identifications have been made on the border-crossing fatalities, creating a data set of positively identified individuals from Mexico. In the United States, the term Hispanic is applied to peoples from Mexico and other areas of Latin America and Europe (8). This generic term erases the diversity of languages, cultures, and nationalities of groups from these regions (9). The various geographic locations in Latin America and Europe that are considered Hispanic all have unique population histories that provide diverse population structures (10–13). When grouped by country of origin, the majority of U.S. Hispanics are from Mexico (67%), followed by Puerto Rico (9.2%), Cuba (3.7%), El Salvador (3.6%), Dominican Republic (3.0%), Guatemala (2.2%), Columbia (1.9%), Honduras (1.4%), Ecuador (1.3%), and Peru (1.2%) (14). Additional data suggest that 37% of the residents from Mexico are foreign born (1). As the majority of Hispanics in the U.S. originate from Mexico and the biological variation of many Hispanic groups is unknown, a Mexican reference sample can be considered population-specific for the majority of Hispanics in the U.S. The purpose of this paper is to provide new postcranial sex estimation criteria developed from positively identified border-crossing fatalities and twentieth century documented cemetery skeletal collections from Mexico.
Methods Reference Samples Mexican reference samples come from three sources: the PCOME, located in Tucson, Arizona, and two twentieth century Mexican cemetery collections from Zimapan, Hidalgo, and Merida, Yucatan. During a 2008–2012 large-scale data collection 1
2
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
effort, Project Identification,1 533 skeletons were measured at the PCOME. At the time of this writing 203 from Mexico are positively identified. As more skeletons are identified at the PCOME, data collected will be continually updated and submitted to the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank (FDB), and subsequently FORDISC 3.0. Data previously collected at the PCOME from the FDB (15) were included to increase sample sizes. Only positively identified individuals from Mexico are used in subsequent analyses. The Zimapan, Hidalgo cemetery collection is curated at the Universidad Nacional Aut onoma de Mexico (UNAM) in Mexico City and represents individuals with birth years spanning the early to mid-20th century. This collection resulted from a cemetery relocation project in the municipality of Zimapan. During the relocation, families donated the remains of their next of kin to UNAM if they could not afford reburial (16). The Xoclan cemetery is an overflow cemetery for the main burial ground located in Merida, Yucatan, in the state’s capital (V. Tiesler, pers. commun.). Cemetery plots in Xoclan are leased for a specific amount of time, after which the lease is renegotiated or the interred individual is moved to the overflow cemetery. In 2006, the Facultad de Ciencias Antropol ogicas (School of Anthropological Sciences) of the Universidad Aut onoma de Yucatan (UADY) began to curate a portion of the documented skeletons in need of relocation (V. Tiesler, personal communication). Of the 203 positively-identified individuals at the PCOME, only 68 (6 female, 62 male) have postcranial measurements and are used in the present analyses. As future positive identifications are made, the data set will be updated. In total, 40 postcrania were measured from Xoclan (16 female, 24 male) and 42 from Zimapan (18 female, 24 male). Each individual in the PCOME sample may only have a few measurements due to incomplete recoveries and taphonomic events. Therefore, the total sample sizes presented in analyses that follow are reduced. Standard postcranial metric data were collected following the definitions outlined in Moore-Jansen et al. (17) and recorded in mm. Additional postcranial measurements outlined in Zobeck (18) were included to determine whether or not those additional measurements better capture sexual dimorphism useful in sex estimation. In cases where the left side was missing a measurement, the value for the right side was substituted when available. Analyses To provide new population-specific criteria for sex estimation, both multivariate and univariate methods were performed. A discriminant function analysis (DFA) was employed to generate classification functions for each long bone, clavicle, scapula, and calcaneus. A stepwise discriminant analysis (STEPDISC) was performed in SAS 9.3 (19) using the Wilks’ lambda criterion and an alpha of 0.05 to find the best subset of variables, per individual bone, for discrimination of sex. The stepwise selected variables were then run in a DFA for each bone to generate Mahalanobis D2 and cross-validated classification rates. The STEPDISC process was run using both standard measurements and Zobeck measurements. To generate sectioning points, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was run on all postcranial measurements. The F-statistic was then used to assess which measurements exhibited the most 1
National Institute of Justice Award No. 2008-DN-BX-K464.
sexual size dimorphism. Descriptive statistics were then obtained for the most dimorphic measurements, and sectioning points were calculated by taking the average of the male and female means, per measurement, and dividing by two. For each sectioning point, the male and female sample size, mean, and standard deviation of each measurement are provided along with the F-statistic and associated p-value, as well as the overall cross-validated classification rate from a DFA. All analyses were performed in SAS 9.3 (2002–2010) (19). A test sample of 22 individuals (20 male and 2 female) from the PCOME was used to test the classification functions derived from the DFA and the sectioning points. Of the 22 individuals, only two are positively identified and are from Mexico. The remaining sample has known sex through DNA and these individuals fit within the biological and cultural profiles for migrant fatalities (20). The small size of the test sample is a result of the availability of the data. It took the first author 5 years to collect sample sizes large enough to statistically analyze. Furthermore, most border-crossers are male, between the ages of 18 and 40 (21) resulting in disproportionate number of males and females. The classification rates and posterior probabilities are provided for the classification functions. The overall classification accuracy is provided for the sectioning points. Results DFA results using the standard measurements indicate that the scapula provides the highest classification rate of 95.55%. The femur, tibia, radius, and clavicle provide classification rates that meet or exceed 90%. The lowest classification rate, from the fibula, is 80.36%. Table 1 provides sample sizes, Mahalanobis D2, female and male cross-validated classification rates, and overall classification rates. The stepwise selected measurements are provided in Table 2 along with classification functions. For the long bones, only the length measurements were found significant for inclusion in the DFA for the radius, fibula, and ulna, with the radius exhibiting the most size dimorphism and the fibula the least. The femur, tibia, and humerus exhibit the most size dimorphism based on joint surfaces rather than length. Femoral distal epiphyseal breadth, head diameter, and medio-lateral mid-shaft diameter provide a cross-validated classification rate of 93%. Tibia distal epiphyseal breadth and maximum nutrient foramen diameter provide a classification rate of 91.5%. The Zobeck measurements found significant in the stepwise discriminant analyses are associated with the scapula, radius, ulna, and femur (see Table 2). For these particular bones, classifications improved for the radius and ulna, although the Mahalanobis D2 increased for all bones. The radius classification rate
TABLE 1––Sample sizes, means, standard deviations, and cross-validated classification rates for Mexican Hispanics by skeletal element. Bone Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Fibula Calcaneus
Female n
Male n
D2
Female %
Male %
Overall %
35 31 32 35 32 27 32 32 22
52 41 60 53 46 64 65 56 30
5.19 8.30 6.00 4.95 3.64 6.20 6.56 2.27 4.39
91.43 93.55 90.63 94.29 90.63 100 96.88 87.5 90.91
86.54 97.56 85.00 86.79 71.74 85.94 86.15 73.21 73.33
88.99 95.55 87.82 90.54 81.19 92.97 91.52 80.36 82.12
KATHERINE SPRADLEY ET AL.
.
SEX ESTIMATION FOR MEXICAN HISPANICS
3
TABLE 2––Stepwise selected variables and classification functions for Mexican Hispanics.* Bone Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Ulna† Femur Tibia Fibula Calcaneus
Classification Function* (0.214 (0.233 (0.306 (0.070 (0.104 (0.641 (0.153 (0.612 (0.067 (0.323
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
maximum length) + (0.586 9 anterior–posterior diameter) + ( 36.980) height) + (0.322 9 breadth) + ( 64.974) epiphyseal breadth) + (0.385 9 maximum head diameter) + (0.534 9 minimum diameter mid-shaft) + ( 41.584) maximum length) + (1.466 9 anterior–posterior diameter mid-shaft) + ( 31.026) maximum length) + (0.310 9 dorso-volor diameter mid-shaft) + ( 29.136) ORL) + (0.417 9 BOP) + (0.517 9 MBO) + ( 40.919) epiphyseal breadth) + (0.589 9 maximum head diameter) + (0.355 9 medio-lateral diameter at mid-shaft) + ( 44.912) maximum distal epiphyseal breadth) + (0.506 9 anterior–posterior diameter at nutrient foramen) + ( 45.420) maximum length) + ( 22.302) maximum length) + (0.349 9 middle breadth) + ( 37.484)
*Values below 0 are female, above 0 male. Measurements should be in mm. † Ulna-olecranon process to radial notch length (ORL): from the most anterior projection point on the olecranon process to the interior most margin of the radial notch, Ulna-maximum breadth of the olecranon process (BOP): measured from the medial and lateral margins of the olecranon process’ articular surface at its greatest breadth, Ulna-minimum breadth of the olecranon process (MBO): measured from the medial and lateral margins of the olecranon process’ articular surface where the construction on the medial margin becomes apparent.
TABLE 3––Male and female means, standard deviations, and ANOVA results. Female
Male
ANOVA results
Measurement
N
Mean
SD
N
Mean
SD
F Stat.
p-value
Tibia max breadth of distal epiphysis Tibia ant/post diam nutrient foramen Fem max vert diam of head Ulna physiological length Humerus least circumference shaft Humerus epicondylar breadth Hum max diam of head Scapula maximum height Maximum clavicle length
32 34 34 32 33 33 32 32 35
45.06 28.88 38.71 225.86 51.63 52.21 39.31 133.56 134.09
2.30 2.28 1.70 8.03 3.23 2.78 2.91 7.37 6.37
65 78 78 46 57 64 63 41 52
51.57 34.08 44.64 253.74 60.32 59.70 45.29 153.15 151.44
3.14 2.71 2.89 18.80 4.94 4.02 3.02 8.12 9.36
108.65 95.35 124.32 62.20 81.31 91.62 85.07 113.37 91.67
