Portfolios: An ‘affective’ assessment strategy? Sally Glen and Norman

F Hight

The curriculum research and development work undertaken to facilitate the implementation of a portfolio assessment strategy, as an integral component of a Project 2000 course, is described. Many excellent assessment schemes have floundered at the point of being put in to use, thus the question of consultation, reflection and preparation needs to figure from the early stages if the scheme is to be successful. This should include in-service education for nurse and midwifery educators and preparation of students. The principle questions explored in the paper are: What educational values do portfolios have? Against what criteria should students make decisions in relation to content? Against what criteria are educators to assess portfolios? The issue of evaluation of portfolio schemes is likely to determine whether portfolios maintain the important place they have captured in the nursing and midwifery education imagination. Finally, it is argued that innovations, such as portfolios, should be seen as catalysts, as points of departure, rather than as things to be implemented.

INTRODUCTION Within nursing and midwifery education there is an upsurge of interest in the use of portfolios (ENB 1990; Oeschsle & Volden 1990; UKCC 1990; Volden, Lambeth & Oeschsle 1989). Knapp (1975) defines a portfolio as: a file or folder of information which has been accumulated about a student’s past experiences and accomplishments . . . can be the vehicle for organising and distilling raw prior experiences into a manageable form for ass-

Sally Glen MA Dip Ed RGN RNT, School of Education and Health Studies, South Bank University, London SE1 OAA, UK and Norman F Hight RMN Dip N RGN RNT, The North West London College of Nursing and Midwifery, London, UK (Requests for offprints to SG) Manuscript accepted 1 July 1992 416

essment . . a process by which prior experiences can be translated into educational outcomes or competencies, documents and assessed for academic credit or recognition. Portfolios with their associated norms of ‘ipsative’ reference, negotiation and participation form a loose and untested constellation of innovative projects (for example, journals, diaries and profiles) which are becoming integral components of preand post-registration courses. This paper is the authors’ response to the need for a more rational and critical examination of portfolios as a form of assessment. The principle questions addressed are: What educational values do portfolios have? Against what criteria should students make decisions in relation to content? Against what criteria are educators to assess portfolios?

NURSE EDWATION

The stance adopted knowledge

here is that until we have the

for improving

assessment

identifies evaluates

strategies,

4 17

TODAY

resources for learning, and learning outcomes. Learning is

based on a data-base and evaluative information,

conceptualised

nurse and midwifery

tory, life-long process resulting in increase in perception and/or change behaviour.

educators

should proceed

cautiously.

Most nursing

WHAT EDUCATIONAL PORTFOLIOS HAVE? It is becoming formal

more

preparation

midwifery

VALUES DO

for work

to learn about themselves, interaction

with other

own ways of handling

importance students

(1991)

in nursing

and

ments are required

for students

about their styles of and about

significant

to the

plistic premise

out

personal

is to orient

gressivist’ ideology. student

points

influenced

of

a ‘pro-

an oversim-

while the view of the

way of thinking,

be described

to attach

towards

as an adult (androgogy)

humanistic

1991).

that

This is perhaps

because

their

experiences

development

teaching

ideology,

by behaviourists,

gists and cognitive theorists

is based on a

and therefore

as a Progressivist

Gestalt

might it is also

psycholo-

(Darkenwald

& Mer-

riam 1982). Much recent practice in nursing and midwifery education is prone to cite the ‘theory of andragogy’ introduced by Lindeman (1926) and more recently

Knowles

and the ‘person-centred identified

The underlying of documenting four assumptions (Knowles 1975). The student

(1975,

approach’

by Kogers (1977,

1978,

to learning

basis for the portfolio regarding

method

is found

in the

the adult learner

challenging. are:

The readiness to learn develops tasks and problems demonstrates

are a rich from life

curiosity

and is

self-motivated to grow and achieve. The self-directed learner is therefore seen as one who diagnoses

her/his learning

needs,

an in

courses

tedness

..

review

of

influence. context.

(1986)

for maintaining

cultures

. . . and a

throughout

the

world

are rigid and

of individual

empha-

options.

is less likely to be allowed

in a rigid, traditional

The nursing profession light. Attempts

and

that self-direc-

and they place a primary

sis on the subjugation

prosper

or

Environ-

rarity

reveals that most social structures

Self-directedness

be an

warns that there

is an empirical

hierarchical

To

educator

that are both supportive

Brookfield

cultural

to

setting.

is often viewed in such a

to introduce

portfolios

are more

likely to succeed if they recognise the interdependence of individual actors and their institutional settings and address the ‘social’ as well as the ‘material’

realities

and barriers

within

the

institutions’ unique culture (Table 1). A very over-simple diagram of learning contained

in Kolb’s (1984) learning

is

cycle (Fig. 1).

Whilst Kolb’s cycle is not an accurate reflection the

learning

process,

it contains

some

of

of its

essential elements and it is important to note that in all of these instances learning begins with experience.

That experience in the placement

any situation

is self-directed

diploma

self-initiated a certain

good ground

classroom

The student’s past experiences resource for learning

The student

1980)

1983).

prior learning

requires

student

related to health and illness (Beattie Pendleton

rhetorical

reflective,

that

about their personal

people

not just

active, recognised

needs to make provision

values, about their feelings,

and midwifery

participa-

advocate the development of self-initiated learning. However, this aspiration requires structural force,

widely

as a self-initiated,

Carlos

might occur in the or life experience

might be a learning

Casteneda

(1990)

notes,

situation. ‘The

As

world

doesn’t yield to us directly: the description of the world stands in between’. The experience itself merely provides learning opportunities, what individuals learn from the experience depends on how they internalise and build on the learning opportunities

present.

fessional

is a function

learning

The

student’s

pro-

of her ability to

418

NURSEEDUCATIONTODAY

Table 1 Two realities of colleges of nursing and midwifery The Arena Material structures

The Action Social structures

Level 3

The policy environment Department of Health Region Board National Board

The ‘social environment’ Local community

Level 2

The Theatre College organisation Policy and curriculum

The atmosphere College ethos or climate

Level 1

The script Learning tasks

The performance Transactions, perceptions and predispositions

First order reality Intended curriculum revealed by systems analysis

Second order reality Perceived curriculum revealed by ethnographic study

develop qualities of the ‘reflective

practitioner’.

biased understanding ing them

from

of human

different

The development of these qualities requires the cultivation of meta-cognitive skills and these can

logue, according

be developed

being open to conversion

through

and autobiographical lios, journals Portfolios assessment

and

Dialogue

the

curriculum

student

merits

terms in constantly reminding learning is a two-way process. process the comments

separation

because

between

has clear

such as portfo-

they

of are

and educa-

not

The student

answer to every question’ and acquire a more tentative perception of knowledge, one that will

of the

from a person

degenerate

1968). and

The

enable

a resource

to assist

the student critically to reflect on her experience and possibilities for future development. Dialogue has as its focus the expansion of an individual’s understanding of her own achievements and aspirations and by extension, of her goals.

In other

of knowledge

her to regard

of the

a situation

associated

with reflective

formed

and constituted

words

practice

are

in part by

TExpefie “\ Active Experimentation

Reflective Observation

the

The insights or understandings which emerge ‘go beyond’ the student’s previous ideas. Gadamer (1975) defines dialogue as a process one’s own partial

abilities and

Concrete

student extends her own ideas by bringing them into a dialectical relationship with other People’s.

of deepening

from its multi-

aspects. The metacognitive

themselves

‘one correct

lose its

cutting edge, however. Kather at best it should be a ‘critical dialogue’, a collaborative process, in

the setting

has to grow out of her ‘absolute’

students that Within such a

(Peters

which the teacher constitutes

under-

perception

capacities

should

of a situation by bring-

standing.

with authority dialogue

points of

and extending

ing it into a dialectic with an alternative

faceted

authority

to alternative

in educational

and the reflections

as well as coming

of view. Dia-

is not a matter of

view. It is a matter of deepening

teacher are more likely to be seen as being vested who has formal

to Gadamer,

one’s own understanding

and diaries. also challenge

based on dialogue tor.

the use of biographical techniques

acts by explor-

points

and inevitably

\

Abstract

rJ

Conceptualisation Figure Kolb’s learning cycle

NURSE EDUCA1‘ION

TODAY

4 19

Table 2 Examples of the application of the affective taxonomy to portfolios The process of internalisation commences with receiving and responding and progresses to characterisation. Receiving and responding The two lowest sub-categories interview. For example:

of the affective domain would hopefully be determined

during the selection

The candidate is attracted to nursing as a career and has some consciousness of the depth and scope of her choice. Value At the end of the Common

Foundation

Programme

one of the criteria could be, for example:

She has a continuing desire to develop her ability to deliver nursing care effectively. Characterisation To successfully meet the summative assessment criteria at the end of the branch programme, might demonstrate evidence of the following affective objectives. For example: 1. Demonstrate 2. Demonstrate 3. Demonstrate

the student

a willingness to revise judgements and to change her behaviours in the light of evidence. a willingness to be a respondent of change. a commitment to her continuing personal and professional development.

social interaction. A central thesis of liberalism, that of an individualistic psychology, has recently been challenged by theorists such as Vygotsky (Wertsch 1985; Williams 1989). In Vygotsky’s view, development occurs only in and through the social interaction between people. A special intersubjective learning relationship makes development possible. If this social interactive dimension is neglected, it is probably close to inevitable that portfolios will have little formative effect in the way of facilitating the process of ‘internalisation’ (Bloom, Krathwohl, Masia et al 1964) (Table 2). It is fair, however to ask the question: What conditions have to be satisfied in order for a dialogue to be sustained which I) provides for informed critical questions to be put which rest on alternative viewpoints and 2) encourages the student to put their views in a non-threatening and non-defensive way, such that 3) it is a learning process for both student and teacher (cf. Habermas’ notion of ‘an ideal speech situation’; Habermas 1976; Hart 1985; McCarthy 1978). This is the ideal to which portfolios aspire, even if they sometimes fall short. Internalisation is the growth that occurs as the students become aware of and then adopt attitudes, principles, codes and sanctions that are basic to their personal and professional judge-

ment and guide their personal and professional behaviour. Indicators of the process of internationalisation (i.e. professional socialisation) facilitate the identification of criteria against which the portfolio can be assessed. (Table 2 illustrates examples of how criteria can be related to indicators of internalisation). Assessment and curriculum therefore become part of an integrated whole and assessment serves fully the personal developmental purposes of the curriculum - recognition at least that internalisation and student development concern the dissolution of the personal and professional divide. The need to become aware of and then adopt a much wider held of-persona1 and professional beliefs and practices to become a more rounded, and hence a better nurse, becomes important. One might argue that one ought always to be required to ask of assessment strategies how they advance the personal and professional development of the student and whether the ones which are employed are chosen and administered so as to maximise their possible contribution to that development. It is not always, however, an easy principle to apply. What constitutes personal and professional development is in itself deeply problematic.

420

NURSE EDUCATION

TODAY

Table 3 Affective objectives and associated verbs Bloom’s classification

Associated verbs

Receiving Responding Value Organisation Characterisation

Listen; accept; attend; perceive; be aware state; select; answer; write; derive accept; increase; particiapte; attain; decide Relate; associate; find; form; select Change, demonstrate; judge, identify; decide

AGAINST WHAT CRITERIA SHOULD STUDENTS MAKE DECISIONS IN RELATION TO CONTEXT

AGAINST WHAT CRITERIA ARE EDUCATORS TO ASSESS PORTFOLIOS?

In the recent literature portfolios are an effective

Rowntree

Many authors

to facilitate reflection

on practice (Richert

The selection of content and promote

1990).

should therefore

the ongoing

a critical, reflective

it is suggested that mechanism designed reflect

development

practitioner

(Schon

institutional reflections educator

and comments

in

placements; in relation

highlighting

perceived

and needs and the teacher’s comments perceptions

of

strengths

and

work, including

comments

by teachers

facilitation

of

learning.

to

strengths as to their

needs,

course and self

Bloom

of educational

sought

and complexity.

to arrange

ciated

most

might be written.

The

of ‘internalisation’

‘affective cational

domain objectives’

their optimum foundation

of

relationships

in Table

(UKCC 1990) as a concept (rather than a policy) for the developments of nursing and midwifery practice.

the

taxonomy

hier-

of

through

a common is illustrated

of the application to

edu-

et al 1964) and

and branch programme

illustrated

leagues also offers nurse and midwifery educators a tool to grasp the framework of PREPP

of the affective

to add the dimension

(Krathwohl

on the outcomes

and professional values and norms and the development of self assessment and evaluation skills. Self-reflection and reflection with col-

the asso-

in which objectives

to provide a meaningful

taxonomy

can potentially bring about the of a critical awareness of personal

1964).

by levels

archical structure (Krathwohl et al 1964). The sequence of categories and subcategories of the

2. Examples

of action and persona1 diaries.

cited is that

objectives

authors

domain found it necessary

affective

plans

objectives

to be the simplest:

verbs are the terms

in Table

of actions and subsequent

for

In Table 3 those at the top of the

list are supposed

assessment and peer review in some instances; learning contracts, proposed actions, reflections

Portfolios development

The

written by Bloom and his associates (1956,

personal and course objectives and learning outcomes. This might include self-assessment by the student,

the

1962;

of educational of teaching and

1983).

by the student and the

on the student’s progress

the specification and use objectives for the organisation

Mager

persuasively

classification

on experience

and non-institutional and comments

et al 1956;

have argued

towards

Content might therefore include: personal aims (and their continuing modification); course aims; reflection

(Bloom

1974)

portfolios

are

of the also

2.

Affective objectives have long-range importance involving as they do, not whether a student can, but whether she wants to and does behave in a professionally desirable way. Specifying affective outcomes (e.g. attitudes, interests, values, commitments, etc.) are as important within the context of professional education, as specifying cognitive

or psychomotor

and Clayton (1988)

outcomes.

As Bevis

note:

Perhaps the fact that nursing has practice as its

NURSE EDUCATION

most important aspect necessitates that, that very practice be viewed not just as a set of behaviours but as thoughts, feelings, perceptions, insights, ways of being, ways of knowing, intuitions, attitudes, longings, dreams, hopes, visions, and values. One might argue that nursing is essentially a moral practice aimed at the realisation of values, not so much as an extrinsic outcome of an activity, but within the form of the activity itself. Affective outcomes therefore constitute legitimate nursing and midwifery educational outcomes in themselves. Furthermore, how a student feels about the art and science of nursing and midwifery and their commitment to lifelong learning may be as important as how much they achieve. Bloom’s work has been subjected to frequent criticism mainly on the grounds of lack of conceptual clarity (@me11 1974; Peters 1969). Moreover, Bloom himself recognises that the distinction between cognitive and affective is a convenient artifact, and that thinking and feeling are closely interwoven in human behaviour. Finally, one might argue that actions not behaviour, are the raw data, so raw that we cannot assume that we know precisely how to conceptualise them to make them accessible to assessment. However, Bloom’s work has proved for us a valuable first step in an attempt to provide structure in the amorphous area of facilitating the development of portfolios with Project 2000 students.

PREPARATION FOR IMPLEMENTATION Many excellent assessment schemes have foundered at the point of being put into use (Broadfoot 1987). The question of implementation of a portfolio scheme needs to figure right from the early stages of discussion and design if the scheme is to be successful. This includes in-service education for nurse and midwifery educators and preparation of students.

TODAY

42 1

In-service education (INSET) A combination of approaches is probably most helpful. Our experience suggests that provision of workshops and participation practical exercises and activities has provided most useful insight and preparation and the to many of the difficulties associated with introduction of portfolios.

the the in the key the

Preparation of students In the long run, preparing students for a rather different role in the assessment process than they are possibly used to is likely to be just as important to the eventual educational success of the scheme as preparing the staff who will operate it (Ruddock 199 1). Again, our experience has demonstrated the need to consider the above issues before implementing a portfolio scheme of assessment. Any attempt to skimp on the process of consultation, reflection and preparation of educators and students is likely to result in a scheme which does not achieve its goal, either because it is faulty in its design or because it does not enjoy the support of all members of staff and students.

Evaluation The need to evaluate the success of any attempt at innovation may seem dull in comparison with the down to earth concerns discussed so far. Nevertheless, the issues evaluation address are likely to prove the most fundamental of all in the long term to determine whether portfolios maintain the important place they have captured in education and midwifery the nursing imagination. Unless portfolio schemes of assessment are flexible enough to respond to changing needs and circumstances; unless they can win professional and public acceptability and unless they form a coherent whole with other developments in assessment and accreditation, within nursing and midwifery education, the enthusiasm on which portfolios depend will rapidly succumb to the erosion of time and disillusion.

422

NURSE EDUCATION

The paper

TODAY

view that the proposals outlined in this are an interim statement requiring a

considerable

amount of continuing

and fine tuning. data

base

informed

We recognise

and

evaluative

development.

‘To draw attention

modification

the need (1982)

continuing

for notes:

to its full range of function

CONCLUSION

we

may define “evaluation”

broadly as the collection

Portfolios

and use of information

to make decisions

resent

involves

the

about

are

potentially

the search

about changes,

an educational programme.’ As the word itself implies, ably

process of review and evaluation.

for a

information

Cronbach

scheme has been launched. It is necessary to subject the scheme’s operation and impact to a

evaluation

formulation

of

inevit-

particular

nursing

assess students,

in the way they develop students.

be made. Thus any evaluation requires a clear specification of assessment criteria which will

facilitate

allow a judgement to be made as to whether those goals have been achieved. These require-

tions such as portfolios

ments may be expressed

things to be implemented.

as three key questions

points

-

What are our objectives

-

folios? How do we know when we achieved

in instituting

If we are not achieving

portthese?

them, what are the

reasons?

decisions.

of departure

rather

catalysts

the vulnerability

of nursing

is a form of formative

work. It is difficult

Striven

(1967) is

notes: to

‘The

role

discover

stand

portfolio

-

That

about

process

development. could

Involvement the inherent

An

potentially

the process

behaviour

of

-

of

teachers

successful

action-research facilitate

and

in action research task of professional a dialectic

That it will reveal actual outcomes intended ones

the

the

students. will serve work, i.e. between as against

That it will lead to decision-making.

Therefore

the need

and consultation

for discussion,

reforms,

temporary,

can be

and midwifery

time

pressures

decision

makers

of potential happen.

under

given the political and which

for nursing

to become

solutions,

edu-

quick fixes

but

they

constantly

and midwifery

‘critical consumers’ this is what

must

to under-

will postively change

development through practice and reflection -

major

as

process

would come

the

and

version.’

part of an action-research

more

approach following:

of formative

deficiencies

successes in the intermediate and students

and as

than

term change. The problem of seeking innovations as solutions is particularly acute because of

research

By being

rather

even

innova-

best be seen as

cational decision makers to apparent

evaluation

- they

than aids to more basic long-

or other specific solutions,

educators

and relate to

In this sense,

innovations,

of

basis for curriculum

because they are by definition diversions

rep-

but also

are formative

should

One can seek answers to the above questions within an action-research framework. Action-

evaluation

curricula

purposes

a more informed

Finally,

which need to be answered:

-

Such

development

They

ways of bringing

not only in the way colleges

and midwifery

may

criteria or values against which ajudgement

catalytic.

for better

reflection

does not finish once a portfolio

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge and thank those teachers within North West London College of Nursing and Midwifery who formulated the concept of portfolio and incorporated it into the ‘Diploma of Nursing and Kegistration as a Nurse’ assessment profile. We owe them a considerable debt as it is upon their work which we have built. We would also like to thank Ursula Cowell for permission to publish.

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NUKSE EDU(:ATION

Bloom B, Krathwohl D, Masia B (eds) 1964 Taxonomy of educational objectives, vol. II. Longman, London. Broadfoot P 1987 Introducing profiling: a practical manual. MacMillan, London. Brookfield SD I986 Understanding and facilitating adult learning. Open University Press, Milton Keynes Castenada C 1990 Tales of power. Harmondsworth. Arkana (;ronbdch LJ 1982 Issues in planning evaluation. In: Cronbach LJ (ed) Designing evaluations of educational and social programmes. ,Jones Bass, San Francisco Darjenwald G, Merrian S 1982 Adult education foundation of practice. Harper and Row. New York Elliot J 1989 Appraisal of performance on persons. In: Simons H, Elliot J (eds) Rethinking appraisal and assessment. Open University Press, Milton Keynes English National Board for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting 1990 A new structure for professional development. ENB, London Gadamer HG 1975 Truth and method. Sheed and Ward, London Habermas J I971 Knowledge and human interests (Translated by.JJ Shapiro). Beacon Press, Boston Habermas J (1979) Communication and the evolution of society (Translated by T McCarthy). Beacon Press, Boston Hart M 1985 Thermalisdtion of power, the search fin common interests and self reflection: towards a comprehensive concept of emancipatory education. International Journal of Lifelong Education 4: I I7134. Knapp J 1975 A guide to assessing prior experience through portfolios. Educational Testing Service Cooperation Assessment of Experiential Learning 2 Knowles MS 1975 Self-directed learning: a guide for learners and teachers. Follet, Chicago Knowles MS 1978 The adult learner: a neglected species (2nd ed). Gulf, Houston Knowles MS 1980 The modern practice of adults education: from pedagogy to andragogy. Follet, Chicago Lindemann E 1926 The meaning of adult education. New Republic, New York Mager RF (1962) Preparing instructional objectives. Fearon, Belmont, California McCarthy T 1978 The critical theory of .Jurgen Habermas. Hutchinson, London

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Portfolios: an 'affective' assessment strategy?

The curriculum research and development work undertaken to facilitate the implementation of a portfolio assessment strategy, as an integral component ...
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