Environmental Letters
ISSN: 0013-9300 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lesa17
Poisonous Red Tide Organisms Edward J. Schantz To cite this article: Edward J. Schantz (1975) Poisonous Red Tide Organisms, Environmental Letters, 9:3, 225-237, DOI: 10.1080/00139307509435851 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00139307509435851
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Date: 09 November 2015, At: 17:59
ENn~ONPiENTALLETTERS, 9 (3) , 225-237 (1975)
POISONOUS RED TIDE ORGANISMS
xey
words: t o x i n , poison, r e d t i d e , r e d water, d i n o f l a g e l l a t e , s h e l l f i s h poison Edward J. Schantz University of Wisconsin, Food Research I n s t i t u t e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
Madison, IJisconsin 53706
Introduction
A r e d t i d e , sometimes c a l l e d red water, is t h e
r e s u l t of a n excessive growth o r bloom of microscopic plankton giving t h e water a red-brown appearance due t o t h e pigments contained i n t h e organisms.
The organisms t h a t produce red
t i d e s a r e mainly t h e f l a g e l l a t e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s , of which t h e r e are many s p e c i e s .
These organisms
along w i t h o t h e r microscopic plankton of t h e s e a s e r v e as food f o r s h e l l f i s h , many s p e c i e s of small f i s h and even some mammals such a s c e r t a i n whales.
A few s p e c i e s of dinoflagel-
l a t e s produce deadly poisons t h a t accumulate i n s h e l l f i s h and t h e s e s h e l l f i s h ' a r e consumed by people, s i c k n e s s and
3 .i
result.
Some of t h e s e s p e c i e s , when they bloom t o r e d
-->portions, cause massive f i s h k i l l s t h a t p o l l u t e t h e
4 beaches.
Aerosols from some of t h e s e r e d t i d e s
.se i r r i t a t i o n of t h e t h r o a t and lungs of persons
225 q r i g h t 0 1975 by hlarcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. h'either this work nor any part Y be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical. including Photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, xithout permission in writing from the publisher.
S CHANT2
226
l i v i n g along t h e coast.
It s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t however
t h a t many s p e c i e s o f m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s t h r o u g h o u t t h e seas o f t h e w o r l d bloom t o r e d t i d e p r o p o r t i o n s i n t h e normal c y c l e o f e v e n t s and c a u s e no damage. The p u r p o s e of t h i s p a p e r i s t o d e s c r i b e (1) the poisonous organisms t h a t c a u s e t h e d e s t r u c t i v e r e d t i d e s (2) t h e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
p o i s o n s t h e y p r o d u c e a n d t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e p o i s o n s on p e o p l e and (3) t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e red tides.
POISONOUS DINOFLAGELLATES The d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s are m i c r o s c o p i c p l a n k t o n t h a t r a n g e from a few m i c r o n s t o o v e r a hundred m i c r o n s i n d i a m e t e r and i n h a b i t b o t h f r e s h and m a r i n e waters.
Most of
them are a b l e t o m a n u f a c t u r e t h e i r own food by p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , b u t many r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l performed o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s f o r growth and r e p r o d u c t i o n .
These o r g a n i s m s r e p r o d u c e by a s e x u a l
d i v i s i o n and some s p e c i e s form c h a i n s of 2 o r 4 and sometimes
8 cells.
During t h e non-reproductive p e r i o d s t h e s e organisms
p r o b a b l y exist a s c y s t s and i t i s presumably i n t h i s s t a g e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e f o r l o n g p e r i o d s of t i m e . Growth and r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s l i k e t h a t of o t h e r m a r i n e p l a n k t o n , depend on a n a n n u a l c y c l e of e v e n t s t o produce t h e r i g h t combination o f temperature, s a l i n i t y , i l l u m i n a t i o n and pH a l o n g w i t h t h e v a r i o u s growth and trace e l e m e n t s i n t h e water.
I f t h e c o n d i t i o n s become optimum f o r
227 a particular dinoflagellate,
t h e rate of re p ro d u c tio n i n c r e a s e s
r a p i d l y and a bloom i s s a i d t o o c c u r .
The g e n e r a t i o n t i m e i s
normally 1 o r 2 d a y s and a bloom w i l l u s u a l l y r e a c h i t s maximum i n 2 t o 3 weeks depending upon c o n d i t i o n s .
and d i s a p p e a r i n a n o t h e r week o r two.
It w i l l d i e o f f
Blooms t h a t r e a c h a con-
c e n t r a t i o n o f a b o u t 20,000 cell/ml o r more f o r t h e smaller c e l l s
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
g i v e t h e water a r e d o r brown a p p e a r a n c e , depending o n t h e pigments i n t h e s p e c i e s .
T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s known a s a r e d t i d e and
c e l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n found a s h i g h a s 50,00O/ml and higher.
The e x a c t c o n d i t i o n s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
bloom and how t h e y are e s t a b l i s h e d i s n o t known.
Such f a c t o r s
a s u p w e l l i n g s from t h e sea bottom, d r a i n a g e from t h e l a n d , and p r e v i o u s blooms a p p e a r t o p l a y i m p o r t a n t p a r t s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r blooms.
Elany
blooms are s t r o n g l y p h o s p h o r e s c e n t and a t n i g h t c a n b e s e e n f o r miles where t h e waves b r e a k t h e s u r f a c e of t h e water. The known d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s t h a t p r o d u c e p o i s o n a r e m a i n l y t h o s e o f m a r i n e o r i g i n and a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e I a l o n g w i t h t h e i r o b s e r v e d l o c a t i o n and b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s . Three s p e c i e s o f Gonyaulax, namely c a t e n e l l a , a c a t e n e l l a and t a m a r e n s i s produce a d e a d l y p a r a l y t i c p o i s o n t h a t accumul a t e s i n t h e d a r k g l a n d o r h e p a t o p a n c r e a s o f most s h e l l f i s h and i n t h e s i p h o n s o f some clams when t h e y f e e d o n t h e s e organisms.
The p o i s o n d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o a f f e c t t h e p h y s i o l o g y
of t h e s h e l l f i s h .
When t h e bloom o f t h e p o i s o n o u s o r g a n i s m s
S W T Z
228
TABLE I
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
Known P o i s o n o u s D i n o f l a g e l l a t e s o f t h e World
Dinof l a g e l l a t e Species
Observed Location
Biological Effect
Gonyaulax c a t e n e l l a
North P a c i f i c coasts
Causes p a r a l y t i c s h e l l f i s h poisoning
Gonyaulax a c a t e n e l l a
Coast of B r i t i s h Columbia
G.
Gunyaulax t a m a r e n s i s
North A t l a n t i c c o a s t s ; N o r t h Sea
G.
Gonyaulax p o l y e d r a
Coast of Southern California
P a r a l y t i c poison, no s h e l l f i s h poisoning
Gonyaulax m o n i l a t a
Gulf c o a s t of United S t a t e s
Toxic t o f i s h
Pyrodinium phoneus
North Sea
Similar to catenella
Gymnodinium b r e v e
Gulf c o a s t o f Florida
C i g u a tera-1 i k e poisoning
Gymnodinium veneficum
E n g l i s h Channel
T o x i c t o f i s h and m i c e ; no s h e l l f i s h poisoning
Similar t o catenella
.
Similar t o catenella
c.
r e c e d e s t h e s h e i l f i s h g r a d u a l l y d e s t r o y o r excrete t h e p o i s o n w i t h i n a p e r i o d o f a week o r two.
One e x c e p t i o n i s t h e A l a s k a
b u t t e r clam which a c c u m u l a t e s t h e p o i s o n i n t h e s i p h o n and r e q u i r e s a y e a r o r more t o r i d i t s e l f o f t h e p o i s o n .
I f these
POISONOUS
TIDE ORGANISM
229
clams were exposed t o a n n u a l blooms o f t h e p o i s o n o u s o r g a n i s m s , they would remain p o i s o n o u s f o r l o n g p e r i o d s .
G.
c a t e n e l l a i s t h e predominant p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
along t h e n o r t h w e s t P a c i f i c c o a s t o f N o r t h America and h a s caused m u s s e l s and clams t o become p o i s o n o u s i n c e r t a i n a r e a s
of t h e c o a s t from c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a t o J a p a n .
g.
acatenella
has been found i n areas a l o n g the c o a s t of B r i t i s h Columbia and
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
h a s caused clams i n t h i s area t o become p o i s o n o u s .
5.
tamaren-
sis i s t h e predominant p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e a l o n g t h e n o r t h e a s t A t l a n t i c c o a s t of N o r t h America and t h e c o a s t s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s b o r d e r i n g on the N o r t h Sea and h a s c a u s e d clams and mussels t o become p o i s o n o u s i n t h e s e areas. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s and
s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n w a s f i r s t o b s e r v e d by D r . Herman S o m e r and h i s associates'
a t t h e University of C a l i f o r n i a during a n out-
b r e a k of p o i s o n i n g i n p e o p l e caused by e a t i n g s e a m u s s e l s c o l l e c t e d n e a r San F r a n c i s c o i n 1927.
These i n v e s t i g a t o r s
discovered that a p a r t i c u l a r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e w a s present i n t h e w a t e r a r o u n d t h e m u s s e l b e d s a t t h e t i m e when t h e m u s s e l s were p o i s o n o u s and found t h a t water s o l u b l e e x t r a c t s of t h e s e
organisms k i l l e d m i c e w i t h s i g n s of p o i s o n i n g e x a c t l y l i k e t h o s e caused by extracts o f t h e p o i s o n o u s m u s s e l s . d i s c o v e r y of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of
5.
The
c a t e n e l l a t o poisonous
s h e l l f i s h w a s f o l l o w e d by s i m i l a r d i s c o v e r i e s of o t h e r organisms t h a t c a u s e s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g .
Koch2 r e p o r t e d i n
1939 t h a t Pyrodinium phoneus was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e extreme
sCHAN
230 t o x i c i t y o f Belgium m u s s e l s .
N e e d l e r 3 and P r a k a s h 4 l a t e r
r e p o r t e d t h a t the p o i s o n i n s c a l l o p s i n t h e Bay o f Fundy and
i n clams a l o n g t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t o f America w a s c a u s e d by a n o t h e r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e Gonyaulax t a m a r e n s i s .
This organisn
w a s i m p l i c a t e d a s t h e c a u s e of r e c e n t o u t b r e a k s o f s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g a l o n g t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t o f England i n t h e e a r l y summer of 1968 and severe o u t b r e a k s a l o n g t h e c o a s t o f New
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
England i n t h e f a l l o f 1972 and t h e s p r i n g o f 1974. and T a y l o r 5 r e p o r t e d i n 1966 t h a t f i s h poisoning.
5.
Prakash
a c a t e n e l l a caused s h e l l -
Halstead6 h a s published a d e t a i l e d descrip-
t i o n of the m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s i n v o l v e d i n t o x i n p r o d u c t i o n . O t h e r p o i s o n s a r e produced by some d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s . Gymnodinium b r e v e from t h e w e s t c o a s t of F l o r i d a c a u s e s o y s t e r s
t o become p o i s o n o u s and when consumed by p e o p l e o r a n i m a l s causes a condition similar t o c i g u a t e r a poisoning.
'
Another
d i n o f l a g e l l a t e , Exuviaella mariae-lebouriae occuring i n c e r t a i n a r e a s o f J a p a n h a s caused o y s t e r s t o become toxic'
and when
consumed by p e o p l e c a u s e s o y s t e r p o i s o n i n g , a c o n d i t i o n d e s c r i b ed a s a d e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e l i v e r and k i d n e y s .
S t i l l other
d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s produce poisons b u t have n o t been i m p l i c a t e d i n s h e l l f i s h o r f i s h poisoning.
Gonyaulax p o l y e d r a which o c c u r s
a l o n g t h e c o a s t of s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a p r o d u c e s a poison'
under
c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i s r e p o r t e d t o b e s i n i l a r t o t h a t produced by
5.
catenella.
Gonyaulax m o n i l a t a , a d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
conmon i n t h e Gulf o f Xexico, p r o d u c e s a p o i s o n t h a t is t o x i c
t o f i s h b u t n o t t o warm blooded a n i m l s . 1 0
po~SOXOUSRED TIDE ORGANISPIS
2 31
T h e r e nay b e o t h e r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e world t h a t produce p o i s o n s b u t w e l a c k i n f o r n a t i o n i n t h i s r e s p e c t . Such d i s c o v e r i e s u s u a l l y h a v e been made when food p o i s o n i n g has o c c u r r e d i n p e o p l e o r a n i n a l s i n some way t h a t r e l a t e s t o
a certain dinoflagellate. CHENICALNATURE OF THE POISONS AND THEIR EFFECT O X PEOPLE The s t u d i e s on t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
t h e p o i s o n s from clans and m u s s e l s was a c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t w i t h p e r s o n n e l a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y and t h e U n i v e r s i t y of
I n 1957 w e r e p o r t e d t h e s u c c e s s f u l p u r i f i c a t i o n
California.
of t h e p o i s o n s from C a l i f o r n i a m u s s e l s and A l a s k a b u t t e r clams.''
Later w e grew
g.
c a t e n e l l a i n a x e n i c c u l t u r e and
i s o l a t e d t h e p o i s o n d i r e c t l y from t h e o r g a n i s m s .
The p o i s o n s
f r o n t h e t h r e e s o u r c e s proved t o h a v e t h e sane c h e m i c a l s t r u c t u r e 12
.
The p u r i f i c a t i o n was accomplished by ion-exchange
chromatography o n c a r b o x y l i c a c i d r e s i n s f o l l o w e d by chromatography o n a c i d washed alumina.
The p u r i f i e d p o i s o n now c a l l e d
saxitoxin, i s a white hygroscopic s o l i d with a s p e c i f i c t o x i c i t y of 5,500 mouse u n i t s p e r mg.
A mouse u n i t (MU)
is defined as
t h e amount t h a t w i l l k i l l a 20 gram w h i t e mause i n 15 m i n u t e s when a s o l u t i o n o f t h e p o i s o n i s i n j e c t e d i n t r a p e r i t o n e a l l y .
It is a d i b a s i c s a l t w i t h a pl;
a
at 8 . 2 and 11.5 and i s v e r y
s o l u b l e i n water b u t i n s o l u b l e in l i p i d s o l v e n t s . formula a5 a h y d r o c h l o r i d e s a l t i s C10H15N703'2HC1.
Its m o l e c u l a r Wong e t a 1
have determined i t s s t r u c t u r a l f o r m u l a and i t i s c l a s s e d a s a tetrahydro purine derivative.
232
SCHANTZ S a x i t o x i n i s a n e u r o t o x i n and among t h e most t o x i c o f low
molecular weight substances.
1
Em
I n terms of t h e p u r i f i e d p o i s o n ,
by i n t r a p e r i t o n e a l i n j e c t i o n i s e q u a l t o 0.18 n i i c r o g r a n s .
The i n t r a v e n o u s l e t h a l d o s e f o r a r a b b i t weighing 1 Kg i s 3 t o
4
micrograms.
I f i t is assumed t h a t 3000 t o 5000 PW c o n s t i t u t e s
a l e t h a l d o s e f o r man, a s d e t e r n i n e d from a c c i d e n t a l cases of p o i s o n i n g , t h e w e i g h t of p o i s o n c a u s i n g d e a t h by t h e o r a l r o u t e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
s h o u l d b e between 0.5 and 1 mg.
S a x i t o x i n produces i t s p a r a l y t i c
e f f e c t by i n h i b i t i n g t h e i n f l u x of sodium i o n s i n t o a n e r v e o r muscle c e l l n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f a n i m p u l s e . 1 3 , 1 4
It seems t o b e v e r y s p e c i f i c f o r sodium and d o e s n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e p a s s a g e of o t h e r i o n s t h r o u g h t h e c e l l membrane. Symptoms of p a r a l y t i c s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g i n p e o p l e b e g i n w i t h a numbness i n t h e l i p s , tongue and f i n g e r t i p s t h a t may b e a p p a r e n t w i t h i n a few m i n u t e s a f t e r e a t i n g poisonous s h e l l f i s h .
T h i s f e e l i n g i s f o l l o w e d by numbness
i n t h e l e g s , arms and neck and by g e n e r a l m u s c u l a r i n c o ordination.
The m e n t a l symptoms v a r y , b u t most p a t i e n t s
remain c o n s c i o u s u n t i l s h o r t l y b e f o r e d e a t h .
As t h e i l l n e s s
p r o g r e s s e s , r e s p i r a t o r y d i s t r e s s becomes more s e v e r e and d e a t h results from r e s p i r a t o r y p a r a l y s i s w i t h i n 2 t o 1 2 h o u r s depending upon t h e magnitude of t h e d o s e .
People have
d i e d from e a t i n g o n l y one o r two small mussels a t a t i m e when t h e m u s s e l s were f e e d i n g on t h e p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s . Although r e d t i d e s become a p p a r e n t when t h e c e l l c o u n t r e a c h e s a b o u t 20,000 p e r ~ lw e, have found m u s s e l a l o n g t h e c o a s t of
p ~ ~ ~ O N O RED U S TLDE ORGANISMS
233
C a l i f o r n i a t h a t were too t o x i c f o r human consumption when t h e
cell count was o n l y 200 p e r m l .
A t t h e time of a r e d t i d e we
have found mussels t h a t had accumulated 50,000 >N of poison per mussel.
Steaming o r cooking s h e l l f i s h does n o t d e s t r o y
the poison as i t i s very h e a t s t a b l e .
G.
tamarensis grown i n a x e n i c c u l t u r e o r i n t h e sea
produces a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t poisons, but both have t h e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
Same p h y s i o l o g i c a l a c t i o n in a n i m a l s , ' a n d both accumulate i n s h e l l f i s h and cause s h e l l f i s h poisoning i n people w i t h t h e same symptoms a s produced by s a x i t o x i n . a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin the poisons pr-Jduced by
5.
wd5
In sone of our work
have found t h a t one of
tamarensis h a s p r o p e r t i e s
i d e n t i c a l t o s a x i t o x i n , b u t t h e o t h e r does n o t have t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r of s a x i t o x i n and does n o t r e a c t w i t h t h e carboxylic a c i d ion-exchange r e s i n s .
Also i t does n o t r e a c t
with t h e anion exchange r e s i n s and does n o t move t o t h e cathode o r anode when e l e c t r o d i a l y z e d r
It t h e r e f o r e appears
to b e a n e u t r a l substance. S e v e r a l poisons have been i s o l a t e d from t h e red t i d e organism
C. breve a l o n g t h e w e s t c o a s t of F l o r i d a .
These
poisons have n o t been completely c h a r a c t e r i z e d , but are l i p i d s o l u b l e and of much h i g h e r molecular weight (1500) t h a n t h e water s o l u b l e poisons o f t h e p a r a l y t i c typa.6 The mechanism of a c t i 6 n of t h e poisons from
g. breve i s
n o t known.
In
many r e s p e c t s t h e s i g n s i n animals are l i k e t h e s i g n s of c i g u a t e r a poisoning.
People t h a t have e a t e n o y s t e r s t h a t
234
S CHANT2
have consumed
g.
breve a l s o have symptoms t h a t resemble
c i g u a t e r a poisoning.
Ciguatera poisoning i s a common d i s e a s e
i n t r o p i c a l regions caused by e a t i n g f i s h from c e r t a i n a r e a s . The f i r s t symptoms i n people may b e t i n g l i n g of t h e l i p s ,
In
tongue and t h r o a t followed by a numbness i n t h e s e a r e a s .
o t h e r cases t h e symptoms c o n s i s t of nausea, vomiting, m e t a l l i c
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
t a s t e , dryness of t h e mouth, abdominal cramps, d i a r r h e a , headache, c h i l l s , f e v e r and g e n e r a l muscular weakness.
The
f i s h t h a t c o n t a i n t h e c i g u a t e r a poison are believed t o a c q u i r e i t from c e r t a i n a l g a e o r o t h e r plankton e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r
through t h e food c h a i n , b u t t h e d e f i n i t e source i s n o t known, The poison from t h e d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
5.
mariae-lebouriae
which accumulates i n t h e dark gland of o y s t e r s and o t h e r s h e l l f i s h i s q u i t e s t a b l e t o h e a t i n g and causes i n t o x i c a t i o n i n many animals by both t h e o r a l and i n t r a p e r i t o n e a l r o u t e s . It has been i s o l a t e d i n pure form by J a p a n e s e - i n v e s t i g a t o r s .
The f i r s t symptoms i n man are anorexia, abdominal p a i n , nausea, vomiting, c o n s t i p a t i o n and headache w i t h i n t h e f i r s t few days.
These symptoms a r e followed by hemorrhagic s p o t s
on t h e s k i n , w i t h bleeding from t h e mucous membranes and a c u t e yellow atrophy of t h e l i v e r .
S e v e r a l hundred c a s e s
have been reported i n t h e Hamana Bay a r e a i n Japan with more than 100 d e a t h s .
2 35
POISONOUS XED TIDE ORGANISMS PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH POISONOUS RED TIDES c
I n y e a r s p a s t s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g i n some areas a l o n g t h e sea c o a s t s had t a k e n t h e l i v e s o f many p e o p l e and was a l o c a l p u b l i c h e a l t h problem.
Because t h e bloom o f a p o i s o n o u s dino-
f l a g e l l a t e i s a s p o r a d i c o c c u r r e n c e a n d may n o t show up f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s a t a t i m e , p e o p l e became used t o c o l l e c t i n g and eating s h e l l f i s h without question.
I n f a c t t h e r e are no
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
a p p a r e n t s i g n s t o t h e a v e r a g e p e r s o n t h a t would d i s t i n g u i s h a poisonous bloom from a nonpoisonous o n e o r would d i s t i n g u i s h a poisonous s h e l l f i s h from a nonpoisonous one.
Even i f a v i s i b l e
red t i d e w a s u s e d as a s i g n o f d a n g e r , t h e s h e l l f i s h o f t e n become t o o t o x i c f o r human consumption a week o r two p r i o r t o i t s a p p e a r a n c e and p e r s o n s c o l l e c t i n g and e a t i n g s h e l l f i s h d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d would b e i n d a n g e r of p o i s o n i n g . I n more r e c e n t y e a r s , with t h e a d v e n t o f t h e a u t o mobile making l o n g d i s t a n c e t r a v e l easier and t h e development of a commercialized s h e l l f i s h i n d u s t r y , new problems a r o s e . People d r o v e many m i l e s t o b e a c h e s f o r clam b a k e s and m u s s e l r o a s t s b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y unaware o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f b e i n g poisoned.
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e f o r s t a t e and l o c a l
p u b l i c h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s t o c a r r y o u t mouse tests f o r t h e p o i s o n i n s h e l l f i s h p a r t i c u l a r l y i n areas where s h e l l f i s h a r e c o l l e c t e d f o r food.
Beaches must b e c l o s e d f o r c o l l e c -
t i o n s a t times when t h e s h e l l f i s h c o n t a i n d a n g e r o u s amounts of p o i s o n .
T e s t s f o r p o i s o n must a l s o b e made f o r t h e
commercial
h a r v e s t i n g of s h e l l f i s h .
The Food and Drug Admin-
SCHANTZ
236 i s t r a t i o n c h e c k s i n t e r s t a t e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l s h i p m e n t s of
I n addition t o t h e c o s t s of these
s h e l l f i s h f o r poison.
c o n t r o l measures, r e d t i d e s c o s t t h e p u b l i c and commercial fishermen m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s each y e a r .
A t the p r e s e n t t i n e t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e no means o f s o l v i n g t h e r e d t i d e problem d i r e c t l y .
The c o n t r o l measures
f o r the p r o t e c t i o n of t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h i s t h e b e s t i n d i r e c t
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
solution. poisons.
T h e r e a r e no known a n t i d o t e s f o r t h e s h e l l f i s h I t i s hoped hoxever t h a t c o n t i n u e d s t u d i e s o n t h e
n a t u r e of t h e p o i s o n s w i l l l e a d t o a n t i d o t e s f o r u s e by t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n i n c a s e s of p o i s o n i n g .
The o n l y
t r e a t m e n t a t p r e s e n t is a r t i f i c a l r e s p i r a t i o n which i s e f f e c t i v e t o some e x t e n t i n b o r d e r l i n e c a s e s .
1.
Sommer, H. Meyer, K. F., Arch. P a t h o l .
2.
Koch, H. J.
2, 560
(1937).
Assoc. F r a n c . Avan. S c i . P a r i s , 63rd Ses;
s i o n , P. 6 5 4 (1939).
3.
Needler, A. R.,
J. F i s h e r i e s R e s . Board Can.
I_, 490
(1949). J. F i s h e r i e s R e s . Board Can. 20, 983 (1963).
4.
Prakash, A.,
5.
P r a k a s h , A . , T a y l o r , F.J.R.,
23, 6.
J . F i s h e r i e s Res. Board Can.
1265 (1966).
I I a l s t e a d , B. \I., "Poisonous and Venonous Marine Animals,"
U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D. C . , Vol. I, pp. 1 5 8 - 7 4 , 19G5.
pOISONOUS RED TIDE ORGANISMS
7.
Tanabe, H.,
FicFarren, E. F., Campbell, J. E.,
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237 S i l v a , F. J., Wilson, 11. B . , Toxicon 3, 111 (1965).
L e w i s , K . H.,
8.
Nakazirno, M., B u l l . Japan SOC. S c i . F i s h
9.
S c h r a d i e , J., B l i s s , C. A . ,
10. Ray, S. M., A l d r i c h , D.V.,
11. S c h a n t z , E.
J.,
E,
130 (1968).
L l o y d i a 25, 214 (1962). Science
?fold, J. D . ,
148,1748
Howard, 11. L.,
(1965).
Bowden, J. P.,
W i n t e r s t e i n e r , 0. P.,
S t a n g e r , D. W . ,
Lynch, J. Pi.,
Dutcher, J. D . ,
Walters, D. R . ,
R i e g e l , B.,
Can. 3. Chem.
39, 2117 (1961). 12.
S c h a n t z , E. J., Lynch, J . ti., Vayvada, G . ,
blatsumoto, K.,
I,1 1 9 1 (1966).
Rapoport, H.,
Biochemistry
13.
Evans, M. H.,
B r i t . J. E x p t l . P a t h o l . X L V I , 245 (1965).
14.
Kao, C . Y . ,
Nishiyama, A.,
J. P h y s i o l . (London)
180, 5 0
(1965). 15.
G h a z a r o s s i a n , V. E.,
S c h a n t z , E. J.,
S t r o n g , F. Pi.
Unpublished.
16.
P l a r t i n , U . F.,
and C h a t t e j e e , A. B-.,
17.-
Ifong, J . L . , Chem. SOC.
Schnoes, H. K. and
Nature
O e s t e r l i n , R . , and Rapoport, H . : (1971).
93, 7344
221,
59 (1969).
J. h e r .
ISSN: 0013-9300 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lesa17
Poisonous Red Tide Organisms Edward J. Schantz To cite this article: Edward J. Schantz (1975) Poisonous Red Tide Organisms, Environmental Letters, 9:3, 225-237, DOI: 10.1080/00139307509435851 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00139307509435851
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ENn~ONPiENTALLETTERS, 9 (3) , 225-237 (1975)
POISONOUS RED TIDE ORGANISMS
xey
words: t o x i n , poison, r e d t i d e , r e d water, d i n o f l a g e l l a t e , s h e l l f i s h poison Edward J. Schantz University of Wisconsin, Food Research I n s t i t u t e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
Madison, IJisconsin 53706
Introduction
A r e d t i d e , sometimes c a l l e d red water, is t h e
r e s u l t of a n excessive growth o r bloom of microscopic plankton giving t h e water a red-brown appearance due t o t h e pigments contained i n t h e organisms.
The organisms t h a t produce red
t i d e s a r e mainly t h e f l a g e l l a t e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s , of which t h e r e are many s p e c i e s .
These organisms
along w i t h o t h e r microscopic plankton of t h e s e a s e r v e as food f o r s h e l l f i s h , many s p e c i e s of small f i s h and even some mammals such a s c e r t a i n whales.
A few s p e c i e s of dinoflagel-
l a t e s produce deadly poisons t h a t accumulate i n s h e l l f i s h and t h e s e s h e l l f i s h ' a r e consumed by people, s i c k n e s s and
3 .i
result.
Some of t h e s e s p e c i e s , when they bloom t o r e d
-->portions, cause massive f i s h k i l l s t h a t p o l l u t e t h e
4 beaches.
Aerosols from some of t h e s e r e d t i d e s
.se i r r i t a t i o n of t h e t h r o a t and lungs of persons
225 q r i g h t 0 1975 by hlarcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. h'either this work nor any part Y be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical. including Photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, xithout permission in writing from the publisher.
S CHANT2
226
l i v i n g along t h e coast.
It s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t however
t h a t many s p e c i e s o f m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s t h r o u g h o u t t h e seas o f t h e w o r l d bloom t o r e d t i d e p r o p o r t i o n s i n t h e normal c y c l e o f e v e n t s and c a u s e no damage. The p u r p o s e of t h i s p a p e r i s t o d e s c r i b e (1) the poisonous organisms t h a t c a u s e t h e d e s t r u c t i v e r e d t i d e s (2) t h e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
p o i s o n s t h e y p r o d u c e a n d t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e p o i s o n s on p e o p l e and (3) t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e red tides.
POISONOUS DINOFLAGELLATES The d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s are m i c r o s c o p i c p l a n k t o n t h a t r a n g e from a few m i c r o n s t o o v e r a hundred m i c r o n s i n d i a m e t e r and i n h a b i t b o t h f r e s h and m a r i n e waters.
Most of
them are a b l e t o m a n u f a c t u r e t h e i r own food by p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , b u t many r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l performed o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s f o r growth and r e p r o d u c t i o n .
These o r g a n i s m s r e p r o d u c e by a s e x u a l
d i v i s i o n and some s p e c i e s form c h a i n s of 2 o r 4 and sometimes
8 cells.
During t h e non-reproductive p e r i o d s t h e s e organisms
p r o b a b l y exist a s c y s t s and i t i s presumably i n t h i s s t a g e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e f o r l o n g p e r i o d s of t i m e . Growth and r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s l i k e t h a t of o t h e r m a r i n e p l a n k t o n , depend on a n a n n u a l c y c l e of e v e n t s t o produce t h e r i g h t combination o f temperature, s a l i n i t y , i l l u m i n a t i o n and pH a l o n g w i t h t h e v a r i o u s growth and trace e l e m e n t s i n t h e water.
I f t h e c o n d i t i o n s become optimum f o r
227 a particular dinoflagellate,
t h e rate of re p ro d u c tio n i n c r e a s e s
r a p i d l y and a bloom i s s a i d t o o c c u r .
The g e n e r a t i o n t i m e i s
normally 1 o r 2 d a y s and a bloom w i l l u s u a l l y r e a c h i t s maximum i n 2 t o 3 weeks depending upon c o n d i t i o n s .
and d i s a p p e a r i n a n o t h e r week o r two.
It w i l l d i e o f f
Blooms t h a t r e a c h a con-
c e n t r a t i o n o f a b o u t 20,000 cell/ml o r more f o r t h e smaller c e l l s
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
g i v e t h e water a r e d o r brown a p p e a r a n c e , depending o n t h e pigments i n t h e s p e c i e s .
T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s known a s a r e d t i d e and
c e l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n found a s h i g h a s 50,00O/ml and higher.
The e x a c t c o n d i t i o n s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
bloom and how t h e y are e s t a b l i s h e d i s n o t known.
Such f a c t o r s
a s u p w e l l i n g s from t h e sea bottom, d r a i n a g e from t h e l a n d , and p r e v i o u s blooms a p p e a r t o p l a y i m p o r t a n t p a r t s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r blooms.
Elany
blooms are s t r o n g l y p h o s p h o r e s c e n t and a t n i g h t c a n b e s e e n f o r miles where t h e waves b r e a k t h e s u r f a c e of t h e water. The known d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s t h a t p r o d u c e p o i s o n a r e m a i n l y t h o s e o f m a r i n e o r i g i n and a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e I a l o n g w i t h t h e i r o b s e r v e d l o c a t i o n and b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s . Three s p e c i e s o f Gonyaulax, namely c a t e n e l l a , a c a t e n e l l a and t a m a r e n s i s produce a d e a d l y p a r a l y t i c p o i s o n t h a t accumul a t e s i n t h e d a r k g l a n d o r h e p a t o p a n c r e a s o f most s h e l l f i s h and i n t h e s i p h o n s o f some clams when t h e y f e e d o n t h e s e organisms.
The p o i s o n d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o a f f e c t t h e p h y s i o l o g y
of t h e s h e l l f i s h .
When t h e bloom o f t h e p o i s o n o u s o r g a n i s m s
S W T Z
228
TABLE I
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
Known P o i s o n o u s D i n o f l a g e l l a t e s o f t h e World
Dinof l a g e l l a t e Species
Observed Location
Biological Effect
Gonyaulax c a t e n e l l a
North P a c i f i c coasts
Causes p a r a l y t i c s h e l l f i s h poisoning
Gonyaulax a c a t e n e l l a
Coast of B r i t i s h Columbia
G.
Gunyaulax t a m a r e n s i s
North A t l a n t i c c o a s t s ; N o r t h Sea
G.
Gonyaulax p o l y e d r a
Coast of Southern California
P a r a l y t i c poison, no s h e l l f i s h poisoning
Gonyaulax m o n i l a t a
Gulf c o a s t of United S t a t e s
Toxic t o f i s h
Pyrodinium phoneus
North Sea
Similar to catenella
Gymnodinium b r e v e
Gulf c o a s t o f Florida
C i g u a tera-1 i k e poisoning
Gymnodinium veneficum
E n g l i s h Channel
T o x i c t o f i s h and m i c e ; no s h e l l f i s h poisoning
Similar t o catenella
.
Similar t o catenella
c.
r e c e d e s t h e s h e i l f i s h g r a d u a l l y d e s t r o y o r excrete t h e p o i s o n w i t h i n a p e r i o d o f a week o r two.
One e x c e p t i o n i s t h e A l a s k a
b u t t e r clam which a c c u m u l a t e s t h e p o i s o n i n t h e s i p h o n and r e q u i r e s a y e a r o r more t o r i d i t s e l f o f t h e p o i s o n .
I f these
POISONOUS
TIDE ORGANISM
229
clams were exposed t o a n n u a l blooms o f t h e p o i s o n o u s o r g a n i s m s , they would remain p o i s o n o u s f o r l o n g p e r i o d s .
G.
c a t e n e l l a i s t h e predominant p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
along t h e n o r t h w e s t P a c i f i c c o a s t o f N o r t h America and h a s caused m u s s e l s and clams t o become p o i s o n o u s i n c e r t a i n a r e a s
of t h e c o a s t from c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a t o J a p a n .
g.
acatenella
has been found i n areas a l o n g the c o a s t of B r i t i s h Columbia and
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
h a s caused clams i n t h i s area t o become p o i s o n o u s .
5.
tamaren-
sis i s t h e predominant p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e a l o n g t h e n o r t h e a s t A t l a n t i c c o a s t of N o r t h America and t h e c o a s t s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s b o r d e r i n g on the N o r t h Sea and h a s c a u s e d clams and mussels t o become p o i s o n o u s i n t h e s e areas. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s and
s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n w a s f i r s t o b s e r v e d by D r . Herman S o m e r and h i s associates'
a t t h e University of C a l i f o r n i a during a n out-
b r e a k of p o i s o n i n g i n p e o p l e caused by e a t i n g s e a m u s s e l s c o l l e c t e d n e a r San F r a n c i s c o i n 1927.
These i n v e s t i g a t o r s
discovered that a p a r t i c u l a r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e w a s present i n t h e w a t e r a r o u n d t h e m u s s e l b e d s a t t h e t i m e when t h e m u s s e l s were p o i s o n o u s and found t h a t water s o l u b l e e x t r a c t s of t h e s e
organisms k i l l e d m i c e w i t h s i g n s of p o i s o n i n g e x a c t l y l i k e t h o s e caused by extracts o f t h e p o i s o n o u s m u s s e l s . d i s c o v e r y of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of
5.
The
c a t e n e l l a t o poisonous
s h e l l f i s h w a s f o l l o w e d by s i m i l a r d i s c o v e r i e s of o t h e r organisms t h a t c a u s e s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g .
Koch2 r e p o r t e d i n
1939 t h a t Pyrodinium phoneus was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e extreme
sCHAN
230 t o x i c i t y o f Belgium m u s s e l s .
N e e d l e r 3 and P r a k a s h 4 l a t e r
r e p o r t e d t h a t the p o i s o n i n s c a l l o p s i n t h e Bay o f Fundy and
i n clams a l o n g t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t o f America w a s c a u s e d by a n o t h e r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e Gonyaulax t a m a r e n s i s .
This organisn
w a s i m p l i c a t e d a s t h e c a u s e of r e c e n t o u t b r e a k s o f s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g a l o n g t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t o f England i n t h e e a r l y summer of 1968 and severe o u t b r e a k s a l o n g t h e c o a s t o f New
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
England i n t h e f a l l o f 1972 and t h e s p r i n g o f 1974. and T a y l o r 5 r e p o r t e d i n 1966 t h a t f i s h poisoning.
5.
Prakash
a c a t e n e l l a caused s h e l l -
Halstead6 h a s published a d e t a i l e d descrip-
t i o n of the m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s i n v o l v e d i n t o x i n p r o d u c t i o n . O t h e r p o i s o n s a r e produced by some d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s . Gymnodinium b r e v e from t h e w e s t c o a s t of F l o r i d a c a u s e s o y s t e r s
t o become p o i s o n o u s and when consumed by p e o p l e o r a n i m a l s causes a condition similar t o c i g u a t e r a poisoning.
'
Another
d i n o f l a g e l l a t e , Exuviaella mariae-lebouriae occuring i n c e r t a i n a r e a s o f J a p a n h a s caused o y s t e r s t o become toxic'
and when
consumed by p e o p l e c a u s e s o y s t e r p o i s o n i n g , a c o n d i t i o n d e s c r i b ed a s a d e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e l i v e r and k i d n e y s .
S t i l l other
d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s produce poisons b u t have n o t been i m p l i c a t e d i n s h e l l f i s h o r f i s h poisoning.
Gonyaulax p o l y e d r a which o c c u r s
a l o n g t h e c o a s t of s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a p r o d u c e s a poison'
under
c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i s r e p o r t e d t o b e s i n i l a r t o t h a t produced by
5.
catenella.
Gonyaulax m o n i l a t a , a d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
conmon i n t h e Gulf o f Xexico, p r o d u c e s a p o i s o n t h a t is t o x i c
t o f i s h b u t n o t t o warm blooded a n i m l s . 1 0
po~SOXOUSRED TIDE ORGANISPIS
2 31
T h e r e nay b e o t h e r d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e world t h a t produce p o i s o n s b u t w e l a c k i n f o r n a t i o n i n t h i s r e s p e c t . Such d i s c o v e r i e s u s u a l l y h a v e been made when food p o i s o n i n g has o c c u r r e d i n p e o p l e o r a n i n a l s i n some way t h a t r e l a t e s t o
a certain dinoflagellate. CHENICALNATURE OF THE POISONS AND THEIR EFFECT O X PEOPLE The s t u d i e s on t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
t h e p o i s o n s from clans and m u s s e l s was a c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t w i t h p e r s o n n e l a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y and t h e U n i v e r s i t y of
I n 1957 w e r e p o r t e d t h e s u c c e s s f u l p u r i f i c a t i o n
California.
of t h e p o i s o n s from C a l i f o r n i a m u s s e l s and A l a s k a b u t t e r clams.''
Later w e grew
g.
c a t e n e l l a i n a x e n i c c u l t u r e and
i s o l a t e d t h e p o i s o n d i r e c t l y from t h e o r g a n i s m s .
The p o i s o n s
f r o n t h e t h r e e s o u r c e s proved t o h a v e t h e sane c h e m i c a l s t r u c t u r e 12
.
The p u r i f i c a t i o n was accomplished by ion-exchange
chromatography o n c a r b o x y l i c a c i d r e s i n s f o l l o w e d by chromatography o n a c i d washed alumina.
The p u r i f i e d p o i s o n now c a l l e d
saxitoxin, i s a white hygroscopic s o l i d with a s p e c i f i c t o x i c i t y of 5,500 mouse u n i t s p e r mg.
A mouse u n i t (MU)
is defined as
t h e amount t h a t w i l l k i l l a 20 gram w h i t e mause i n 15 m i n u t e s when a s o l u t i o n o f t h e p o i s o n i s i n j e c t e d i n t r a p e r i t o n e a l l y .
It is a d i b a s i c s a l t w i t h a pl;
a
at 8 . 2 and 11.5 and i s v e r y
s o l u b l e i n water b u t i n s o l u b l e in l i p i d s o l v e n t s . formula a5 a h y d r o c h l o r i d e s a l t i s C10H15N703'2HC1.
Its m o l e c u l a r Wong e t a 1
have determined i t s s t r u c t u r a l f o r m u l a and i t i s c l a s s e d a s a tetrahydro purine derivative.
232
SCHANTZ S a x i t o x i n i s a n e u r o t o x i n and among t h e most t o x i c o f low
molecular weight substances.
1
Em
I n terms of t h e p u r i f i e d p o i s o n ,
by i n t r a p e r i t o n e a l i n j e c t i o n i s e q u a l t o 0.18 n i i c r o g r a n s .
The i n t r a v e n o u s l e t h a l d o s e f o r a r a b b i t weighing 1 Kg i s 3 t o
4
micrograms.
I f i t is assumed t h a t 3000 t o 5000 PW c o n s t i t u t e s
a l e t h a l d o s e f o r man, a s d e t e r n i n e d from a c c i d e n t a l cases of p o i s o n i n g , t h e w e i g h t of p o i s o n c a u s i n g d e a t h by t h e o r a l r o u t e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
s h o u l d b e between 0.5 and 1 mg.
S a x i t o x i n produces i t s p a r a l y t i c
e f f e c t by i n h i b i t i n g t h e i n f l u x of sodium i o n s i n t o a n e r v e o r muscle c e l l n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f a n i m p u l s e . 1 3 , 1 4
It seems t o b e v e r y s p e c i f i c f o r sodium and d o e s n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e p a s s a g e of o t h e r i o n s t h r o u g h t h e c e l l membrane. Symptoms of p a r a l y t i c s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g i n p e o p l e b e g i n w i t h a numbness i n t h e l i p s , tongue and f i n g e r t i p s t h a t may b e a p p a r e n t w i t h i n a few m i n u t e s a f t e r e a t i n g poisonous s h e l l f i s h .
T h i s f e e l i n g i s f o l l o w e d by numbness
i n t h e l e g s , arms and neck and by g e n e r a l m u s c u l a r i n c o ordination.
The m e n t a l symptoms v a r y , b u t most p a t i e n t s
remain c o n s c i o u s u n t i l s h o r t l y b e f o r e d e a t h .
As t h e i l l n e s s
p r o g r e s s e s , r e s p i r a t o r y d i s t r e s s becomes more s e v e r e and d e a t h results from r e s p i r a t o r y p a r a l y s i s w i t h i n 2 t o 1 2 h o u r s depending upon t h e magnitude of t h e d o s e .
People have
d i e d from e a t i n g o n l y one o r two small mussels a t a t i m e when t h e m u s s e l s were f e e d i n g on t h e p o i s o n o u s d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s . Although r e d t i d e s become a p p a r e n t when t h e c e l l c o u n t r e a c h e s a b o u t 20,000 p e r ~ lw e, have found m u s s e l a l o n g t h e c o a s t of
p ~ ~ ~ O N O RED U S TLDE ORGANISMS
233
C a l i f o r n i a t h a t were too t o x i c f o r human consumption when t h e
cell count was o n l y 200 p e r m l .
A t t h e time of a r e d t i d e we
have found mussels t h a t had accumulated 50,000 >N of poison per mussel.
Steaming o r cooking s h e l l f i s h does n o t d e s t r o y
the poison as i t i s very h e a t s t a b l e .
G.
tamarensis grown i n a x e n i c c u l t u r e o r i n t h e sea
produces a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t poisons, but both have t h e
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
Same p h y s i o l o g i c a l a c t i o n in a n i m a l s , ' a n d both accumulate i n s h e l l f i s h and cause s h e l l f i s h poisoning i n people w i t h t h e same symptoms a s produced by s a x i t o x i n . a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin the poisons pr-Jduced by
5.
wd5
In sone of our work
have found t h a t one of
tamarensis h a s p r o p e r t i e s
i d e n t i c a l t o s a x i t o x i n , b u t t h e o t h e r does n o t have t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r of s a x i t o x i n and does n o t r e a c t w i t h t h e carboxylic a c i d ion-exchange r e s i n s .
Also i t does n o t r e a c t
with t h e anion exchange r e s i n s and does n o t move t o t h e cathode o r anode when e l e c t r o d i a l y z e d r
It t h e r e f o r e appears
to b e a n e u t r a l substance. S e v e r a l poisons have been i s o l a t e d from t h e red t i d e organism
C. breve a l o n g t h e w e s t c o a s t of F l o r i d a .
These
poisons have n o t been completely c h a r a c t e r i z e d , but are l i p i d s o l u b l e and of much h i g h e r molecular weight (1500) t h a n t h e water s o l u b l e poisons o f t h e p a r a l y t i c typa.6 The mechanism of a c t i 6 n of t h e poisons from
g. breve i s
n o t known.
In
many r e s p e c t s t h e s i g n s i n animals are l i k e t h e s i g n s of c i g u a t e r a poisoning.
People t h a t have e a t e n o y s t e r s t h a t
234
S CHANT2
have consumed
g.
breve a l s o have symptoms t h a t resemble
c i g u a t e r a poisoning.
Ciguatera poisoning i s a common d i s e a s e
i n t r o p i c a l regions caused by e a t i n g f i s h from c e r t a i n a r e a s . The f i r s t symptoms i n people may b e t i n g l i n g of t h e l i p s ,
In
tongue and t h r o a t followed by a numbness i n t h e s e a r e a s .
o t h e r cases t h e symptoms c o n s i s t of nausea, vomiting, m e t a l l i c
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
t a s t e , dryness of t h e mouth, abdominal cramps, d i a r r h e a , headache, c h i l l s , f e v e r and g e n e r a l muscular weakness.
The
f i s h t h a t c o n t a i n t h e c i g u a t e r a poison are believed t o a c q u i r e i t from c e r t a i n a l g a e o r o t h e r plankton e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r
through t h e food c h a i n , b u t t h e d e f i n i t e source i s n o t known, The poison from t h e d i n o f l a g e l l a t e
5.
mariae-lebouriae
which accumulates i n t h e dark gland of o y s t e r s and o t h e r s h e l l f i s h i s q u i t e s t a b l e t o h e a t i n g and causes i n t o x i c a t i o n i n many animals by both t h e o r a l and i n t r a p e r i t o n e a l r o u t e s . It has been i s o l a t e d i n pure form by J a p a n e s e - i n v e s t i g a t o r s .
The f i r s t symptoms i n man are anorexia, abdominal p a i n , nausea, vomiting, c o n s t i p a t i o n and headache w i t h i n t h e f i r s t few days.
These symptoms a r e followed by hemorrhagic s p o t s
on t h e s k i n , w i t h bleeding from t h e mucous membranes and a c u t e yellow atrophy of t h e l i v e r .
S e v e r a l hundred c a s e s
have been reported i n t h e Hamana Bay a r e a i n Japan with more than 100 d e a t h s .
2 35
POISONOUS XED TIDE ORGANISMS PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH POISONOUS RED TIDES c
I n y e a r s p a s t s h e l l f i s h p o i s o n i n g i n some areas a l o n g t h e sea c o a s t s had t a k e n t h e l i v e s o f many p e o p l e and was a l o c a l p u b l i c h e a l t h problem.
Because t h e bloom o f a p o i s o n o u s dino-
f l a g e l l a t e i s a s p o r a d i c o c c u r r e n c e a n d may n o t show up f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s a t a t i m e , p e o p l e became used t o c o l l e c t i n g and eating s h e l l f i s h without question.
I n f a c t t h e r e are no
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
a p p a r e n t s i g n s t o t h e a v e r a g e p e r s o n t h a t would d i s t i n g u i s h a poisonous bloom from a nonpoisonous o n e o r would d i s t i n g u i s h a poisonous s h e l l f i s h from a nonpoisonous one.
Even i f a v i s i b l e
red t i d e w a s u s e d as a s i g n o f d a n g e r , t h e s h e l l f i s h o f t e n become t o o t o x i c f o r human consumption a week o r two p r i o r t o i t s a p p e a r a n c e and p e r s o n s c o l l e c t i n g and e a t i n g s h e l l f i s h d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d would b e i n d a n g e r of p o i s o n i n g . I n more r e c e n t y e a r s , with t h e a d v e n t o f t h e a u t o mobile making l o n g d i s t a n c e t r a v e l easier and t h e development of a commercialized s h e l l f i s h i n d u s t r y , new problems a r o s e . People d r o v e many m i l e s t o b e a c h e s f o r clam b a k e s and m u s s e l r o a s t s b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y unaware o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f b e i n g poisoned.
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e f o r s t a t e and l o c a l
p u b l i c h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s t o c a r r y o u t mouse tests f o r t h e p o i s o n i n s h e l l f i s h p a r t i c u l a r l y i n areas where s h e l l f i s h a r e c o l l e c t e d f o r food.
Beaches must b e c l o s e d f o r c o l l e c -
t i o n s a t times when t h e s h e l l f i s h c o n t a i n d a n g e r o u s amounts of p o i s o n .
T e s t s f o r p o i s o n must a l s o b e made f o r t h e
commercial
h a r v e s t i n g of s h e l l f i s h .
The Food and Drug Admin-
SCHANTZ
236 i s t r a t i o n c h e c k s i n t e r s t a t e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l s h i p m e n t s of
I n addition t o t h e c o s t s of these
s h e l l f i s h f o r poison.
c o n t r o l measures, r e d t i d e s c o s t t h e p u b l i c and commercial fishermen m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s each y e a r .
A t the p r e s e n t t i n e t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e no means o f s o l v i n g t h e r e d t i d e problem d i r e c t l y .
The c o n t r o l measures
f o r the p r o t e c t i o n of t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h i s t h e b e s t i n d i r e c t
Environmental Letters 1975.9:225-237.
solution. poisons.
T h e r e a r e no known a n t i d o t e s f o r t h e s h e l l f i s h I t i s hoped hoxever t h a t c o n t i n u e d s t u d i e s o n t h e
n a t u r e of t h e p o i s o n s w i l l l e a d t o a n t i d o t e s f o r u s e by t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n i n c a s e s of p o i s o n i n g .
The o n l y
t r e a t m e n t a t p r e s e n t is a r t i f i c a l r e s p i r a t i o n which i s e f f e c t i v e t o some e x t e n t i n b o r d e r l i n e c a s e s .
1.
Sommer, H. Meyer, K. F., Arch. P a t h o l .
2.
Koch, H. J.
2, 560
(1937).
Assoc. F r a n c . Avan. S c i . P a r i s , 63rd Ses;
s i o n , P. 6 5 4 (1939).
3.
Needler, A. R.,
J. F i s h e r i e s R e s . Board Can.
I_, 490
(1949). J. F i s h e r i e s R e s . Board Can. 20, 983 (1963).
4.
Prakash, A.,
5.
P r a k a s h , A . , T a y l o r , F.J.R.,
23, 6.
J . F i s h e r i e s Res. Board Can.
1265 (1966).
I I a l s t e a d , B. \I., "Poisonous and Venonous Marine Animals,"
U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D. C . , Vol. I, pp. 1 5 8 - 7 4 , 19G5.
pOISONOUS RED TIDE ORGANISMS
7.
Tanabe, H.,
FicFarren, E. F., Campbell, J. E.,
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237 S i l v a , F. J., Wilson, 11. B . , Toxicon 3, 111 (1965).
L e w i s , K . H.,
8.
Nakazirno, M., B u l l . Japan SOC. S c i . F i s h
9.
S c h r a d i e , J., B l i s s , C. A . ,
10. Ray, S. M., A l d r i c h , D.V.,
11. S c h a n t z , E.
J.,
E,
130 (1968).
L l o y d i a 25, 214 (1962). Science
?fold, J. D . ,
148,1748
Howard, 11. L.,
(1965).
Bowden, J. P.,
W i n t e r s t e i n e r , 0. P.,
S t a n g e r , D. W . ,
Lynch, J. Pi.,
Dutcher, J. D . ,
Walters, D. R . ,
R i e g e l , B.,
Can. 3. Chem.
39, 2117 (1961). 12.
S c h a n t z , E. J., Lynch, J . ti., Vayvada, G . ,
blatsumoto, K.,
I,1 1 9 1 (1966).
Rapoport, H.,
Biochemistry
13.
Evans, M. H.,
B r i t . J. E x p t l . P a t h o l . X L V I , 245 (1965).
14.
Kao, C . Y . ,
Nishiyama, A.,
J. P h y s i o l . (London)
180, 5 0
(1965). 15.
G h a z a r o s s i a n , V. E.,
S c h a n t z , E. J.,
S t r o n g , F. Pi.
Unpublished.
16.
P l a r t i n , U . F.,
and C h a t t e j e e , A. B-.,
17.-
Ifong, J . L . , Chem. SOC.
Schnoes, H. K. and
Nature
O e s t e r l i n , R . , and Rapoport, H . : (1971).
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