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Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnpl20
Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L. a
a
a
Farhan A. Khan , Tariq Mahmood , Muhammad Ali , Abdul Saeed & Aneela Maalik
b
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Department of Chemistry, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, KPK, Pakistan b
Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahaudin Zakriya University, Multan, Pakistan Published online: 21 Mar 2014.
To cite this article: Farhan A. Khan, Tariq Mahmood, Muhammad Ali, Abdul Saeed & Aneela Maalik (2014): Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L., Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.895723 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895723
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Natural Product Research, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895723
REVIEW Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L. Farhan A. Khana*, Tariq Mahmooda, Muhammad Alia, Abdul Saeedb and Aneela Maalika
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a Department of Chemistry, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, KPK, Pakistan; bInstitute of Chemical Sciences, Bahaudin Zakriya University, Multan, Pakistan
(Received 4 November 2013; final version received 14 February 2014) Capsicum annuum L., a fruit plant from tropical and subtropical regions, contains a range of essential nutrients and bioactive compounds which are known to exhibit a range of bioactivities including free radical scavenging (antioxidant), antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and anticancer. This review aims to give a comprehensive overview of the literature published on pharmacological behaviours of C. annuum L. Keywords: Capsicum; chilli; antimicrobial; antioxidant; anti-inflammatory; anticancer
1. Introduction Chilli or red pepper is a common name of Capsicum annuum L. which belongs to the family Solanaceae (Walsh & Hoot 2001). It is an annual or perennial shrub and commonly exists in two colourant species, for example red and green. Capsicum comprises 25– 30 species; five of them are extensively cultivated which are C. annuum L., Capsicum chinense Jacq., Capsicum pubescens, Capsicum baccatum and Capsicum frutescens L. (Kothari et al. 2010). C. annuum L. has been used by the Americans as a dietary component since 7500 BC (Perry et al. 2007). Chilli plants were first cultivated between 5200 and 3400 BC by the native Americans and are among the oldest cultivated crops (Meghvansi et al. 2010). A range of species of C. annuum L. has been cultivated in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, America and Mediterranean countries. Introduction of C. annuum L. in Europe, Asia and Africa is associated with the voyage of Columbus and is reported to have been brought into Europe, Middle East and Asia by Portuguese traders around 450 –500 years ago (Osuna-Garcı´a et al. 1998; Aydin et al. 2007). Capsicum fruit is of ethnopharmacological importance and used as a circulatory stimulant which has been traditionally used in most of the cuisines and food products due to its distinctive flavour, colour and aroma. Its vivid colour is due to a combination of esters of capsorubin, capsanthin, cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin and other carotenoids (Govindarajan 1986; Kothari et al. 2010). Moreover, paprika oleoresin is an oil-derived product from red pepper with a significant amount of carotenoids and is utilised commercially for colouring of soaps, sauces and cosmetics. (Mı´nguez-Mosquera & Pe´rez-Ga´lvez 1998; Perez-Galvez & MinguezMosquera 2004). C. annuum L. is cultivated in different regions of the world; therefore, a number of names are associated with C. annuum L. A list of different vernacular names used for C. annuum L. are summarised in Table 1.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
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Table 1. Vernacular names of C. annuum L.
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Language
Names
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Scientific name C. annuum L. Ishtiaq et al. (2012) Other names English Red pepper, chilli, peppers, ajis, Minguez-Mosquera and Hornero-Mendez (1993), chiles, capsicum, paprika, Pieroni et al. (2004), Votava et al. (2005), halapeno chillies, poblano pepper Sharma and Joshi (2010), and Pandey et al. (2012) Urdu Lal mirch Rathore and Shekhawat (2008) Bengali Kacha morich, paka morich Takeda et al. (2008) Hindi Mirchi, lal mirch, mirch Dasgupta and Fowler (1997), Sharma and Joshi (2010), and Pandey et al. (2012) Sri Lankan Miris, welapu miris Takeda et al. (2008) Marches Peperoncino Pieroni et al. (2004) Punjabi Mirch Ishtiaq et al. (2012)
1.1. Proximate composition of C. annuum L Studies have revealed that chilli is a highly nutritive fruit possessing carbohydrate, fats, protein and minerals (Tripathi & Mishra 2009; Ismail et al. 2011). The composition of nutrients and minerals present in chilli is summarised in Table 2. 1.2. Antioxidants isolated from C. annuum L Amounts of various antioxidant chemicals isolated from chilli along with total amount of antioxidants present in chilli published in the literature are summarised in Table 3. 2. Pharmacological effects of C. annuum L Chilli not only possesses dietary significance but also displays pharmacological importance in human life. A number of pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, cardio-protective, anti-carcinogenic, have been extensively studied in the recent Table 2. Nutrients and mineral contents of C. annuum L. Composition
Content
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Ash Crude fibre Fat Total protein Total sugars Minerals Co Zn K Na Fe Mn Ca Mg Cu Ni
9.75% 18.98% 13.33% 18.01% 32.89% 100 g of edible portion 0.1064 mg/100 g 0.42 mg/100 g 5.55 mg/100 g 4.05 mg/100 g 3.5 mg/100 g 0.1300 mg/100 g 3.05 mg/100 g 2.36 mg/100 g 0.17 mg/100 g 0.060 mg/100 g
Tripathi and Mishra (2009)
Ismail et al. (2011)
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Table 3. Antioxidant chemicals isolated from C. annuum L. Composition
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Alanine Ascorbic acid b-Carotene Caffeic acid Histidine Methionine Myristic acid p-Coumaric acid Palmitic acid Tocopherol Tryptophan Capsaicin Ascorbic acid Total phenols Total carotenoids Total capsiacin Total antioxidant Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity
350– 4774 ppm 230– 20,982 ppm 0 – 462 ppm 0 – 11 ppm 170– 2319 ppm 100– 1364 ppm 10 – 136 ppm 0 – 79 ppm 500– 6820 ppm 0 – 24 ppm 110– 1500 ppm 100– 4000 ppm 86.98 (mg/100 g) 495.26 (mg/100 g) 133.65 (mg/100 g) 995.395 (mg/100 g) 2.64 mmol/100 g 6.05^ 0.003 (mmol of troloX/100 g of dried weight) 36.45þ1.98% 33.33þ0.17 %
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Antioxidant activity (% inhibition) Reducing power
Tripathi and Mishra (2009)
Halvorsen et al. (2002) Shan et al. (2005) Saidu and Garba (2011)
years (Table 4). Schistosoma mansoni is a parasite that causes schistosomiasis, which has affected 200 million people worldwide; C. annuum L. extract has been reported to be effective against this parasite (Molina-Torres et al. 1999) (Figure 1). 2.1. Antimicrobial activity Micro-organisms especially bacteria are developing drug resistance against antibiotics with the passage of time; therefore, the development of new therapeutics is a significant area of research. Chilli has been reported to exhibit significant antimicrobial activity against many microorganisms such as Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Lampe 2003; Adamu et al. 2005). Recently, a methanolic extract of red pepper
Figure 1. Chemicals derived from C. annuum L.
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Table 4. Pharmacological activities of C. annuum L. Sr. No. Pharmacological activity 1 2
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References
Antimicrobial activity
Lampe (2003), Adamu et al. (2005), Ribeiro et al. (2007), Cruz et al. (2010), and Yamasaki et al. (2011) Antioxidant activity Vinas et al. (1991), Navarro et al. (2006), Oboh et al. (2007), Chuah et al. (2008), Ogiso et al. (2008), Vega-Ga´lvez et al. (2009), Isabelle et al. (2010), Serrano et al. (2010), Luo et al. (2011), and Park et al. (2012) Anticancer activity Maoka et al. (2001), Mori et al. (2006), Rezanka and Sigler (2008), Alonso-Castro et al. (2011), and Luo et al. (2011) Anti-inflammatory activity Fraenkel et al. (2004), Srinivasan (2005), Bhattacharya et al. (2010), Luo et al. (2011), and Mueller et al. (2010) Antiviral activity Bourne et al. (1999)
was tested and found to be effective against multi-drug resistant Vibrio cholerae strains (Yamasaki et al. 2011). Antimicrobial peptides isolated from chilli has been found effective against a few types of yeast such as Candida cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces marxiannus, Pichia membranifaciens, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis and Candida albicans (Ribeiro et al. 2007). The literature review demonstrates that extracts and isolated peptides from chilli have been reported for their effectiveness against various microbes including, fungi (Cruz et al. 2010); therefore, a more targeted research on the extracts can be effective in isolating more lead compounds with antimicrobial therapeutic potential. 2.2. Antioxidant activity Vegetables with dark green leaves and bright colours are rich in antioxidant chemicals (Isabelle et al. 2010); C. annuum L. is one of them and was found to have the highest antioxidant activity in red maturity stage with a number of antioxidants such as lycopene (Navarro et al. 2006), ascorbic acid (Vega-Ga´lvez et al. 2009), p-coumaryl alcohol (Ogiso et al. 2008), ethoxyquin (Vinas et al. 1991) and capsaicinoids (Luo et al. 2011). Isolated phytochemicals have been reported to be effective against Fe(II)-induced lipid peroxidation (Oboh et al. 2007). In another study, methanolic extracts from C. annuum L. have been reported to inhibit 4-hydroxy-2nonenal-induced and H2O2-induced DNA damage, this study was performed on human leucocytes and a potential toxicity was reported against HT-29 cells (Park et al. 2012). Recently, it has been reported that the amount of antioxidant constituents of chilli can be increased by applying nitrophenolates in the irrigation system (Serrano et al. 2010). Furthermore, in a recent study, using less water and cooking time has also been suggested to obtain the maximum amount of antioxidants, which are lost during the cooking process (Chuah et al. 2008). Currently, a thorough research has been going on the various antioxidants isolated from chilli; however, scientific cultivation and nutritional studies are required to develop a better understanding of their importance and utilisation of the beneficial antioxidants present in chilli fruit. 2.3. Anticancer activity Pungency of chilli is majorly due the presence of capsaicin. Capsaicin has been reported to be effective, both in vitro and in vivo against the growth of prostate cancer cells (Mori et al. 2006). Chilli is the natural factory for capsaicinoid production, a class of important compounds, isolated from chilli and has been extensively studied both in vitro and in vivo for their antitumour activity (Luo et al. 2011). In ethnomedical use of Mexican plants, Capsicum was reported to be effective
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against gastric cancer (Alonso-Castro et al. 2011). Arsenic has also been reported to exhibit anticancer activity and in a study, it has been reported that the fruit of C. annuum L. is a site for maximum accumulation of arsenic (R´ezanka & Sigler 2008). In another study, carotenoids isolated from the red paprika have been reported for their cancer chemopreventive activity (Maoka et al. 2001). Reported literature demonstrates evidences of successful in vitro and in vivo studies against some cancer lines; these isolated chemicals from chilli can be further investigated on more cancer cell lines to widen the spectrum as currently 200 cancer types have been reported in 60 different organs of the human body, while there is a constant need of efficient and readily available anticancer therapeutics. 2.4. Anti-inflammatory activity Red pepper has a strong anti-inflammatory potential (Srinivasan 2005). Phenolic and flavonoid compounds present in chilli have been reported as anti-inflammatory agents (Bhattacharya et al. 2010). Capsaicinoids and capsinoids compounds (Luo et al. 2011) have also been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activities as well as pain-reducing properties. Highest antiinflammatory potential of chilli pepper was detected in a lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage model (Mueller et al. 2010). Capsaicin has been reported to be used orally or locally for the reduction of rheumatoid arthritis pain, inflammatory heat and noxious chemical hyperalgesia (Fraenkel et al. 2004). Therefore, it is evident from the literature that chilli not only has the burning flavour, but also it is an effective source of anti-inflammatory compounds. However, a more extensive research should be carried out to explore a wide range of applications for such chemicals, especially in accidental and post-surgical inflammations. 2.5. Antiviral activity Capsicum has been found to be rich in chemicals that are potent against a range of viruses, an example is cis-capsaicin (Civamide) which is not only active against herpes simplex virus (HSV) ailment in guinea pigs but has also been clinically trialled for relieving migraine headache pain. Civamide is reported to block viral replication cycle. Similarly, capsaicin has been reported to exhibit special effects on sensory neurons, which are directly involved in spreading and persistence of HSV infection (Bourne et al. 1999). The isolated compound from C. annuum L. such as vanilloid capsaicin was found to be active against the pathogenesis of HSV in animal models. Although chemicals isolated from chilli exhibit evidences of antiviral activity, still a very less work is reported on this aspect. Therefore, an extensive and comprehensive research work is required to explore and understand its importance in this ever growing and demanding field. 3. Summary Chilli is a famous spice in various parts of the world. Despite its dietary importance, the folklore of its medicinal importance is also well established. Although the pharmacological activities exhibited by chilli and isolated compounds from chilli are enormous including chemopreventive (Oyagbemi et al. 2010; Surh & Kundu 2011), analgesic (De Petrocellis et al. 2011), antilithogenic (Srinivasan 2013), anti-diarrhoeal, antiallergic, antidiabetic, antihypertension (Kwon et al. 2007) and hypoglycaemic (Chen & Kang 2013), only few have been summarised in detail in this review such as, antimicrobial (Nazzaro et al. 2009), antioxidant, anticancer, antifungal and antiviral. Chilli possesses a range of pharmacologically important chemicals such as capsaicinoids, which is a major class of compounds from chilli fruit consisting of capsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. Peroxisome
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proliferator-activated receptor alpha activation is directly related to the lipid profile of the body which has a direct relation with cardiovascular diseases; chilli extract has been reported for its effectiveness for its activation (Mueller et al. 2011). Extensive literature is available on some research areas but some areas are still not extensively explored such as antiviral potential; therefore, further investigations to use this common and economic fruit for the best therapeutic treatment of ailments are required and proposed.
Acknowledgements
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The authors acknowledge Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for providing facilities to carry out this work and we apologise to all our colleagues whose valuable research work could not be cited.
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Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L. a
a
a
Farhan A. Khan , Tariq Mahmood , Muhammad Ali , Abdul Saeed & Aneela Maalik
b
a
a
Department of Chemistry, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, KPK, Pakistan b
Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahaudin Zakriya University, Multan, Pakistan Published online: 21 Mar 2014.
To cite this article: Farhan A. Khan, Tariq Mahmood, Muhammad Ali, Abdul Saeed & Aneela Maalik (2014): Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L., Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.895723 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895723
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Natural Product Research, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895723
REVIEW Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L. Farhan A. Khana*, Tariq Mahmooda, Muhammad Alia, Abdul Saeedb and Aneela Maalika
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a Department of Chemistry, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, KPK, Pakistan; bInstitute of Chemical Sciences, Bahaudin Zakriya University, Multan, Pakistan
(Received 4 November 2013; final version received 14 February 2014) Capsicum annuum L., a fruit plant from tropical and subtropical regions, contains a range of essential nutrients and bioactive compounds which are known to exhibit a range of bioactivities including free radical scavenging (antioxidant), antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and anticancer. This review aims to give a comprehensive overview of the literature published on pharmacological behaviours of C. annuum L. Keywords: Capsicum; chilli; antimicrobial; antioxidant; anti-inflammatory; anticancer
1. Introduction Chilli or red pepper is a common name of Capsicum annuum L. which belongs to the family Solanaceae (Walsh & Hoot 2001). It is an annual or perennial shrub and commonly exists in two colourant species, for example red and green. Capsicum comprises 25– 30 species; five of them are extensively cultivated which are C. annuum L., Capsicum chinense Jacq., Capsicum pubescens, Capsicum baccatum and Capsicum frutescens L. (Kothari et al. 2010). C. annuum L. has been used by the Americans as a dietary component since 7500 BC (Perry et al. 2007). Chilli plants were first cultivated between 5200 and 3400 BC by the native Americans and are among the oldest cultivated crops (Meghvansi et al. 2010). A range of species of C. annuum L. has been cultivated in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, America and Mediterranean countries. Introduction of C. annuum L. in Europe, Asia and Africa is associated with the voyage of Columbus and is reported to have been brought into Europe, Middle East and Asia by Portuguese traders around 450 –500 years ago (Osuna-Garcı´a et al. 1998; Aydin et al. 2007). Capsicum fruit is of ethnopharmacological importance and used as a circulatory stimulant which has been traditionally used in most of the cuisines and food products due to its distinctive flavour, colour and aroma. Its vivid colour is due to a combination of esters of capsorubin, capsanthin, cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin and other carotenoids (Govindarajan 1986; Kothari et al. 2010). Moreover, paprika oleoresin is an oil-derived product from red pepper with a significant amount of carotenoids and is utilised commercially for colouring of soaps, sauces and cosmetics. (Mı´nguez-Mosquera & Pe´rez-Ga´lvez 1998; Perez-Galvez & MinguezMosquera 2004). C. annuum L. is cultivated in different regions of the world; therefore, a number of names are associated with C. annuum L. A list of different vernacular names used for C. annuum L. are summarised in Table 1.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
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Table 1. Vernacular names of C. annuum L.
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Language
Names
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Scientific name C. annuum L. Ishtiaq et al. (2012) Other names English Red pepper, chilli, peppers, ajis, Minguez-Mosquera and Hornero-Mendez (1993), chiles, capsicum, paprika, Pieroni et al. (2004), Votava et al. (2005), halapeno chillies, poblano pepper Sharma and Joshi (2010), and Pandey et al. (2012) Urdu Lal mirch Rathore and Shekhawat (2008) Bengali Kacha morich, paka morich Takeda et al. (2008) Hindi Mirchi, lal mirch, mirch Dasgupta and Fowler (1997), Sharma and Joshi (2010), and Pandey et al. (2012) Sri Lankan Miris, welapu miris Takeda et al. (2008) Marches Peperoncino Pieroni et al. (2004) Punjabi Mirch Ishtiaq et al. (2012)
1.1. Proximate composition of C. annuum L Studies have revealed that chilli is a highly nutritive fruit possessing carbohydrate, fats, protein and minerals (Tripathi & Mishra 2009; Ismail et al. 2011). The composition of nutrients and minerals present in chilli is summarised in Table 2. 1.2. Antioxidants isolated from C. annuum L Amounts of various antioxidant chemicals isolated from chilli along with total amount of antioxidants present in chilli published in the literature are summarised in Table 3. 2. Pharmacological effects of C. annuum L Chilli not only possesses dietary significance but also displays pharmacological importance in human life. A number of pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, cardio-protective, anti-carcinogenic, have been extensively studied in the recent Table 2. Nutrients and mineral contents of C. annuum L. Composition
Content
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Ash Crude fibre Fat Total protein Total sugars Minerals Co Zn K Na Fe Mn Ca Mg Cu Ni
9.75% 18.98% 13.33% 18.01% 32.89% 100 g of edible portion 0.1064 mg/100 g 0.42 mg/100 g 5.55 mg/100 g 4.05 mg/100 g 3.5 mg/100 g 0.1300 mg/100 g 3.05 mg/100 g 2.36 mg/100 g 0.17 mg/100 g 0.060 mg/100 g
Tripathi and Mishra (2009)
Ismail et al. (2011)
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Table 3. Antioxidant chemicals isolated from C. annuum L. Composition
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Alanine Ascorbic acid b-Carotene Caffeic acid Histidine Methionine Myristic acid p-Coumaric acid Palmitic acid Tocopherol Tryptophan Capsaicin Ascorbic acid Total phenols Total carotenoids Total capsiacin Total antioxidant Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity
350– 4774 ppm 230– 20,982 ppm 0 – 462 ppm 0 – 11 ppm 170– 2319 ppm 100– 1364 ppm 10 – 136 ppm 0 – 79 ppm 500– 6820 ppm 0 – 24 ppm 110– 1500 ppm 100– 4000 ppm 86.98 (mg/100 g) 495.26 (mg/100 g) 133.65 (mg/100 g) 995.395 (mg/100 g) 2.64 mmol/100 g 6.05^ 0.003 (mmol of troloX/100 g of dried weight) 36.45þ1.98% 33.33þ0.17 %
Suhaj (2006)
Antioxidant activity (% inhibition) Reducing power
Tripathi and Mishra (2009)
Halvorsen et al. (2002) Shan et al. (2005) Saidu and Garba (2011)
years (Table 4). Schistosoma mansoni is a parasite that causes schistosomiasis, which has affected 200 million people worldwide; C. annuum L. extract has been reported to be effective against this parasite (Molina-Torres et al. 1999) (Figure 1). 2.1. Antimicrobial activity Micro-organisms especially bacteria are developing drug resistance against antibiotics with the passage of time; therefore, the development of new therapeutics is a significant area of research. Chilli has been reported to exhibit significant antimicrobial activity against many microorganisms such as Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Lampe 2003; Adamu et al. 2005). Recently, a methanolic extract of red pepper
Figure 1. Chemicals derived from C. annuum L.
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Table 4. Pharmacological activities of C. annuum L. Sr. No. Pharmacological activity 1 2
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Antimicrobial activity
Lampe (2003), Adamu et al. (2005), Ribeiro et al. (2007), Cruz et al. (2010), and Yamasaki et al. (2011) Antioxidant activity Vinas et al. (1991), Navarro et al. (2006), Oboh et al. (2007), Chuah et al. (2008), Ogiso et al. (2008), Vega-Ga´lvez et al. (2009), Isabelle et al. (2010), Serrano et al. (2010), Luo et al. (2011), and Park et al. (2012) Anticancer activity Maoka et al. (2001), Mori et al. (2006), Rezanka and Sigler (2008), Alonso-Castro et al. (2011), and Luo et al. (2011) Anti-inflammatory activity Fraenkel et al. (2004), Srinivasan (2005), Bhattacharya et al. (2010), Luo et al. (2011), and Mueller et al. (2010) Antiviral activity Bourne et al. (1999)
was tested and found to be effective against multi-drug resistant Vibrio cholerae strains (Yamasaki et al. 2011). Antimicrobial peptides isolated from chilli has been found effective against a few types of yeast such as Candida cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces marxiannus, Pichia membranifaciens, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis and Candida albicans (Ribeiro et al. 2007). The literature review demonstrates that extracts and isolated peptides from chilli have been reported for their effectiveness against various microbes including, fungi (Cruz et al. 2010); therefore, a more targeted research on the extracts can be effective in isolating more lead compounds with antimicrobial therapeutic potential. 2.2. Antioxidant activity Vegetables with dark green leaves and bright colours are rich in antioxidant chemicals (Isabelle et al. 2010); C. annuum L. is one of them and was found to have the highest antioxidant activity in red maturity stage with a number of antioxidants such as lycopene (Navarro et al. 2006), ascorbic acid (Vega-Ga´lvez et al. 2009), p-coumaryl alcohol (Ogiso et al. 2008), ethoxyquin (Vinas et al. 1991) and capsaicinoids (Luo et al. 2011). Isolated phytochemicals have been reported to be effective against Fe(II)-induced lipid peroxidation (Oboh et al. 2007). In another study, methanolic extracts from C. annuum L. have been reported to inhibit 4-hydroxy-2nonenal-induced and H2O2-induced DNA damage, this study was performed on human leucocytes and a potential toxicity was reported against HT-29 cells (Park et al. 2012). Recently, it has been reported that the amount of antioxidant constituents of chilli can be increased by applying nitrophenolates in the irrigation system (Serrano et al. 2010). Furthermore, in a recent study, using less water and cooking time has also been suggested to obtain the maximum amount of antioxidants, which are lost during the cooking process (Chuah et al. 2008). Currently, a thorough research has been going on the various antioxidants isolated from chilli; however, scientific cultivation and nutritional studies are required to develop a better understanding of their importance and utilisation of the beneficial antioxidants present in chilli fruit. 2.3. Anticancer activity Pungency of chilli is majorly due the presence of capsaicin. Capsaicin has been reported to be effective, both in vitro and in vivo against the growth of prostate cancer cells (Mori et al. 2006). Chilli is the natural factory for capsaicinoid production, a class of important compounds, isolated from chilli and has been extensively studied both in vitro and in vivo for their antitumour activity (Luo et al. 2011). In ethnomedical use of Mexican plants, Capsicum was reported to be effective
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against gastric cancer (Alonso-Castro et al. 2011). Arsenic has also been reported to exhibit anticancer activity and in a study, it has been reported that the fruit of C. annuum L. is a site for maximum accumulation of arsenic (R´ezanka & Sigler 2008). In another study, carotenoids isolated from the red paprika have been reported for their cancer chemopreventive activity (Maoka et al. 2001). Reported literature demonstrates evidences of successful in vitro and in vivo studies against some cancer lines; these isolated chemicals from chilli can be further investigated on more cancer cell lines to widen the spectrum as currently 200 cancer types have been reported in 60 different organs of the human body, while there is a constant need of efficient and readily available anticancer therapeutics. 2.4. Anti-inflammatory activity Red pepper has a strong anti-inflammatory potential (Srinivasan 2005). Phenolic and flavonoid compounds present in chilli have been reported as anti-inflammatory agents (Bhattacharya et al. 2010). Capsaicinoids and capsinoids compounds (Luo et al. 2011) have also been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activities as well as pain-reducing properties. Highest antiinflammatory potential of chilli pepper was detected in a lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage model (Mueller et al. 2010). Capsaicin has been reported to be used orally or locally for the reduction of rheumatoid arthritis pain, inflammatory heat and noxious chemical hyperalgesia (Fraenkel et al. 2004). Therefore, it is evident from the literature that chilli not only has the burning flavour, but also it is an effective source of anti-inflammatory compounds. However, a more extensive research should be carried out to explore a wide range of applications for such chemicals, especially in accidental and post-surgical inflammations. 2.5. Antiviral activity Capsicum has been found to be rich in chemicals that are potent against a range of viruses, an example is cis-capsaicin (Civamide) which is not only active against herpes simplex virus (HSV) ailment in guinea pigs but has also been clinically trialled for relieving migraine headache pain. Civamide is reported to block viral replication cycle. Similarly, capsaicin has been reported to exhibit special effects on sensory neurons, which are directly involved in spreading and persistence of HSV infection (Bourne et al. 1999). The isolated compound from C. annuum L. such as vanilloid capsaicin was found to be active against the pathogenesis of HSV in animal models. Although chemicals isolated from chilli exhibit evidences of antiviral activity, still a very less work is reported on this aspect. Therefore, an extensive and comprehensive research work is required to explore and understand its importance in this ever growing and demanding field. 3. Summary Chilli is a famous spice in various parts of the world. Despite its dietary importance, the folklore of its medicinal importance is also well established. Although the pharmacological activities exhibited by chilli and isolated compounds from chilli are enormous including chemopreventive (Oyagbemi et al. 2010; Surh & Kundu 2011), analgesic (De Petrocellis et al. 2011), antilithogenic (Srinivasan 2013), anti-diarrhoeal, antiallergic, antidiabetic, antihypertension (Kwon et al. 2007) and hypoglycaemic (Chen & Kang 2013), only few have been summarised in detail in this review such as, antimicrobial (Nazzaro et al. 2009), antioxidant, anticancer, antifungal and antiviral. Chilli possesses a range of pharmacologically important chemicals such as capsaicinoids, which is a major class of compounds from chilli fruit consisting of capsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. Peroxisome
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proliferator-activated receptor alpha activation is directly related to the lipid profile of the body which has a direct relation with cardiovascular diseases; chilli extract has been reported for its effectiveness for its activation (Mueller et al. 2011). Extensive literature is available on some research areas but some areas are still not extensively explored such as antiviral potential; therefore, further investigations to use this common and economic fruit for the best therapeutic treatment of ailments are required and proposed.
Acknowledgements
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The authors acknowledge Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for providing facilities to carry out this work and we apologise to all our colleagues whose valuable research work could not be cited.
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