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The Journal of Social Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vsoc20
Personality Correlates of Altruistic Behavior under Four Experimental Conditions Katherine S. Schneider
a
a
University of Arkansas , Little Rock, USA Published online: 01 Jul 2010.
To cite this article: Katherine S. Schneider (1977) Personality Correlates of Altruistic Behavior under Four Experimental Conditions, The Journal of Social Psychology, 102:1, 113-116, DOI: 10.1080/00224545.1977.9713246 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1977.9713246
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
The Journal of Social Psychology, 1977, 102, 113-116.
PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR UNDER FOUR EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS*t University of Arkansas at Little Rock
KATHERINE S. SCHNEIDER2
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
SUMMARY
Effects of two sets of experimental conditions on altruistic behavior and personality correlates of this behavior were measured. Two hundred seventeen female S s were exposed to a request for help by the physically disabled E in one of four experimental conditions (high vs. low commitment and public vs. private report of commitment). Significantly greater percentages of Ss volunteered in the low commitment conditions. Volunteers were higher than nonvolunteers on Ascendance and Thoughtfulness, and lower on Objectivity on the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey. Differential effects of personality variables by experimental condition were discussed.
A.
INTRODUCTION
Altruism, defined here, paralleling Leeds (3), as a socially sanctioned act with positive consequences for another person, has been studied at the levels of environmental and trait determinants. Among the environmental variables studied have been effects of cost to the S of performing the act (8), and visibility of the potential recipient (6, pp. 251-268). Correlations of personality traits with altruistic behavior have been summarized well by Krebs (2). Altruistic behavior has been positively correlated with internal locus of control, extroversion, religious and social values, and needaffiliation and need-introception and has been negatively correlated with need-achievement and need-dominance. Unfortunately, most of these studies have used paper and pencil tests of altruism of questionable validity. • Received in the Editorial Office, Provincetown, Massachusetts, on February 17, 1976. Copyright, 1977, by The Journal Press. 1 This article is based on a dissertation submitted to Purdue University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. 2 Requests for reprints should be sent to the author at the address shown at the end of this article. 113
114
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
N either have the relationships of these personality correlates to the environmental demand characteristics of the situation been measured. It is clear from previous research that not everyone helps, although altruism is a norm which has positive cultural support. This makes it necessary to look beyond the environmental determinants alone, and to consider the personality correlates which may influence the individual's susceptibility to the environmental cues. The present study extends research into environmental and trait determinants of altruistic behavior and delineates, their interactions.
B.
METHOD
1.
Subjects
Two hundred seventeen female undergraduates in a large midwestern university were recruited to obtain university norms for two personality tests. S s participated in psychology experiments as part of their course requirements, but did choose this experiment. 2.
Instruments
S s completed Rotter's Locus of Control Scale (7) and the GuilfordZimmerman Temperament Survey [GZTS (1)].
3.
Procedure
S s were seated in a classroom in groups of approximately 40, including the principal E posing as an S. The E's confederate stated the purpose of the experiment (gathering university norms for two personality tests). During his explanation, the blind S (actually the principal E) asked to make a short request, as if on the spur of the moment. The request made, consisting of one of two levels of commitment paired with one of two methods of report of commitment, constituted the experimental condition. In the high commitment conditions, S s were asked to volunteer to read aloud to the blind S two hours per week for 15 weeks; in the low commitment conditions, the Ss were asked to read two hours altogether sometime during the semester. In the public report of commitment conditions, S s volunteered by raising their hands; in the private report of commitment conditions, S s volunteered privately. After one of the four requests was made, personality test administration proceeded, lasting approximately one hour. Afterwards, S s were debriefed. The data of the only S who guessed the "real" purpose of the experiment were eliminated from the study.
115
KATHERINE S. SCHNEIDER TABLE 1 PERCENTAGES OF VOLUNTEERS BY EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION
Commitment level Low
High Mean
Report condition Public
Private
Mean
32 20
23 12
27 16
25
15
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
Note: Mean percentages are weighted averages because of unequal cell sizes.
C.
RESULTS
ChF statistics were used to test for the differences between low and high commitment and public and private report of commitment conditions. A significant main effect was found for degree of commitment (x = 5.0, P < .05) and a nonsignificant trend for method of report of commitment (x2 = 3.1, P < .10). The interaction of the two sets of conditions was also significant (X 2 = 9.3, p < .05). Because of this interaction, percentages of volunteers in each condition or set of conditions are shown in Table 1. t tests were used to test the relationships between the 10 GZTS scales and the Locus of Control Scale and volunteering. When all conditions were combined, volunteers were higher than nonvolunteers on Ascendance and Thoughtfulness, and were lower on Objectivity. In the low public condition, which elicited the greatest percentage of volunteers, volunteers were more Ascendant and were lower on Friendliness than non volunteers. In the high private condition, which elicited the smallest pecrcentage of volunteers, volunteers were lower on Friendliness and Masculinity than nonvolunteers. Regression analyses were computed to determine which variables could predict volunteering with the greatest accuracy. For all conditions combined, personality variables accounted for 11% of the variance, with Ascendance being the most predictive. In the low public condition, personality variables accounted for 48% of the variance, again with Ascendance being the most predictive variable. In the low private condition, personality variables accounted for 21% of the variance, with General Activity being the most predictive. In the high public condition, personality variables accounted for 31% of the variance, with Objectivity as the most predictive. In the high private condition, personality variables accounted for 19% of the variance, with Masculinity as the most predictive.
116
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
D.
DISCUSSION
It is clear from these findings that degree of commitment was an important variable in predicting the response to this request for help, confirming the findings of Wagner (8) in a nonmonetary situation. The trend towards more volunteers, when volunteering is a public act, extends the findings of Lerner (4) and Piliavin and Rodin (5). In fact, this study indicates that a group, by its presence, increases the percentage of volunteers. Also, the interaction between conditions points out the necessity of considering all environmental variables possibly operative in a situation before making generalizations about anyone of the determinants of altruistic behavior. From the personality test data, a scattered picture emerges. However, it can be concluded that the volunteers in this study do not report themselves as the friendly, sociable, do-gooders of the popular image of altruists, but as goal-seeking introspective women, not distanced from their feelings. These findings contrast somewhat with the majority of studies reviewed by Krebs (2). This may be due in part to some studies' reliance on paper and pencil measures of altruism, more susceptible to endorsement of socially desirable statements. Also, these findings are only for female S s helping a female victim. A female S may typically have to be more ascendant than a male S to actually offer help. REFERENCES
GUILFORD, J. The Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. 2. KREBS, D. Altruism: An examination of the concept and a review of the literature. Psychol. Bull., 1970, 73, 258-302. 3. LEEDS, R. Altruism and the norma of giving. Merrill Palmer Quart., 1963,9,229-240. 4. LERNER, R. Helping behavior at a busstop. Psychol. Rep., 1971, 28, 609-610. 5. PILIAVIN, I., & RODIN, J. Good samaritanism. J. Personal. & Soc. Psychol., 1969, 13, 289. 6. ROSENHAN, D. The natural socialization of altruistic autonomy. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and Helping Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1970. 7. ROTTER, J. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychol. Monog., 1966, 80 (1), Whole No. 609. 8. WAGNER, C. Model need and cost effects in helping behavior. J. Personal. & Soc. Psychol., 1969, 12, 111-116. 1.
Department of Psychology University of Arkansas Little Rock, Arkansas 72204
The Journal of Social Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vsoc20
Personality Correlates of Altruistic Behavior under Four Experimental Conditions Katherine S. Schneider
a
a
University of Arkansas , Little Rock, USA Published online: 01 Jul 2010.
To cite this article: Katherine S. Schneider (1977) Personality Correlates of Altruistic Behavior under Four Experimental Conditions, The Journal of Social Psychology, 102:1, 113-116, DOI: 10.1080/00224545.1977.9713246 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1977.9713246
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
The Journal of Social Psychology, 1977, 102, 113-116.
PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR UNDER FOUR EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS*t University of Arkansas at Little Rock
KATHERINE S. SCHNEIDER2
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
SUMMARY
Effects of two sets of experimental conditions on altruistic behavior and personality correlates of this behavior were measured. Two hundred seventeen female S s were exposed to a request for help by the physically disabled E in one of four experimental conditions (high vs. low commitment and public vs. private report of commitment). Significantly greater percentages of Ss volunteered in the low commitment conditions. Volunteers were higher than nonvolunteers on Ascendance and Thoughtfulness, and lower on Objectivity on the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey. Differential effects of personality variables by experimental condition were discussed.
A.
INTRODUCTION
Altruism, defined here, paralleling Leeds (3), as a socially sanctioned act with positive consequences for another person, has been studied at the levels of environmental and trait determinants. Among the environmental variables studied have been effects of cost to the S of performing the act (8), and visibility of the potential recipient (6, pp. 251-268). Correlations of personality traits with altruistic behavior have been summarized well by Krebs (2). Altruistic behavior has been positively correlated with internal locus of control, extroversion, religious and social values, and needaffiliation and need-introception and has been negatively correlated with need-achievement and need-dominance. Unfortunately, most of these studies have used paper and pencil tests of altruism of questionable validity. • Received in the Editorial Office, Provincetown, Massachusetts, on February 17, 1976. Copyright, 1977, by The Journal Press. 1 This article is based on a dissertation submitted to Purdue University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. 2 Requests for reprints should be sent to the author at the address shown at the end of this article. 113
114
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
N either have the relationships of these personality correlates to the environmental demand characteristics of the situation been measured. It is clear from previous research that not everyone helps, although altruism is a norm which has positive cultural support. This makes it necessary to look beyond the environmental determinants alone, and to consider the personality correlates which may influence the individual's susceptibility to the environmental cues. The present study extends research into environmental and trait determinants of altruistic behavior and delineates, their interactions.
B.
METHOD
1.
Subjects
Two hundred seventeen female undergraduates in a large midwestern university were recruited to obtain university norms for two personality tests. S s participated in psychology experiments as part of their course requirements, but did choose this experiment. 2.
Instruments
S s completed Rotter's Locus of Control Scale (7) and the GuilfordZimmerman Temperament Survey [GZTS (1)].
3.
Procedure
S s were seated in a classroom in groups of approximately 40, including the principal E posing as an S. The E's confederate stated the purpose of the experiment (gathering university norms for two personality tests). During his explanation, the blind S (actually the principal E) asked to make a short request, as if on the spur of the moment. The request made, consisting of one of two levels of commitment paired with one of two methods of report of commitment, constituted the experimental condition. In the high commitment conditions, S s were asked to volunteer to read aloud to the blind S two hours per week for 15 weeks; in the low commitment conditions, the Ss were asked to read two hours altogether sometime during the semester. In the public report of commitment conditions, S s volunteered by raising their hands; in the private report of commitment conditions, S s volunteered privately. After one of the four requests was made, personality test administration proceeded, lasting approximately one hour. Afterwards, S s were debriefed. The data of the only S who guessed the "real" purpose of the experiment were eliminated from the study.
115
KATHERINE S. SCHNEIDER TABLE 1 PERCENTAGES OF VOLUNTEERS BY EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION
Commitment level Low
High Mean
Report condition Public
Private
Mean
32 20
23 12
27 16
25
15
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
Note: Mean percentages are weighted averages because of unequal cell sizes.
C.
RESULTS
ChF statistics were used to test for the differences between low and high commitment and public and private report of commitment conditions. A significant main effect was found for degree of commitment (x = 5.0, P < .05) and a nonsignificant trend for method of report of commitment (x2 = 3.1, P < .10). The interaction of the two sets of conditions was also significant (X 2 = 9.3, p < .05). Because of this interaction, percentages of volunteers in each condition or set of conditions are shown in Table 1. t tests were used to test the relationships between the 10 GZTS scales and the Locus of Control Scale and volunteering. When all conditions were combined, volunteers were higher than nonvolunteers on Ascendance and Thoughtfulness, and were lower on Objectivity. In the low public condition, which elicited the greatest percentage of volunteers, volunteers were more Ascendant and were lower on Friendliness than non volunteers. In the high private condition, which elicited the smallest pecrcentage of volunteers, volunteers were lower on Friendliness and Masculinity than nonvolunteers. Regression analyses were computed to determine which variables could predict volunteering with the greatest accuracy. For all conditions combined, personality variables accounted for 11% of the variance, with Ascendance being the most predictive. In the low public condition, personality variables accounted for 48% of the variance, again with Ascendance being the most predictive variable. In the low private condition, personality variables accounted for 21% of the variance, with General Activity being the most predictive. In the high public condition, personality variables accounted for 31% of the variance, with Objectivity as the most predictive. In the high private condition, personality variables accounted for 19% of the variance, with Masculinity as the most predictive.
116
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Downloaded by [Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen] at 06:05 16 December 2014
D.
DISCUSSION
It is clear from these findings that degree of commitment was an important variable in predicting the response to this request for help, confirming the findings of Wagner (8) in a nonmonetary situation. The trend towards more volunteers, when volunteering is a public act, extends the findings of Lerner (4) and Piliavin and Rodin (5). In fact, this study indicates that a group, by its presence, increases the percentage of volunteers. Also, the interaction between conditions points out the necessity of considering all environmental variables possibly operative in a situation before making generalizations about anyone of the determinants of altruistic behavior. From the personality test data, a scattered picture emerges. However, it can be concluded that the volunteers in this study do not report themselves as the friendly, sociable, do-gooders of the popular image of altruists, but as goal-seeking introspective women, not distanced from their feelings. These findings contrast somewhat with the majority of studies reviewed by Krebs (2). This may be due in part to some studies' reliance on paper and pencil measures of altruism, more susceptible to endorsement of socially desirable statements. Also, these findings are only for female S s helping a female victim. A female S may typically have to be more ascendant than a male S to actually offer help. REFERENCES
GUILFORD, J. The Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. 2. KREBS, D. Altruism: An examination of the concept and a review of the literature. Psychol. Bull., 1970, 73, 258-302. 3. LEEDS, R. Altruism and the norma of giving. Merrill Palmer Quart., 1963,9,229-240. 4. LERNER, R. Helping behavior at a busstop. Psychol. Rep., 1971, 28, 609-610. 5. PILIAVIN, I., & RODIN, J. Good samaritanism. J. Personal. & Soc. Psychol., 1969, 13, 289. 6. ROSENHAN, D. The natural socialization of altruistic autonomy. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and Helping Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1970. 7. ROTTER, J. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychol. Monog., 1966, 80 (1), Whole No. 609. 8. WAGNER, C. Model need and cost effects in helping behavior. J. Personal. & Soc. Psychol., 1969, 12, 111-116. 1.
Department of Psychology University of Arkansas Little Rock, Arkansas 72204
