Eating Behaviors 15 (2014) 615–618
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Eating Behaviors
Personality and psychological correlates of eating disorder symptoms among male collegiate athletes☆ Nick Galli a,⁎, Trent A. Petrie b, Christy Greenleaf c, Justine J. Reel d, Jennifer E. Carter e a
University of Utah, Department of Health Promotion and Education, 1901 E. South Campus Drive, #2142, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States University of North Texas, United States University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, United States d University of North Carolina at Wilmington, United States e The Ohio State University, United States b c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 5 February 2014 Received in revised form 21 June 2014 Accepted 21 August 2014 Available online 29 August 2014 Keywords: Male athletes Eating disorders Personality Disordered eating
a b s t r a c t Despite a proliferation of research on disordered eating in female athletes, few studies have included male athletes. The purpose of this study was to determine which of five personality and psychological variables of interest (i.e., perfectionism, self-esteem, optimism, reasons for exercise, and appearance orientation) best predicted eating disorder status (i.e., symptomatic or asymptomatic) in male athletes. Two hundred three male athletes (Mage = 20.29, SD = 1.64) from three National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I institutions participated. More athletes were asymptomatic (80.8%) than symptomatic (19.2%). None of the variables significantly predicted symptomatic status. These findings contrast the literature on predictors of disordered eating symptomatology among female athletes, and suggest the need for further research to identify other potential predictors of eating disturbance among male athletes. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Male athletes are a sub-population of men who may be particularly atrisk for disordered eating due to the inherent emphasis on body weight, size, and shape within the sport environment (Thompson & Sherman, 2010). Little is known, however, about the personality and psychological factors that influence male athletes' risk of developing disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, though research with female athletes (e.g., Brannan, Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2009; Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2009) and existing theoretical models (e.g., Petrie & Greenleaf, 2012) provide direction. Variables that have been related to eating disorder symptomatology in female athletes include perfectionism (Schwarz, Gairrett, Aruguete, & Gold, 2005; Petrie et al., 2009), selfesteem (Berry & Howe, 2000; Brannan et al., 2009; Engel et al., 2003), reasons for exercising (Petrie et al., 2009), and appearance orientation (Petrie et al., 2009). Because the aforementioned variables are important in understanding eating disorders in female athletes, it would seem that they also warrant investigation with male athletes. Athletes generally are more perfectionistic than nonathletes (Schwarz et al., 2005), and perfectionism is a correlate for bulimic symptomatology (Jacobi, Hayward, de Zwann, Kraemer, & Agras, 2004). Such perfectionism, in particular being self-critical and having high standards, may increase the likelihood of negative self- and body-evaluations and thus ☆ The authors would like to acknowledge the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) for their support in funding this investigation. ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Galli).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.08.007 1471-0153/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
the potential of engaging in disordered eating. Research regarding the association between perfectionism and disordered eating has been conducted primarily with female athletes (Petrie et al., 2009) and findings have been equivocal (e.g., Haase, Prapavessis, & Owens, 2002), suggesting the need to examine it multidimensionally in samples of male athletes. Psychological well-being can be represented through high levels of self-esteem and optimism; individuals scoring high on these dimensions would be less likely to internalize societal pressures about appearance and eschew emotional eating as a coping response to stress. Engel et al. (2003) found that self-esteem was related inversely to drive for thinness and food restriction among female collegiate athletes; no such association occurred in a study of male athletes (Milligan & Pritchard, 2006). Similarly, there is evidence that optimism has protective effects against disordered eating among young adult men and women (e.g., Brown, Schiraldi, & Wrobleski, 2009). Although training for sport performance is likely the primary reason athletes exercise, pressures from society and sport to “look like” or have an “athletic” appearance (e.g., lean and muscular) also may play a role (Galli & Reel, 2009). For female collegiate athletes, exercising to be more physically attractive significantly increased the likelihood of their being classified as symptomatic/eating disordered (Petrie et al., 2009). Among men, exercising to enhance appearance has been related to lower body esteem (Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005) and higher levels of disordered eating (Furnham, Badmin, & Sneade, 2002). An increasing emphasis on and concern with appearance may lead men to become more dissatisfied with the size and shape of their
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N. Galli et al. / Eating Behaviors 15 (2014) 615–618
bodies, which is a known risk factor in the development of bulimic symptomatology (Stice, 2002). Such a relationship has been found in female athletes (e.g., Petrie et al., 2009), and college-aged male athletes reported being strongly influenced by the media, peers, and coaches to focus on the appearance of their bodies, which is the central characteristic of appearance orientation (Galli & Reel, 2009). Because so little is known about psychological and personality correlates of disordered eating among male athletes, we examined the relation of perfectionism, self-esteem, optimism, reasons for exercise, and appearance orientation to eating disorder classification. Knowledge of the personal characteristics related to eating disorder symptomatology in male athletes will be useful in helping coaches, athletic trainers, and others with a vested interest in the health and well-being of athletes identify and intervene with those athletes who might be at an elevated risk for problematic eating behavior. We hypothesized that symptomatic male athletes would report lower levels of self-esteem and optimism, be more likely to report exercising to improve their appearance, and place more emphasis on appearance than their asymptomatic peers. Due to the equivocal findings regarding perfectionism, no specific hypothesis was made.
1. Method 1.1. Participants Male athletes (n = 203; M age = 20.29 years, SD = 1.64; MBMI = 27.51 kg/m2, SD = 5.25) from three NCAA Division I institutions in the Mountain West, Southwest, and Midwest regions of the United States participated. These athletes were part of a larger study of the physical and psychological health of student-athletes funded by a grant from the NCAA. Any male athlete who participated in a varsity sport at the time of recruitment was eligible to participate. Athletes were White (58.1%), followed by Hispanic/Latino (30.5%), Asian– American (7.4%), African–American (1.5%), and “other” (2.5%); 27.6% were freshmen, 24.6% sophomores, 28.1% juniors, and 19.7% seniors. Athletes participated in 16 sports, including football (n = 102), baseball (n = 25), track & field (n = 21), swimming (n = 13), basketball (n = 8), lacrosse (n = 6), cheerleading (n = 5), cross-country (n = 5), golf (n = 4), ice hockey (n = 4), diving (n = 2), fencing (n = 2), alpine skiing (n = 2), wrestling (n = 2), volleyball (n = 1), and soccer (n = 1). According to criteria suggested by SundgotBorgen (1994), the vast majority (n = 147) of the athletes in this sample were classified as ‘ball game’ athletes, followed by ‘power’ (n = 21), ‘endurance’ (n = 18), ‘technical’ (n = 8), ‘aesthetic’ (n = 7), and ‘weight dependent’ (n = 2).
1.2. Instruments 1.2.1. Demographics We assessed age, race/ethnicity, current height and weight, grade level, and sport.
1.2.2. Disordered eating The 50-item Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses (Q-EDD; Mintz, O'Halloran, Mulholland, & Schneider, 1997) was used to classify the athletes: eating disordered (i.e., anorexia, bulimia, subthreshold bulimia, non-bingeing bulimia, and binge eating disorder), symptomatic (i.e., some symptoms, but not sufficient for a diagnosis), or asymptomatic (i.e., no diagnosable eating disorder symptoms) based on DSM-IV criteria. Mintz et al. (1997) provided extensive evidence on the scale's reliability and validity, and it has been used effectively to determine eating disorder classification in male and female athletes (Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2008; Petrie et al., 2009).
1.2.3. Perfectionism The 29-item from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) measured five dimensions of perfectionism: Concern over Mistakes (CM), Personal Standards (PS), Parental Expectations (PE), Parental Criticism (PC), and Doubts about Actions (DA). Mean total subscale scores range from 1, low, to 5, high. Although originally developed to measure perfectionism in women, the MPS has shown construct validity and reliability in male samples (see Clavin, Clavin, Gayton, & Broida, 1996). Gotwals, Dunn, and Wayment (2003) reported Cronbach's alphas of .84, .80, .70, .80, and .70, respectively, for the CM, PS, PE, PC, and DA subscales in a sample of male collegiate athletes; they also provided evidence for the scale's validity. Cronbach's alphas from the current sample were .85 (CM), .81 (PS), .68 (PE) .77 (PC), and .76 (DA). 1.2.4. Psychological well-being The 10-item Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R; Scheier et al., 1994) assessed generalized expectancies for positive versus negative outcomes. Total scores can range from 6, low, to 30, high. Scheier et al. (1994) found the LOT-R to be internally consistent (α = .78) in a co-ed sample of undergraduates; Cronbach's alpha in the current study was .79. In addition, they provided evidence for the scale's convergent validity. The 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965) measured personal judgments of overall worth. Total scores ranged from 10, low, to 40, high. Petrie et al. (2009) reported a Cronbach's alpha of .88 in a sample of female collegiate athletes; alpha for the current sample was .85. Extensive evidence of the scale's construct validity in men and women has been documented (Robinson & Shaver, 1973). 1.2.5. Reasons for exercise Twenty-two items from the Reasons for Exercise Inventory (REI; Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, Timko, & Rodin, 1988) measured athletes' motivations for exercising along three dimensions (Petrie, Austin, Harmison, & Jenkins, 1997; Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008): Health and Fitness, Appearance and Attractiveness, and Socializing and Mood Management. Mean scores represent each factor total score and range from 1, low, to 7, high. Although originally developed with women, the REI has been successfully used to study body image in men (Smith, Handley, & Eldredge, 1998). Petrie et al. (1997) reported Cronbach's alphas of .90 (Health), .86 (Appearance), and .82 (Socializing/Mood) amongst undergraduates; alphas for the current study were .91, .82, and .81. The factors have been associated significantly with obligatory exercise, and socializing/mood and appearance were related to higher levels of bulimic symptomatology and body dissatisfaction (Brannan et al., 2009). 1.2.6. Appearance orientation The 12-item Appearance Orientation scale (MBSRQ-AO; Cash, 1994) assessed how invested athletes were in their looks and how much time/ focus they put into trying to improve their appearance. Total score is the mean and can range from 1, low investment, to 5, high investment. The MBSRQ has been used as an indicator of body image in men as well as women (e.g., Pritchard, 2014). Alpha for the current study was .79. 1.3. Procedures We obtained approval from each of the three school's IRBs and the athletic directors and head coaches from each school's athletics department. The researcher at each institution scheduled data collection times directly with the head coaches who agreed to have their athletes participate. Each data collection was anonymous and voluntary, and took place throughout the year with only the researcher present to administer the survey packet. Upon completion, the researchers provided the athletes $5.00 for their participation in compliance with NCAA guidelines.
N. Galli et al. / Eating Behaviors 15 (2014) 615–618
1.4. Data analysis Data were inspected for missing values, outliers, and normality by examining frequency tables, box plots, and histograms using SPSS version 20. Less than 1% of data were missing at the item level and replacements were made using mean substitution (Parent, 2013). Skewness and kurtosis were within acceptable ranges. To determine the extent to which the personality and psychological variables differentiated between the two eating disorder classifications (i.e., asymptomatic vs. symptomatic), we applied logistic regression with the subscales of the MPS, LOT-R, REI, and MBSRQ serving as the predictor variables, and eating disorder classification (1 = eating disordered, 2 = non-eating disordered). Due to the low number of athletes in several of the sport types, thus limiting our ability to make meaningful comparisons, all athletes were combined into a single analysis.
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Table 2 Logistic regression analysis of QEDD eating group classification (asymptomatic vs. symptomatic) as a function of personality and psychological variables (N = 203). Variables
B
Wald test
OR
95% CI
Concerns about mistakes Personal standards Parental expectations Parental criticism Doubts about actions Self-esteem Dispositional optimism Exercising for mood management Exercising for appearance Exercising for health/fitness Appearance orientation
.27 .20 −.02 .10 −.26 −.01 .04 −.12 .26 .14 −.21
.47 .30 .01 .12 .68 .01 .67 .56 1.79 .42 .42
1.32 1.22 .98 1.11 .77 1.00 1.04 .88 1.30 1.15 .81
.60, 2.88 .60, 2.46 .49, 1.94 .61, 1.99 .42, 1.42 .90, 1.10 .95, 1.14 .64, 1.22 .89, 1.91 .75, 1.75 .43, 1.52
Note: OR—odds ratio; 95% CI—95% confidence interval for the odds ratio with lower and upper limits.
2. Results Based on their Q-EDD responses, 164 (80.8%) male athletes were asymptomatic, and 39 (19.2%) were symptomatic; no athletes were classified as eating disordered. In Table 1, the means, standard deviations, and correlations amongst the predictor variables are presented. Overall, the variables did not distinguish significantly between the two QEDD groups, χ2 (11, N = 203) = 7.45, p = .76. The predictor variables accounted for only 6% of the variance in QEDD group status (i.e., Nagelkerke R2 = .058); thus, the overall effect size was small. Although 80.8% of all the athletes and 100% of those who were asymptomatic were classified correctly, none (0%) of the symptomatic athletes were. Table 2 contains the regression coefficients, Wald test statistic, and odds ratio (OR; plus 95% confidence interval) for each variable. 3. Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine the relation of perfectionism, self-esteem, optimism, reasons for exercise, and appearance orientation to eating disorder classification in male collegiate athletes. Surprisingly, the personality and psychological variables were unable to significantly predict the male athletes' QEDD grouping, explaining only 6% of the eating disorder classification. The failure in the variables as predictors came in their ability to differentiate those athletes who were symptomatic from the men who were asymptomatic, as none of the symptomatic athletes were classified correctly. Our findings are in
Table 1 Means and standard deviations for psychological and personality variables by eating disorder status (N = 203). Variable
MPS—concern about mistakes MPS—personal standards MPS—parental expectations MPS—parental criticism MPS—doubts about actions Self-esteem Optimism REI—socializing and mood REI—appearance and attractiveness REI—health and fitness Appearance orientation
Symptomatic (n = 39)
Asymptomatic (n = 164)
M
SD
M
SD
2.83 3.81 3.42 2.34 2.63 34.13 21.64 3.76 4.80 5.86 3.20
.75 .77 .81 .96 .78 4.84 3.97 1.32 1.39 .97 .74
2.70 3.66 3.33 2.29 2.67 33.88 21.01 3.64 4.36 5.53 3.19
.79 .66 .70 .87 .85 5.14 4.51 1.47 1.38 1.23 .60
Note: MPS—Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale subscales: Concern about Mistakes, Personal Standards, Parental Expectations, Parental Criticism, Doubts About Actions (1, low, to 5, high); Self-Esteem (Rosenberg self-esteem scale—10, low to 40, high); Optimism (Life Orientation Test—6, low, to 30, high); REI—Reasons for Exercise Inventory subscales: socializing and mood, appearance and attractiveness, and health and fitness (1, low, to 7, high); App Orient—Appearance orientation subscale (1, low, to 5, high).
contrast to research with female athletes where 50% of the symptomatic, 90.5% of the asymptomatic, and 79.4% of the athletes overall were correctly classified (Nagelkerke R2 = .34; Petrie et al., 2009). Similar to our findings, all forms of perfectionism were unrelated to eating disorder classification in the Petrie et al. study. However, these authors found that a greater focus on appearance and exercising to be more attractive and lower levels of self-esteem were associated with an increased likelihood of being symptomatic in female athletes, which was not the case in the current study. Our study, and others (e.g., Haase et al., 2002), suggest that the same psychological and personality factors that may be related to indices of disordered eating for female athletes do not necessarily apply to male athletes, and that variables need to be tested separately by gender to verify risk within each group. Further, researchers will want to consider other psychological variables that may be more relevant to male athletes, such as identity foreclosure, fear of stigmatization, low social support, and need for social approval (Papathomas & Lavallee, 2006), and examine other disordered eating outcomes, such as drive for muscularity, drive for leanness, and anabolic steroid use (Petrie & Greenleaf, 2012). Finally, it might be interesting to employ measures of eating disorder diagnosis specific to men, such as the recently developed Eating Disorder Assessment for Men (EDAM; Stanford & Lemberg, 2012). Some limitations were present in the current study and should be noted. First, although our sample was diverse in terms of racial/ethnic status, we had few Non-Hispanic/Black athlete participants, limiting the conclusions that can be drawn about that group of male athletes. Second, all constructs were measured through self-report, so monomethod reporting bias is a consideration. Even so, we used reliable and valid measures and collected data in a manner that assured anonymity and no direct influence from coaches or other athletic department personnel. Finally, our convenience sample contained relatively few athletes from sports with an explicit emphasis on leanness and body weight (e.g., wrestling, rowing, gymnastics), which have shown to be associated with higher eating disorder risk in male and female athletes (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994; Thiel, Gottfried, & Hesse, 1993). The purposeful inclusion of more athletes from such sports in future studies will allow for a clearer examination of eating disorder symptom predictors in male athletes. The results of this study suggest that personality and psychological factors found to distinguish between symptomatic and asymptomatic female athletes may not apply to their male collegiate counterparts. These findings highlight differences in the potential risk factors for disordered eating between male and female athletes and suggest that, perhaps other health-risk outcomes (e.g., drive for muscularity, anabolic steroid use) should be considered. As researchers learn more about the differences in the psychological variables that increase male and female athletes' risk of disordered eating, the potential for developing more targeted and effective interventions improves.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Eating Behaviors
Personality and psychological correlates of eating disorder symptoms among male collegiate athletes☆ Nick Galli a,⁎, Trent A. Petrie b, Christy Greenleaf c, Justine J. Reel d, Jennifer E. Carter e a
University of Utah, Department of Health Promotion and Education, 1901 E. South Campus Drive, #2142, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States University of North Texas, United States University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, United States d University of North Carolina at Wilmington, United States e The Ohio State University, United States b c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 5 February 2014 Received in revised form 21 June 2014 Accepted 21 August 2014 Available online 29 August 2014 Keywords: Male athletes Eating disorders Personality Disordered eating
a b s t r a c t Despite a proliferation of research on disordered eating in female athletes, few studies have included male athletes. The purpose of this study was to determine which of five personality and psychological variables of interest (i.e., perfectionism, self-esteem, optimism, reasons for exercise, and appearance orientation) best predicted eating disorder status (i.e., symptomatic or asymptomatic) in male athletes. Two hundred three male athletes (Mage = 20.29, SD = 1.64) from three National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I institutions participated. More athletes were asymptomatic (80.8%) than symptomatic (19.2%). None of the variables significantly predicted symptomatic status. These findings contrast the literature on predictors of disordered eating symptomatology among female athletes, and suggest the need for further research to identify other potential predictors of eating disturbance among male athletes. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Male athletes are a sub-population of men who may be particularly atrisk for disordered eating due to the inherent emphasis on body weight, size, and shape within the sport environment (Thompson & Sherman, 2010). Little is known, however, about the personality and psychological factors that influence male athletes' risk of developing disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, though research with female athletes (e.g., Brannan, Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2009; Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2009) and existing theoretical models (e.g., Petrie & Greenleaf, 2012) provide direction. Variables that have been related to eating disorder symptomatology in female athletes include perfectionism (Schwarz, Gairrett, Aruguete, & Gold, 2005; Petrie et al., 2009), selfesteem (Berry & Howe, 2000; Brannan et al., 2009; Engel et al., 2003), reasons for exercising (Petrie et al., 2009), and appearance orientation (Petrie et al., 2009). Because the aforementioned variables are important in understanding eating disorders in female athletes, it would seem that they also warrant investigation with male athletes. Athletes generally are more perfectionistic than nonathletes (Schwarz et al., 2005), and perfectionism is a correlate for bulimic symptomatology (Jacobi, Hayward, de Zwann, Kraemer, & Agras, 2004). Such perfectionism, in particular being self-critical and having high standards, may increase the likelihood of negative self- and body-evaluations and thus ☆ The authors would like to acknowledge the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) for their support in funding this investigation. ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Galli).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.08.007 1471-0153/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
the potential of engaging in disordered eating. Research regarding the association between perfectionism and disordered eating has been conducted primarily with female athletes (Petrie et al., 2009) and findings have been equivocal (e.g., Haase, Prapavessis, & Owens, 2002), suggesting the need to examine it multidimensionally in samples of male athletes. Psychological well-being can be represented through high levels of self-esteem and optimism; individuals scoring high on these dimensions would be less likely to internalize societal pressures about appearance and eschew emotional eating as a coping response to stress. Engel et al. (2003) found that self-esteem was related inversely to drive for thinness and food restriction among female collegiate athletes; no such association occurred in a study of male athletes (Milligan & Pritchard, 2006). Similarly, there is evidence that optimism has protective effects against disordered eating among young adult men and women (e.g., Brown, Schiraldi, & Wrobleski, 2009). Although training for sport performance is likely the primary reason athletes exercise, pressures from society and sport to “look like” or have an “athletic” appearance (e.g., lean and muscular) also may play a role (Galli & Reel, 2009). For female collegiate athletes, exercising to be more physically attractive significantly increased the likelihood of their being classified as symptomatic/eating disordered (Petrie et al., 2009). Among men, exercising to enhance appearance has been related to lower body esteem (Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005) and higher levels of disordered eating (Furnham, Badmin, & Sneade, 2002). An increasing emphasis on and concern with appearance may lead men to become more dissatisfied with the size and shape of their
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bodies, which is a known risk factor in the development of bulimic symptomatology (Stice, 2002). Such a relationship has been found in female athletes (e.g., Petrie et al., 2009), and college-aged male athletes reported being strongly influenced by the media, peers, and coaches to focus on the appearance of their bodies, which is the central characteristic of appearance orientation (Galli & Reel, 2009). Because so little is known about psychological and personality correlates of disordered eating among male athletes, we examined the relation of perfectionism, self-esteem, optimism, reasons for exercise, and appearance orientation to eating disorder classification. Knowledge of the personal characteristics related to eating disorder symptomatology in male athletes will be useful in helping coaches, athletic trainers, and others with a vested interest in the health and well-being of athletes identify and intervene with those athletes who might be at an elevated risk for problematic eating behavior. We hypothesized that symptomatic male athletes would report lower levels of self-esteem and optimism, be more likely to report exercising to improve their appearance, and place more emphasis on appearance than their asymptomatic peers. Due to the equivocal findings regarding perfectionism, no specific hypothesis was made.
1. Method 1.1. Participants Male athletes (n = 203; M age = 20.29 years, SD = 1.64; MBMI = 27.51 kg/m2, SD = 5.25) from three NCAA Division I institutions in the Mountain West, Southwest, and Midwest regions of the United States participated. These athletes were part of a larger study of the physical and psychological health of student-athletes funded by a grant from the NCAA. Any male athlete who participated in a varsity sport at the time of recruitment was eligible to participate. Athletes were White (58.1%), followed by Hispanic/Latino (30.5%), Asian– American (7.4%), African–American (1.5%), and “other” (2.5%); 27.6% were freshmen, 24.6% sophomores, 28.1% juniors, and 19.7% seniors. Athletes participated in 16 sports, including football (n = 102), baseball (n = 25), track & field (n = 21), swimming (n = 13), basketball (n = 8), lacrosse (n = 6), cheerleading (n = 5), cross-country (n = 5), golf (n = 4), ice hockey (n = 4), diving (n = 2), fencing (n = 2), alpine skiing (n = 2), wrestling (n = 2), volleyball (n = 1), and soccer (n = 1). According to criteria suggested by SundgotBorgen (1994), the vast majority (n = 147) of the athletes in this sample were classified as ‘ball game’ athletes, followed by ‘power’ (n = 21), ‘endurance’ (n = 18), ‘technical’ (n = 8), ‘aesthetic’ (n = 7), and ‘weight dependent’ (n = 2).
1.2. Instruments 1.2.1. Demographics We assessed age, race/ethnicity, current height and weight, grade level, and sport.
1.2.2. Disordered eating The 50-item Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses (Q-EDD; Mintz, O'Halloran, Mulholland, & Schneider, 1997) was used to classify the athletes: eating disordered (i.e., anorexia, bulimia, subthreshold bulimia, non-bingeing bulimia, and binge eating disorder), symptomatic (i.e., some symptoms, but not sufficient for a diagnosis), or asymptomatic (i.e., no diagnosable eating disorder symptoms) based on DSM-IV criteria. Mintz et al. (1997) provided extensive evidence on the scale's reliability and validity, and it has been used effectively to determine eating disorder classification in male and female athletes (Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2008; Petrie et al., 2009).
1.2.3. Perfectionism The 29-item from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) measured five dimensions of perfectionism: Concern over Mistakes (CM), Personal Standards (PS), Parental Expectations (PE), Parental Criticism (PC), and Doubts about Actions (DA). Mean total subscale scores range from 1, low, to 5, high. Although originally developed to measure perfectionism in women, the MPS has shown construct validity and reliability in male samples (see Clavin, Clavin, Gayton, & Broida, 1996). Gotwals, Dunn, and Wayment (2003) reported Cronbach's alphas of .84, .80, .70, .80, and .70, respectively, for the CM, PS, PE, PC, and DA subscales in a sample of male collegiate athletes; they also provided evidence for the scale's validity. Cronbach's alphas from the current sample were .85 (CM), .81 (PS), .68 (PE) .77 (PC), and .76 (DA). 1.2.4. Psychological well-being The 10-item Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R; Scheier et al., 1994) assessed generalized expectancies for positive versus negative outcomes. Total scores can range from 6, low, to 30, high. Scheier et al. (1994) found the LOT-R to be internally consistent (α = .78) in a co-ed sample of undergraduates; Cronbach's alpha in the current study was .79. In addition, they provided evidence for the scale's convergent validity. The 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965) measured personal judgments of overall worth. Total scores ranged from 10, low, to 40, high. Petrie et al. (2009) reported a Cronbach's alpha of .88 in a sample of female collegiate athletes; alpha for the current sample was .85. Extensive evidence of the scale's construct validity in men and women has been documented (Robinson & Shaver, 1973). 1.2.5. Reasons for exercise Twenty-two items from the Reasons for Exercise Inventory (REI; Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, Timko, & Rodin, 1988) measured athletes' motivations for exercising along three dimensions (Petrie, Austin, Harmison, & Jenkins, 1997; Prichard & Tiggemann, 2008): Health and Fitness, Appearance and Attractiveness, and Socializing and Mood Management. Mean scores represent each factor total score and range from 1, low, to 7, high. Although originally developed with women, the REI has been successfully used to study body image in men (Smith, Handley, & Eldredge, 1998). Petrie et al. (1997) reported Cronbach's alphas of .90 (Health), .86 (Appearance), and .82 (Socializing/Mood) amongst undergraduates; alphas for the current study were .91, .82, and .81. The factors have been associated significantly with obligatory exercise, and socializing/mood and appearance were related to higher levels of bulimic symptomatology and body dissatisfaction (Brannan et al., 2009). 1.2.6. Appearance orientation The 12-item Appearance Orientation scale (MBSRQ-AO; Cash, 1994) assessed how invested athletes were in their looks and how much time/ focus they put into trying to improve their appearance. Total score is the mean and can range from 1, low investment, to 5, high investment. The MBSRQ has been used as an indicator of body image in men as well as women (e.g., Pritchard, 2014). Alpha for the current study was .79. 1.3. Procedures We obtained approval from each of the three school's IRBs and the athletic directors and head coaches from each school's athletics department. The researcher at each institution scheduled data collection times directly with the head coaches who agreed to have their athletes participate. Each data collection was anonymous and voluntary, and took place throughout the year with only the researcher present to administer the survey packet. Upon completion, the researchers provided the athletes $5.00 for their participation in compliance with NCAA guidelines.
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1.4. Data analysis Data were inspected for missing values, outliers, and normality by examining frequency tables, box plots, and histograms using SPSS version 20. Less than 1% of data were missing at the item level and replacements were made using mean substitution (Parent, 2013). Skewness and kurtosis were within acceptable ranges. To determine the extent to which the personality and psychological variables differentiated between the two eating disorder classifications (i.e., asymptomatic vs. symptomatic), we applied logistic regression with the subscales of the MPS, LOT-R, REI, and MBSRQ serving as the predictor variables, and eating disorder classification (1 = eating disordered, 2 = non-eating disordered). Due to the low number of athletes in several of the sport types, thus limiting our ability to make meaningful comparisons, all athletes were combined into a single analysis.
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Table 2 Logistic regression analysis of QEDD eating group classification (asymptomatic vs. symptomatic) as a function of personality and psychological variables (N = 203). Variables
B
Wald test
OR
95% CI
Concerns about mistakes Personal standards Parental expectations Parental criticism Doubts about actions Self-esteem Dispositional optimism Exercising for mood management Exercising for appearance Exercising for health/fitness Appearance orientation
.27 .20 −.02 .10 −.26 −.01 .04 −.12 .26 .14 −.21
.47 .30 .01 .12 .68 .01 .67 .56 1.79 .42 .42
1.32 1.22 .98 1.11 .77 1.00 1.04 .88 1.30 1.15 .81
.60, 2.88 .60, 2.46 .49, 1.94 .61, 1.99 .42, 1.42 .90, 1.10 .95, 1.14 .64, 1.22 .89, 1.91 .75, 1.75 .43, 1.52
Note: OR—odds ratio; 95% CI—95% confidence interval for the odds ratio with lower and upper limits.
2. Results Based on their Q-EDD responses, 164 (80.8%) male athletes were asymptomatic, and 39 (19.2%) were symptomatic; no athletes were classified as eating disordered. In Table 1, the means, standard deviations, and correlations amongst the predictor variables are presented. Overall, the variables did not distinguish significantly between the two QEDD groups, χ2 (11, N = 203) = 7.45, p = .76. The predictor variables accounted for only 6% of the variance in QEDD group status (i.e., Nagelkerke R2 = .058); thus, the overall effect size was small. Although 80.8% of all the athletes and 100% of those who were asymptomatic were classified correctly, none (0%) of the symptomatic athletes were. Table 2 contains the regression coefficients, Wald test statistic, and odds ratio (OR; plus 95% confidence interval) for each variable. 3. Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine the relation of perfectionism, self-esteem, optimism, reasons for exercise, and appearance orientation to eating disorder classification in male collegiate athletes. Surprisingly, the personality and psychological variables were unable to significantly predict the male athletes' QEDD grouping, explaining only 6% of the eating disorder classification. The failure in the variables as predictors came in their ability to differentiate those athletes who were symptomatic from the men who were asymptomatic, as none of the symptomatic athletes were classified correctly. Our findings are in
Table 1 Means and standard deviations for psychological and personality variables by eating disorder status (N = 203). Variable
MPS—concern about mistakes MPS—personal standards MPS—parental expectations MPS—parental criticism MPS—doubts about actions Self-esteem Optimism REI—socializing and mood REI—appearance and attractiveness REI—health and fitness Appearance orientation
Symptomatic (n = 39)
Asymptomatic (n = 164)
M
SD
M
SD
2.83 3.81 3.42 2.34 2.63 34.13 21.64 3.76 4.80 5.86 3.20
.75 .77 .81 .96 .78 4.84 3.97 1.32 1.39 .97 .74
2.70 3.66 3.33 2.29 2.67 33.88 21.01 3.64 4.36 5.53 3.19
.79 .66 .70 .87 .85 5.14 4.51 1.47 1.38 1.23 .60
Note: MPS—Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale subscales: Concern about Mistakes, Personal Standards, Parental Expectations, Parental Criticism, Doubts About Actions (1, low, to 5, high); Self-Esteem (Rosenberg self-esteem scale—10, low to 40, high); Optimism (Life Orientation Test—6, low, to 30, high); REI—Reasons for Exercise Inventory subscales: socializing and mood, appearance and attractiveness, and health and fitness (1, low, to 7, high); App Orient—Appearance orientation subscale (1, low, to 5, high).
contrast to research with female athletes where 50% of the symptomatic, 90.5% of the asymptomatic, and 79.4% of the athletes overall were correctly classified (Nagelkerke R2 = .34; Petrie et al., 2009). Similar to our findings, all forms of perfectionism were unrelated to eating disorder classification in the Petrie et al. study. However, these authors found that a greater focus on appearance and exercising to be more attractive and lower levels of self-esteem were associated with an increased likelihood of being symptomatic in female athletes, which was not the case in the current study. Our study, and others (e.g., Haase et al., 2002), suggest that the same psychological and personality factors that may be related to indices of disordered eating for female athletes do not necessarily apply to male athletes, and that variables need to be tested separately by gender to verify risk within each group. Further, researchers will want to consider other psychological variables that may be more relevant to male athletes, such as identity foreclosure, fear of stigmatization, low social support, and need for social approval (Papathomas & Lavallee, 2006), and examine other disordered eating outcomes, such as drive for muscularity, drive for leanness, and anabolic steroid use (Petrie & Greenleaf, 2012). Finally, it might be interesting to employ measures of eating disorder diagnosis specific to men, such as the recently developed Eating Disorder Assessment for Men (EDAM; Stanford & Lemberg, 2012). Some limitations were present in the current study and should be noted. First, although our sample was diverse in terms of racial/ethnic status, we had few Non-Hispanic/Black athlete participants, limiting the conclusions that can be drawn about that group of male athletes. Second, all constructs were measured through self-report, so monomethod reporting bias is a consideration. Even so, we used reliable and valid measures and collected data in a manner that assured anonymity and no direct influence from coaches or other athletic department personnel. Finally, our convenience sample contained relatively few athletes from sports with an explicit emphasis on leanness and body weight (e.g., wrestling, rowing, gymnastics), which have shown to be associated with higher eating disorder risk in male and female athletes (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994; Thiel, Gottfried, & Hesse, 1993). The purposeful inclusion of more athletes from such sports in future studies will allow for a clearer examination of eating disorder symptom predictors in male athletes. The results of this study suggest that personality and psychological factors found to distinguish between symptomatic and asymptomatic female athletes may not apply to their male collegiate counterparts. These findings highlight differences in the potential risk factors for disordered eating between male and female athletes and suggest that, perhaps other health-risk outcomes (e.g., drive for muscularity, anabolic steroid use) should be considered. As researchers learn more about the differences in the psychological variables that increase male and female athletes' risk of disordered eating, the potential for developing more targeted and effective interventions improves.
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