Journal of Gerontology 1977. Vol. 32. No. 5. 541-548
Personality and Physiological Traits in Middle-Aged Runners and Joggers1 G. Harley Hartung, PhD, 2 and Emile J. Farge, PhD3
HE interrelatedness of physical fitness T and aspects of personality is arousing interest among observers involved both with human physiology and the social sciences. Hammer and Wilmore (1973), for example, observed that maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) among joggers was positively correlated with expediency and casualness (less inhibited) and with forthrightness or artlessness. The same study noted that as the VO2 max improved with an organized, regular jogging
regimen, the subjects became less suspicious and self-opinionated and more trusting and adaptable. Ismail and Trachtman (1973) observed a significant rise in emotional stability, imaginativeness, and self-sufficiency by a group of middle-aged men, who had been classified as "low fitness," but who participated in a jogging program. The same group, however, experienced a moderate increase in guilt-proneness during the same interval. Young and Ismail (1976) found an increase in conscientiousness and persistence in adult men after a physical fitness program. Similar psychological changes were noted by Sharp and Reilley (1975) as 65 male collegians trained twice weekly in an aerobic conditioning program. Jette (1975) found a sample of habitual
'This research was supported in part by a grant from the Schwarz Foundation. Houston, to the Dept. of Physical Medicine. Baylor College of Medicine. : Cardiac Rehabilitation Dept.. Methodist Hospital. & Dept. of Physical Medicine. Baylor College of Medicine. Houston 77030. •'Depts. of Ophthalmology & Community Medicine. Baylor College of Medicine.
exercisers significantly more serious and more tough-minded than a group of nonexercisers. Studies of personality traits of college athletes in individual sports have yielded mixed results. Participants in wrestling were found to be more tough-minded than the norm (Kroll, 1967), but karate participants did not differ from expected values (Kroll & Carlson, 1967). Bodybuilders were found to be less impulsive and more suspicious and weightlifters more assertive and suspicious than the overall population (Darden, 1972). Differences among various types of "stress seeking" athletes were evident from the study of Johnsgard, Ogilvie, and Merritt (1975), who compared personality traits of sports parachutists, race drivers, and professional football players. The parachutists and race drivers had very similar traits, but these groups differed greatly from the football players. The individualistic pursuits of the parachutists and race drivers led them in the direction of self-sufficiency and independence, while the football players typified the team-oriented expressive type athlete. The study of long distance runners by Burdick and Zloty (1973) found them to be significantly brighter, more imaginative, and forthright (artless) than the mean. The successful marathoner and long distance runner, according to Morgan (1974), emerge as the exception to other successful athletes by being more reserved and introverted than athletes in other disciplines. Like other high 541
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A series of personality and physiological tests and measurements were made in 48 healthy male runners and joggers 40-59 years of age (x = 47.3 yrs.). The Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire showed that the subjects were significantly more intelligent, imaginative, reserved, self-sufficient, sober, shy, and forthright than the general population. A maximal treadmill test revealed the men to be well above the mean for their age in terms of cardiorespiratory fitness. The men who had run a marathon race and the 40- 49-year-age group were higher in terms of fitness than nonmarathoners and the 50- 59-age groups, but the groups differed very little from each other on personality characteristics. Middle-aged runners and joggers either possess or develop high levels of self-sufficiency and imagination and tend toward introversion in their personality makeup. It is not known for sure if these factors are a result of or a casual factor in their habitual exercise pattern.
542
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects Subjects were recruited by sending a form letter to members of several local area running clubs and YMCAs. Subjects were required to be at least 40 years of age, but less than 60, be in apparent good health, and presently be running or jogging at least 2 miles, 3 days per week. The letter also explained that a longitudinal study was planned and only those individuals who had reasonable expectations of remaining in the local area were sought. Fifty-five subjects expressed interest in participating in the study and met the criteria for inclusion. However, before the completion
of data collection, several individuals withdrew due to health, job requirements, or transfer from the area. Reasonably complete data were collected on 48 subjects. Resting and treadmill test data were obtained for all 48 subjects; personality data were obtained for 47 subjects, and a more general questionnaire was completed by 47 subjects. Several indicators showed the sample to be "normal," or perhaps "advantaged" in several ways. The educational level of the sample was high, with 84% being college graduates. Most subjects were engaged in professional occupations with several being lawyers, physicians, or engineers. Economically, 71% had a family income greater than $25,000 per year. Sixteen subjects (33%) reported no disability days within the last year, while 25 others (52%) reported 3 or less disability days. The subjects were explained the protocol for the overall testing procedure by telephone and were given an opportunity to ask questions when they arrived for testing. A comprehensive consent form was read and signed by each subject prior to any testing. Methods Subjects reported to the hospital on two separate occasions with at least 1 week between visits. On the first visit, which was in the early morning following a 12-hour fast, blood was drawn for lipid determinations. On the second visit, which was at least 2 hours following the last meal, all other tests and measures were accomplished. A return mail questionnaire was sent home with each subject requesting information concerning diet, smoking, and drinking habits. Sociometric data and detailed information concerning running habits were also obtained from the questionnaire. Specific data obtained included: total serum cholesterol and triglycerides; height and weight; skinfold thickness at the triceps, subscapular, chest, abdomen, supra-iliac, and mid-axillary sites; waist girth, and the Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (Cattell, Eber, & Tatsuoka, 1970). Heart rate and blood pressures were obtained at rest and during maximal treadmill exercise (Bruce & Lermann, 1975); the ECG was also obtained at rest and during exercise. The health history included personal or immediate family
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achievement athletes, however, they are subject to less anxiety and depression than the majority of nonathletes. A recent study of elite distance runners, however, found that marathon runners were net more introverted than other runners or the general population (Morgan & Pollock, 1976). In an earlier study with Costill, Morgan (1972) had found a selected group of marathon runners to be lower on anxiety, but not below the mean in neuroticism and depression. Buccola and Stone (1975) trained a sample of 36 men aged 60 to 79 who had a choice of entering a walk-jog program for two weekly periods or an equivalent cycling program. All decreased significantly in weight, percentage of body fat, and blood pressure, and all increased in VO2 max. The cyclists (n = 20) showed no significant changes in the personality traits measured. The joggers (n = 16), however, became more serious and self-sufficient. The fact of psychological and physical changes and adaptions of persons involved in regular exercise programs appears to be well established. In particular the study of runners or joggers seems to yield not only interesting results, but seems also to suggest running as a therapeutic measure for healthy aging persons. The purpose of this study was to assess the psychological and physiological traits of middle-aged male runners and joggers in order to compare them with other groups. Such a comparison should aid in the understanding of running as a method of intervention to possibly retard the physical and psychological effects of aging.
PERSONALITY OF THE MIDDLE-AGED RUNNER
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Table 1. Physical Description, Resting, and history of hypertension, heart attack or Maximal Physiological Variables in 48 stroke, diabetes, gout, or hyperlipidemia. Middle-Aged Runners. The age of occurrence and family member involved was recorded for each condition as Physical well as fatal consequences if applicable. Factor SD X Range Body density was estimated using three of the skinfold measures and relative weight Age (yrs) 40.3 — 59.7 47.35 4.93 by the method of Brozek and Keys (1951); Weight (Kg) 57.2 — 103.7 8.73 74.36 percentage of fat was then calculated using Height (cm) 178.57 5.76 163.8 — 193.7 2.78 10.5 — 24.0 15.25 the formula of Rathbun and Pace (1945). Max- Skinfold fat (%) 7.71 69.7 — 115.0 83.87 imal oxygen uptake was estimated from tread- Waist girth (cm) mill time using the prediction formula of PolPhysiological lock, Bohannon, Cooper, Ayres, White, and (Re_st) Linnerud (1976). Family history of coronary Factor X SD Range disease or coronary risk was categorized as 9.52 59.40 3 7 — 84 normal, moderate, or high according to the Rest HR (beats/min) 14.16 127.75 Rest systolic BP (mm Hg) 102— 158 number of events or disorders relationship of Rest diastolic BP (mm Hg) 82.04 7.78 68 — 102 the afflicted individual and the age at onset Serum CHOL (mg %) 28.73 135 — 252 194.81 of each occurrence. The total cholesterol and Serum TRIG (mg %) 48.42 90.83 33 — 291 triglyceride values were assessed simulPhysiological taneously on the Technicon II Auto-Analyzer (Exercise) using standard procedures. Factor X SD Range The 16 PF personality test required a com9.50 173.81 150 -- 198 puter program to convert raw scores to stand- Max HR (beats/min) 24.66 1 3 6 -- 2 5 4 180.56 ardized ("sten") scores. Cattell et al. (1970) Max systolic BP (mm Hg) 1.58 12.95 9 . 8 - - 15.8 offer a set of quadratic equations which cor- TM time (min) 3 7 . 7 --63.7 6.83 VO2 Max (ml/kg min) 51.33 rect the raw scores according to age and sex of the respondents. By using this means, each scale has a universal mean of 5.5 and a standard deviation of 2. viously smoked, some heavily. Of the 5 subDescriptive statistics were calculated for jects who currently smoked, 2 smoked less all variables and product-moment correla- than one package of cigarettes a day, 2 smoked tions were computed between all variables. cigars, and 1 smoked a pipe. The resting ECG T-tests for the difference between means were was essentially normal for all subjects, but calculated for selected variables between the two of the treadmill ECG tests were considered marathon and non-marathon groups and be- equivocal in terms of ischemic response. tween the 40-49 and 50-59 age groups. The physical and physiological characteristics of all 48 subjects are shown in Table 1. The mean treadmill time of 12.95 minutes on RESULTS the Bruce protocol resulted in an estimated Two subjects had been jogging or running VO2 max of 51.33 ml/kg min., which places for only 1 to 2 years, 10 had been running for these subjects in a high classification of cardio2 to 5 years, and 34 reported that they had respiratory fitness for their age (American been running for more than 5 years. Four sub- Heart Assn., 1972). Twenty-five of the subjects had run a 42.2 jects were currently running 10 miles per week or less, 10 said they ran 11-20 miles a week, 13 km (26.2 mi) marathon race within the last reported running 21-35 miles per week, and 19 year and the data from these runners were subjects ran more than 35 miles per week. compared with the 23 subjects who had not Compared with the year before, almost all competed in such a run. The mean results subjects reported that they were currently for the marathon and nonmarathon groups running more. In addition, 21 subjects said and the t-test for the difference between means are presented in Table 2. Significant that they ran 1500 miles or more in 1975. differences were found between the groups in Forty-three of the subjects reported that body weight, skinfold thickness, percentage they did not smoke, but 21 of these had pre-
HARTUNG AND FARGE
544
Table 2. Means and t-Ratios for Differences Between Marathon and Nonmarathon Groups. Factor
47.82 : 70.69 : 77.82 d 130.76 : 84.20 d 58.72 ; 13.78 : 172.88 : 182.40 : 54.95 : 61.52 : 80.24 i 14.09 : 189.16 : 87.00 :
5.05 6.66 4.92 11.88 7.55 10.21 1.33 11.23 27.51 5.74 21.75 4.42 2.08 28.25 51.47
Nonmarathon (N = 23) SD X 46.84 78.36 179.38 124.48 79.69 60.13 12.04 174.83 178.56 47.44 90.50 87.82 16.50 200.96 95.00
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
4.87 9.08 6.57 15.89 7.49 8.88 1.33 7.31 21.57 5.74 32.33 8.63 2.95 28.59 45.66
0.68 3.35** 0.94 1.56 2.07* 0.51 4.53*** 0.72 0.53 4.53*** 3.61*** 3.78*** 3.29** 1.44 0.57
*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001
of fat, treadmill time, estimated VO2 max, and resting diastolic blood pressure, with the marathoners being lower on the former three and higher on the latter three factors. The groups were not significantly different with regard to age, height, resting heart rate and systolic blood pressure, maximum heart rate and stystolic blood pressure, or serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels. The marathoners, however, differed significantly {p < .01) from the other runners on only one personality factor, imagination (Factor M), on which they were higher than nonmarathon runners. This seems to indicate that the marathon runners tend to be more concerned with other than practical "down to earth" matters; however, when only one of 16 variables differs significantly, this difference may be due to chance alone. The younger age group (40-49 years, n = 34) was compared with the older group (50-59 years, n = 14), and no significant difference was found in weight, height, or cholesterol and triglyceride levels. The 9-year mean age difference resulted in a significantly lower treadmill time, estimated VO2 and maximal heart rate for the older group. The amount of decline in VO2 max, however, was only -0.53 ml/kg min per year for the age difference.
Among the personality factors, no significant differences were noted between the two age groups. The younger group tended, however, to be higher in self-sufficiency (p = .09). Table 3 shows the mean, standard deviation, z-scores, and level of significance of personality factors for the sample of 47 middleaged runners and joggers. On 7 of the 16 factors, the mean was significantly different from the overall population mean of 5.5 (Cattell et al., 1970). The sample scored significantly lower on Factor A (/? = .001), which means that they were more reserved or aloof. Factor B was significantly above the mean (x = 7.9p < .001), which indicates that the group has high mental capability, is fast learning and intellectually adapting. The mean for Factor F was 4.15. This indicates a sober, serious attitude, and places the sample significantly different from the universal mean (p < .001). Factor H distinguishes one who is easy going, friendly, relaxed (High H) from a shy, cautious, and more withdrawn type (Low H). The sample was significantly low (p = .027) on this factor. The sample scored well above average on Factor M, strength of imagination (p < .001). The low group mean for astuteness (Factor N) indicates that the sample is genuine and forthright, but socially clumsy. The highest
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Age (yrs) Weight (kg) Height (cm) Rest systolic BP (mm Hg) Rest diastolic BP (mm Hg) Rest HR (beats/min) TM time (min) Max HR (beats/min) Max systolic BP (mm Hg) VO2 max (ml/kgmin) XSkinfolds (mm) Waist girth (cm) % Fat Cholesterol (mg %) Triglycerides (mg %)
Marathon (N = 25) SD X
PERSONALITY OF THE MIDDLE-AGED RUNNER
545
Table 3. Personality Factors of 47 Runners and Joggers: Comparison with Standardized Mean (5.5) and S.D. (2). Factor A B C E
G H 1 L M N
0 Q> Q2 Q3
Reserved (critical, aloof) Less intelligent (concrete-thinking) Affected by feelings (easily upset) Humble (docile, accommodating) Sober (serious, desurgency) Expedient (weaker superego strength) Shy (threat-sensitive) Tough-minded (realistic) Trusting (accepting conditions) Practical (down-to-earth) Forthright (genuine but socially clumsy) Self-assured (secure, untroubled adequacy) Conservative (respecting traditional ideas) Group-dependent (a joiner, follower) Undisciplined self-conflict (lax, careless of social rules) Relaxed (tranquil, composed)
s.d.
z
p
High
4.57
2.24
-3.26
.001
7.19
1.83
5.93
< .001
5.78
1.74
.982
.327
5.40
2.18
- .351
.719
4.15
2.05
-4.74
< .001
6.00
2.04
1.75
.080
4.87
2.68
-2.21
.027
5.15
2.20
-1.23
.2187
5.00
1.20
-1.75
.080
6.80
1.51
4.56
< .001
4.70
1.50
-2.81
.005
5.20
2.06
1.05
.294
5.11
2.024
1.37
.170
7.23
1.83
7.82
< .001
5.81
1.80
1.08
.280
5.98
2.18
1.68
.093
Outgoing (warmhearted, participating) More intelligent (abstract-thinking, bright) Emotionally stable (mature, calm) Assertive (aggressive, competitive) Happy-go-lucky (enthusiastic, surgency) Conscientious (stronger superego strength) Venturesome (socially bold) Tender-minded (sensitive) Suspicious (hard to fool) Imaginative (Bohemian, absent-minded) Astute (polished, socially aware) Apprehensive (worrying, guilt proneness) Experimenting (liberal, free-thinking) Self-sufficient (resourceful, prefers own decisions) Controlled (socially precise, compulsive) Tense (frustrated, driven)
X"
single factor found was Q2, self-sufficiency (x = 7.23, p < .001). High Q2 is synonmous with resourcefulness and confidence. The product-moment correlations (r) between various factors yielded some interesting results. Significant negative r's were found between treadmill time (also VO2 max) and percentage of fat, weight, waist girth, and all skinfold fat measures. These r values were in the range of-.40 to -.59. Age and maximum heart rate were correlated significantly (r = -.50) as were age and treadmill time (r -.34). Treadmill time was positively correlated with average weekly distance run, weekly distance run last year and total mileage run in 1975 (r's = .43 to .57). DISCUSSION
The Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire is a test based on fundamental concepts
in human personality structure. It has been validated among all adult age groups and education levels, and reliability checks varied from .61 to .91 in other studies (Cattell et al., 1970). This questionnaire does not, however, have a built-in protection against lying, and one must assume that the answers are spontaneous expressions by the subject. It deals more with the functional or operational aspects of personality and is thus different from a personality inventory which aims at unearthing more subconscious ideas. An empirical reason for its use in this sample is that the 16 PF was used in many of the studies of athletes and training cited earlier. The low Factor A score indicates a more favorable attitude toward things or words, a fondness for working alone, a hard-headed intellectual approach, and rejection of compromise. Artists, electricians, and research scien-
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F
Low
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HARTUNG AND FARGE
who is resourceful. The low Q2 score bespeaks one who goes with the group, depends on social approval, and is conventional. Similar high findings among fit individuals are noted in the studies by Buccola and Stone (1975), Ismail and Trachtman (1973), and Sharp and Reilley (1975). The personality profile of our sample shows them to be significantly less outgoing and surgent, as well as less suspicious and socially polished than the mean for males in their age range! They also appear significantly brighter, more imaginative and self-sufficient. Such divergencies from the mean suggest, according to Cattell, a low score on a combined "secondstratum" level of introversion-extraversion. Extraversion is identified as a combination of being high on Factor A (outgoing), Factor E (assertive), Factor F (surgent), Factor H (venturesome), and low on Q2 (self-sufficiency). Our sample scored significantly different from the mean on four of these five factors, but in the opposite direction. This places them rather definitely as individualistic, or as having traits closer to invia (inwardness) as opposed to exvia (outwardness). Table 4 outlines the significant findings of several studies of athletes and trained men on the Cattell 16 PF test. The Johnsgard et al. (1975) study of sportsmen in "high stress" endeavors has the highest number of factors which significantly differ among groups. Of the studies of single sport endeavors, the
Table 4. Significant Factors on the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire in Various Studies. Factors N a
Present study Buccola & Stone (1975)a Burdick & Zloty (1973)a Darden (1972)a Hammer & Wilmore (1973)a Ismail & Tractman (1973)b Jette (1975)C
Johnsgard et al. (1975)c Kroll (1967)a-b Kroll & Carlson (1967)a-b Young & Ismail (1976)b a = comparison with popular mean. b = pre-test vs. post-test comparison. c = comparison among two or more classes of athletes.
0
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tists tend to score low on A. The low Factor F score mirrored Darden's study on bodybuilders and indicates a group which is silent and reflective, slow and cautious, and which tends to be uncommunicative. These individuals are less talkative, less cheerful, and less expressive. Among occupational groups, atists, university administrators, and physicists usually score low on Factor F. Low scores on Factor L had also been found in the sample of Hammer and Wilmore (1973). Whereas high L (protension) indicates ambition and scrupulous social behavior, low L individuals tend to be more trusting, and hence more accepted in team situations. The high score on Factor M (imaginative) indicates an intensity of ones inner mental life and had been noted earlier by Burdick and Zloty (1973) and Ismail and Trachtman (1973). Such persons have internal autonomy, avoid prosaic and practical concerns, and tend to have more interest in art and theory. The low group mean for Factor N (astuteness) is more difficult to interpret. Cattell himself admits that " . . . this factor is not so well established in behavior ratings,. . .and has still to be pursued to higher validity in the questionnaire realm" (Cattell et al., 1970). Still, low N seems to indicate more spontaneity and naturalness, more artlessness and less shrewdness. High Factor Q2 distinguishes one who is accustomed to making his own decisions and
PERSONALITY OF THE MIDDLE-AGED RUNNER
tive benefits of their activity. Most of the subjects appeared to represent the "positive addiction" described by Glasser (1976) in that they have run for a number of years, run frequently and easily for an hour or more, and are convinced that what they are doing is good for them. SUMMARY
The runners and joggers studied were clearly different from the general population in terms of circulorespiratory fitness and body composition measures. They could be compared in terms of aerobic fitness with men 20 years younger who are categorized as being in "good" condition (American Heart Association, 1972). The personality traits which motivate men to run and maintain high levels of fitness are more difficult to determine, but perhaps this sample provides an insight into what makes the middle-aged runner run. The subjects studied were clearly more intelligent than average, had a high socioeconomic status, were more imaginative and self-sufficient than average, but tended to be introverted to some extent. The introversion tendency may have been a more important factor in motivating these men to run or jog rather than take up a team or dual sport. The high levels of self-sufficiency and imaginativeness may have been a result of running rather than a cause, since increases in these traits were found with improvements in fitness by Ismail and Trachtman (1973). REFERENCES
American Heart Association. (Commitee on Exercise) Exercise testing and training of apparently healthy individuals: A handbook for physicians, American Heart Assn., New York, 1972. Brozek, J., & Keys, A. The evaluation of leannessfatness in man: Norms and interrelationships. British Journal of Nutrition, 1951,5, 194-206. Bruce, R. A., & Lerman, J. Exercise testing and training in relation to myocardial infarction. Postgraduate Medicine, 1975,57, 59-65. Buccola, V. A., & Stone, W. J. Effects of jogging and cycling programs on physiological and personality variables in aged men. Research Quarterly, 1975, 46, 134-139. Burdick, J. A., & Zloty, R. B. Wakeful heart rate, personality and performance — A study of distance runner. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1973,13, 17-25. Cattell, R. B., Eber, H. W., & Tatsuoka, M. M. Handbook for the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire.
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present study of middle-aged runners has the highest number of significant personality factors or traits. The estimation of VO2 max using the Bruce treadmill protocol may tend to underestimate the VO2 max in highly trained individuals such as many of the subjects of this study. Many subjects cannot tolerate the high incline and stop because of leg fatigue before reaching circulo-respiratory limits. In spite of this fact, the aerobic fitness level of these subjects was estimated to be higher than that found by McDonough, Kusumi, and Bruce (1970) in active middle-aged men and slightly higher than that of 32 well-trained men of the same mean age reported by Pollock, Miller, Linnerud, Royston, Smith, and Sonner (1973). The VO2 max was, however, lower than that found for comparable age groups of champion American runners and race walkers (Pollock, Miller, & Wilmore, 1974) and well trained Swedish orienteering competitors (Grimby & Saltin, 1966). The rate of decline in maximal aerobic capacity with age as estimated in the present cross-sectional study (-0.53 ml/kg min per year) is slightly less than has been noted by Dehn and Bruce (1972) who found a -0.59 ml/kg min per year decline in heavy exercisers over a 2.6-year period. Their crosssectional data, however, yielded a mean rate of decline of only -0.28 ml/kg min per year in active and sedentary groups combined. The marathon runners among the group were clearly superior to the nonmarathoners with regard to maximal physiological factors and body composition measures and tended to have lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels. These differences probably reflect the longer distance training regimens involved in marathon preparation. There was little indication that personality differences existed between the two groups that could be either a result of or a casual factor in the decision to run the marathon distance. Regular running or jogging, and especially long distance training, is a highly individualistic activity, since it is difficult to meet regularly in groups because of the relatively small number of participants and because of different running regimens and schedules. Runners apparently either possess or develop high levels of self-sufficiency and imagination, along with the intelligence to foresee the posi-
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Morgan, W. P. Selected psychological considerations in sports. Research Quarterly, 1974, 45, 374-390. Morgan, W. P., & Costill, D. L. Psychological characteristics of the marathon runner. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1972, 12, 42-46. Morgan, W. L., & Pollock, M. L. Psychological characterization of the elite distance runner. Paper presented at New York Academy of Science, Conference on the Marathon, Oct., 1976. Pollock, M. L., Bohannon, R. L., Cooper, K. H., Ayres, J. J., Ward, A. White, S. R., & Linnerud, A. C. A comparative analysis of four protocols for maximal treadmill stress testing. American Heart Journal, 1976, 92, 39-46. Pollock, M. L., Miller, H. S., Jr., & Wilmore, J. Physiological characteristics of champion American track athletes 40 to 75 years of age. Journal of Gerontology, 1974, 29, 645-649. Pollock, M. L., Miller, H. S., Jr., Linnerud, A. C , Royster, C. L., Smith, W. E., & Sonner, W. H. Physiological findings in well-trained middle-aged American men. British Association of Sports Medicine Journal, 1973, 7, 222-229. Rathbun, E. N., & Pace, N. Studies on body composition. I. The determination of total body fat by means of the body specific gravity, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1945, 158, 667-676. Sharp, M. W., & Reilley, R. R. The relationship of aerobic physical fitness to selected personality traits. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1975,5/, 428-430. Young, R. J., & Ismail, A. H. Personality differences of adult men before and after a physical fitness program. Research Quarterly, 1976,47, 513-519.
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Institute for Personality & Ability Testing, Champaign, IL, 1970. Darden, E. Sixteen personality factor profiles of competitive bodybuilders and weightlifters. Research Quarterly, 1972, 4J, 142-147. Dehn, M. M., & Bruce, R. A. Longitudinal variation in maximal oxygen intake with age and activity. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1972, 33, 805-807. Glasser, W. Positive addiction. Harper & Row, New York, 1976. Grimby, G., & Saltin, B. Physiological analysis of physically well-trained middle-aged and old athletes. Acta Medico Scandinavica, 1966, 179, 513-526. Hammer, W. M., & Wilmore, J. H. An exploratory investigation in personality measures and physiological alterations during a 10-week jogging program. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1973, 13, 238-247. Ismail, A. H., & Trachtman, L. E. Jogging the imagination. Psychology Today, 1973, 6, 79-82. Jette, M. Habitual exercisers: A blood serum and personality profile. Journal of Sports Medicine, 1975, 3, 12-17. Johnsgard, K., Ogilvie, B., & Merritt, K. The stress seekers: A psychological study of sports parachutists, racing drivers, and football players. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1975, 15. 158-169. Kroll, W. Sixteen personality factor profiles of collegiate wrestlers. Research Quarterly, 1967, 38, 49-56. Kroll, W., & Carlson, B. R. Discriminant function and hierarchial grouping analysis of karate participant's personality profiles. Research Quarterly, 1967, 38, 405-411. McDonough, J. R., Kusumi, F., & Bruce, R. A. Variations in maximal oxygen intake with physical activity in middle-aged men. Circulation, 1970, 41, 743-751.
Personality and Physiological Traits in Middle-Aged Runners and Joggers1 G. Harley Hartung, PhD, 2 and Emile J. Farge, PhD3
HE interrelatedness of physical fitness T and aspects of personality is arousing interest among observers involved both with human physiology and the social sciences. Hammer and Wilmore (1973), for example, observed that maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) among joggers was positively correlated with expediency and casualness (less inhibited) and with forthrightness or artlessness. The same study noted that as the VO2 max improved with an organized, regular jogging
regimen, the subjects became less suspicious and self-opinionated and more trusting and adaptable. Ismail and Trachtman (1973) observed a significant rise in emotional stability, imaginativeness, and self-sufficiency by a group of middle-aged men, who had been classified as "low fitness," but who participated in a jogging program. The same group, however, experienced a moderate increase in guilt-proneness during the same interval. Young and Ismail (1976) found an increase in conscientiousness and persistence in adult men after a physical fitness program. Similar psychological changes were noted by Sharp and Reilley (1975) as 65 male collegians trained twice weekly in an aerobic conditioning program. Jette (1975) found a sample of habitual
'This research was supported in part by a grant from the Schwarz Foundation. Houston, to the Dept. of Physical Medicine. Baylor College of Medicine. : Cardiac Rehabilitation Dept.. Methodist Hospital. & Dept. of Physical Medicine. Baylor College of Medicine. Houston 77030. •'Depts. of Ophthalmology & Community Medicine. Baylor College of Medicine.
exercisers significantly more serious and more tough-minded than a group of nonexercisers. Studies of personality traits of college athletes in individual sports have yielded mixed results. Participants in wrestling were found to be more tough-minded than the norm (Kroll, 1967), but karate participants did not differ from expected values (Kroll & Carlson, 1967). Bodybuilders were found to be less impulsive and more suspicious and weightlifters more assertive and suspicious than the overall population (Darden, 1972). Differences among various types of "stress seeking" athletes were evident from the study of Johnsgard, Ogilvie, and Merritt (1975), who compared personality traits of sports parachutists, race drivers, and professional football players. The parachutists and race drivers had very similar traits, but these groups differed greatly from the football players. The individualistic pursuits of the parachutists and race drivers led them in the direction of self-sufficiency and independence, while the football players typified the team-oriented expressive type athlete. The study of long distance runners by Burdick and Zloty (1973) found them to be significantly brighter, more imaginative, and forthright (artless) than the mean. The successful marathoner and long distance runner, according to Morgan (1974), emerge as the exception to other successful athletes by being more reserved and introverted than athletes in other disciplines. Like other high 541
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A series of personality and physiological tests and measurements were made in 48 healthy male runners and joggers 40-59 years of age (x = 47.3 yrs.). The Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire showed that the subjects were significantly more intelligent, imaginative, reserved, self-sufficient, sober, shy, and forthright than the general population. A maximal treadmill test revealed the men to be well above the mean for their age in terms of cardiorespiratory fitness. The men who had run a marathon race and the 40- 49-year-age group were higher in terms of fitness than nonmarathoners and the 50- 59-age groups, but the groups differed very little from each other on personality characteristics. Middle-aged runners and joggers either possess or develop high levels of self-sufficiency and imagination and tend toward introversion in their personality makeup. It is not known for sure if these factors are a result of or a casual factor in their habitual exercise pattern.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects Subjects were recruited by sending a form letter to members of several local area running clubs and YMCAs. Subjects were required to be at least 40 years of age, but less than 60, be in apparent good health, and presently be running or jogging at least 2 miles, 3 days per week. The letter also explained that a longitudinal study was planned and only those individuals who had reasonable expectations of remaining in the local area were sought. Fifty-five subjects expressed interest in participating in the study and met the criteria for inclusion. However, before the completion
of data collection, several individuals withdrew due to health, job requirements, or transfer from the area. Reasonably complete data were collected on 48 subjects. Resting and treadmill test data were obtained for all 48 subjects; personality data were obtained for 47 subjects, and a more general questionnaire was completed by 47 subjects. Several indicators showed the sample to be "normal," or perhaps "advantaged" in several ways. The educational level of the sample was high, with 84% being college graduates. Most subjects were engaged in professional occupations with several being lawyers, physicians, or engineers. Economically, 71% had a family income greater than $25,000 per year. Sixteen subjects (33%) reported no disability days within the last year, while 25 others (52%) reported 3 or less disability days. The subjects were explained the protocol for the overall testing procedure by telephone and were given an opportunity to ask questions when they arrived for testing. A comprehensive consent form was read and signed by each subject prior to any testing. Methods Subjects reported to the hospital on two separate occasions with at least 1 week between visits. On the first visit, which was in the early morning following a 12-hour fast, blood was drawn for lipid determinations. On the second visit, which was at least 2 hours following the last meal, all other tests and measures were accomplished. A return mail questionnaire was sent home with each subject requesting information concerning diet, smoking, and drinking habits. Sociometric data and detailed information concerning running habits were also obtained from the questionnaire. Specific data obtained included: total serum cholesterol and triglycerides; height and weight; skinfold thickness at the triceps, subscapular, chest, abdomen, supra-iliac, and mid-axillary sites; waist girth, and the Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (Cattell, Eber, & Tatsuoka, 1970). Heart rate and blood pressures were obtained at rest and during maximal treadmill exercise (Bruce & Lermann, 1975); the ECG was also obtained at rest and during exercise. The health history included personal or immediate family
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achievement athletes, however, they are subject to less anxiety and depression than the majority of nonathletes. A recent study of elite distance runners, however, found that marathon runners were net more introverted than other runners or the general population (Morgan & Pollock, 1976). In an earlier study with Costill, Morgan (1972) had found a selected group of marathon runners to be lower on anxiety, but not below the mean in neuroticism and depression. Buccola and Stone (1975) trained a sample of 36 men aged 60 to 79 who had a choice of entering a walk-jog program for two weekly periods or an equivalent cycling program. All decreased significantly in weight, percentage of body fat, and blood pressure, and all increased in VO2 max. The cyclists (n = 20) showed no significant changes in the personality traits measured. The joggers (n = 16), however, became more serious and self-sufficient. The fact of psychological and physical changes and adaptions of persons involved in regular exercise programs appears to be well established. In particular the study of runners or joggers seems to yield not only interesting results, but seems also to suggest running as a therapeutic measure for healthy aging persons. The purpose of this study was to assess the psychological and physiological traits of middle-aged male runners and joggers in order to compare them with other groups. Such a comparison should aid in the understanding of running as a method of intervention to possibly retard the physical and psychological effects of aging.
PERSONALITY OF THE MIDDLE-AGED RUNNER
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Table 1. Physical Description, Resting, and history of hypertension, heart attack or Maximal Physiological Variables in 48 stroke, diabetes, gout, or hyperlipidemia. Middle-Aged Runners. The age of occurrence and family member involved was recorded for each condition as Physical well as fatal consequences if applicable. Factor SD X Range Body density was estimated using three of the skinfold measures and relative weight Age (yrs) 40.3 — 59.7 47.35 4.93 by the method of Brozek and Keys (1951); Weight (Kg) 57.2 — 103.7 8.73 74.36 percentage of fat was then calculated using Height (cm) 178.57 5.76 163.8 — 193.7 2.78 10.5 — 24.0 15.25 the formula of Rathbun and Pace (1945). Max- Skinfold fat (%) 7.71 69.7 — 115.0 83.87 imal oxygen uptake was estimated from tread- Waist girth (cm) mill time using the prediction formula of PolPhysiological lock, Bohannon, Cooper, Ayres, White, and (Re_st) Linnerud (1976). Family history of coronary Factor X SD Range disease or coronary risk was categorized as 9.52 59.40 3 7 — 84 normal, moderate, or high according to the Rest HR (beats/min) 14.16 127.75 Rest systolic BP (mm Hg) 102— 158 number of events or disorders relationship of Rest diastolic BP (mm Hg) 82.04 7.78 68 — 102 the afflicted individual and the age at onset Serum CHOL (mg %) 28.73 135 — 252 194.81 of each occurrence. The total cholesterol and Serum TRIG (mg %) 48.42 90.83 33 — 291 triglyceride values were assessed simulPhysiological taneously on the Technicon II Auto-Analyzer (Exercise) using standard procedures. Factor X SD Range The 16 PF personality test required a com9.50 173.81 150 -- 198 puter program to convert raw scores to stand- Max HR (beats/min) 24.66 1 3 6 -- 2 5 4 180.56 ardized ("sten") scores. Cattell et al. (1970) Max systolic BP (mm Hg) 1.58 12.95 9 . 8 - - 15.8 offer a set of quadratic equations which cor- TM time (min) 3 7 . 7 --63.7 6.83 VO2 Max (ml/kg min) 51.33 rect the raw scores according to age and sex of the respondents. By using this means, each scale has a universal mean of 5.5 and a standard deviation of 2. viously smoked, some heavily. Of the 5 subDescriptive statistics were calculated for jects who currently smoked, 2 smoked less all variables and product-moment correla- than one package of cigarettes a day, 2 smoked tions were computed between all variables. cigars, and 1 smoked a pipe. The resting ECG T-tests for the difference between means were was essentially normal for all subjects, but calculated for selected variables between the two of the treadmill ECG tests were considered marathon and non-marathon groups and be- equivocal in terms of ischemic response. tween the 40-49 and 50-59 age groups. The physical and physiological characteristics of all 48 subjects are shown in Table 1. The mean treadmill time of 12.95 minutes on RESULTS the Bruce protocol resulted in an estimated Two subjects had been jogging or running VO2 max of 51.33 ml/kg min., which places for only 1 to 2 years, 10 had been running for these subjects in a high classification of cardio2 to 5 years, and 34 reported that they had respiratory fitness for their age (American been running for more than 5 years. Four sub- Heart Assn., 1972). Twenty-five of the subjects had run a 42.2 jects were currently running 10 miles per week or less, 10 said they ran 11-20 miles a week, 13 km (26.2 mi) marathon race within the last reported running 21-35 miles per week, and 19 year and the data from these runners were subjects ran more than 35 miles per week. compared with the 23 subjects who had not Compared with the year before, almost all competed in such a run. The mean results subjects reported that they were currently for the marathon and nonmarathon groups running more. In addition, 21 subjects said and the t-test for the difference between means are presented in Table 2. Significant that they ran 1500 miles or more in 1975. differences were found between the groups in Forty-three of the subjects reported that body weight, skinfold thickness, percentage they did not smoke, but 21 of these had pre-
HARTUNG AND FARGE
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Table 2. Means and t-Ratios for Differences Between Marathon and Nonmarathon Groups. Factor
47.82 : 70.69 : 77.82 d 130.76 : 84.20 d 58.72 ; 13.78 : 172.88 : 182.40 : 54.95 : 61.52 : 80.24 i 14.09 : 189.16 : 87.00 :
5.05 6.66 4.92 11.88 7.55 10.21 1.33 11.23 27.51 5.74 21.75 4.42 2.08 28.25 51.47
Nonmarathon (N = 23) SD X 46.84 78.36 179.38 124.48 79.69 60.13 12.04 174.83 178.56 47.44 90.50 87.82 16.50 200.96 95.00
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
4.87 9.08 6.57 15.89 7.49 8.88 1.33 7.31 21.57 5.74 32.33 8.63 2.95 28.59 45.66
0.68 3.35** 0.94 1.56 2.07* 0.51 4.53*** 0.72 0.53 4.53*** 3.61*** 3.78*** 3.29** 1.44 0.57
*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001
of fat, treadmill time, estimated VO2 max, and resting diastolic blood pressure, with the marathoners being lower on the former three and higher on the latter three factors. The groups were not significantly different with regard to age, height, resting heart rate and systolic blood pressure, maximum heart rate and stystolic blood pressure, or serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels. The marathoners, however, differed significantly {p < .01) from the other runners on only one personality factor, imagination (Factor M), on which they were higher than nonmarathon runners. This seems to indicate that the marathon runners tend to be more concerned with other than practical "down to earth" matters; however, when only one of 16 variables differs significantly, this difference may be due to chance alone. The younger age group (40-49 years, n = 34) was compared with the older group (50-59 years, n = 14), and no significant difference was found in weight, height, or cholesterol and triglyceride levels. The 9-year mean age difference resulted in a significantly lower treadmill time, estimated VO2 and maximal heart rate for the older group. The amount of decline in VO2 max, however, was only -0.53 ml/kg min per year for the age difference.
Among the personality factors, no significant differences were noted between the two age groups. The younger group tended, however, to be higher in self-sufficiency (p = .09). Table 3 shows the mean, standard deviation, z-scores, and level of significance of personality factors for the sample of 47 middleaged runners and joggers. On 7 of the 16 factors, the mean was significantly different from the overall population mean of 5.5 (Cattell et al., 1970). The sample scored significantly lower on Factor A (/? = .001), which means that they were more reserved or aloof. Factor B was significantly above the mean (x = 7.9p < .001), which indicates that the group has high mental capability, is fast learning and intellectually adapting. The mean for Factor F was 4.15. This indicates a sober, serious attitude, and places the sample significantly different from the universal mean (p < .001). Factor H distinguishes one who is easy going, friendly, relaxed (High H) from a shy, cautious, and more withdrawn type (Low H). The sample was significantly low (p = .027) on this factor. The sample scored well above average on Factor M, strength of imagination (p < .001). The low group mean for astuteness (Factor N) indicates that the sample is genuine and forthright, but socially clumsy. The highest
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Age (yrs) Weight (kg) Height (cm) Rest systolic BP (mm Hg) Rest diastolic BP (mm Hg) Rest HR (beats/min) TM time (min) Max HR (beats/min) Max systolic BP (mm Hg) VO2 max (ml/kgmin) XSkinfolds (mm) Waist girth (cm) % Fat Cholesterol (mg %) Triglycerides (mg %)
Marathon (N = 25) SD X
PERSONALITY OF THE MIDDLE-AGED RUNNER
545
Table 3. Personality Factors of 47 Runners and Joggers: Comparison with Standardized Mean (5.5) and S.D. (2). Factor A B C E
G H 1 L M N
0 Q> Q2 Q3
Reserved (critical, aloof) Less intelligent (concrete-thinking) Affected by feelings (easily upset) Humble (docile, accommodating) Sober (serious, desurgency) Expedient (weaker superego strength) Shy (threat-sensitive) Tough-minded (realistic) Trusting (accepting conditions) Practical (down-to-earth) Forthright (genuine but socially clumsy) Self-assured (secure, untroubled adequacy) Conservative (respecting traditional ideas) Group-dependent (a joiner, follower) Undisciplined self-conflict (lax, careless of social rules) Relaxed (tranquil, composed)
s.d.
z
p
High
4.57
2.24
-3.26
.001
7.19
1.83
5.93
< .001
5.78
1.74
.982
.327
5.40
2.18
- .351
.719
4.15
2.05
-4.74
< .001
6.00
2.04
1.75
.080
4.87
2.68
-2.21
.027
5.15
2.20
-1.23
.2187
5.00
1.20
-1.75
.080
6.80
1.51
4.56
< .001
4.70
1.50
-2.81
.005
5.20
2.06
1.05
.294
5.11
2.024
1.37
.170
7.23
1.83
7.82
< .001
5.81
1.80
1.08
.280
5.98
2.18
1.68
.093
Outgoing (warmhearted, participating) More intelligent (abstract-thinking, bright) Emotionally stable (mature, calm) Assertive (aggressive, competitive) Happy-go-lucky (enthusiastic, surgency) Conscientious (stronger superego strength) Venturesome (socially bold) Tender-minded (sensitive) Suspicious (hard to fool) Imaginative (Bohemian, absent-minded) Astute (polished, socially aware) Apprehensive (worrying, guilt proneness) Experimenting (liberal, free-thinking) Self-sufficient (resourceful, prefers own decisions) Controlled (socially precise, compulsive) Tense (frustrated, driven)
X"
single factor found was Q2, self-sufficiency (x = 7.23, p < .001). High Q2 is synonmous with resourcefulness and confidence. The product-moment correlations (r) between various factors yielded some interesting results. Significant negative r's were found between treadmill time (also VO2 max) and percentage of fat, weight, waist girth, and all skinfold fat measures. These r values were in the range of-.40 to -.59. Age and maximum heart rate were correlated significantly (r = -.50) as were age and treadmill time (r -.34). Treadmill time was positively correlated with average weekly distance run, weekly distance run last year and total mileage run in 1975 (r's = .43 to .57). DISCUSSION
The Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire is a test based on fundamental concepts
in human personality structure. It has been validated among all adult age groups and education levels, and reliability checks varied from .61 to .91 in other studies (Cattell et al., 1970). This questionnaire does not, however, have a built-in protection against lying, and one must assume that the answers are spontaneous expressions by the subject. It deals more with the functional or operational aspects of personality and is thus different from a personality inventory which aims at unearthing more subconscious ideas. An empirical reason for its use in this sample is that the 16 PF was used in many of the studies of athletes and training cited earlier. The low Factor A score indicates a more favorable attitude toward things or words, a fondness for working alone, a hard-headed intellectual approach, and rejection of compromise. Artists, electricians, and research scien-
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F
Low
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HARTUNG AND FARGE
who is resourceful. The low Q2 score bespeaks one who goes with the group, depends on social approval, and is conventional. Similar high findings among fit individuals are noted in the studies by Buccola and Stone (1975), Ismail and Trachtman (1973), and Sharp and Reilley (1975). The personality profile of our sample shows them to be significantly less outgoing and surgent, as well as less suspicious and socially polished than the mean for males in their age range! They also appear significantly brighter, more imaginative and self-sufficient. Such divergencies from the mean suggest, according to Cattell, a low score on a combined "secondstratum" level of introversion-extraversion. Extraversion is identified as a combination of being high on Factor A (outgoing), Factor E (assertive), Factor F (surgent), Factor H (venturesome), and low on Q2 (self-sufficiency). Our sample scored significantly different from the mean on four of these five factors, but in the opposite direction. This places them rather definitely as individualistic, or as having traits closer to invia (inwardness) as opposed to exvia (outwardness). Table 4 outlines the significant findings of several studies of athletes and trained men on the Cattell 16 PF test. The Johnsgard et al. (1975) study of sportsmen in "high stress" endeavors has the highest number of factors which significantly differ among groups. Of the studies of single sport endeavors, the
Table 4. Significant Factors on the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire in Various Studies. Factors N a
Present study Buccola & Stone (1975)a Burdick & Zloty (1973)a Darden (1972)a Hammer & Wilmore (1973)a Ismail & Tractman (1973)b Jette (1975)C
Johnsgard et al. (1975)c Kroll (1967)a-b Kroll & Carlson (1967)a-b Young & Ismail (1976)b a = comparison with popular mean. b = pre-test vs. post-test comparison. c = comparison among two or more classes of athletes.
0
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tists tend to score low on A. The low Factor F score mirrored Darden's study on bodybuilders and indicates a group which is silent and reflective, slow and cautious, and which tends to be uncommunicative. These individuals are less talkative, less cheerful, and less expressive. Among occupational groups, atists, university administrators, and physicists usually score low on Factor F. Low scores on Factor L had also been found in the sample of Hammer and Wilmore (1973). Whereas high L (protension) indicates ambition and scrupulous social behavior, low L individuals tend to be more trusting, and hence more accepted in team situations. The high score on Factor M (imaginative) indicates an intensity of ones inner mental life and had been noted earlier by Burdick and Zloty (1973) and Ismail and Trachtman (1973). Such persons have internal autonomy, avoid prosaic and practical concerns, and tend to have more interest in art and theory. The low group mean for Factor N (astuteness) is more difficult to interpret. Cattell himself admits that " . . . this factor is not so well established in behavior ratings,. . .and has still to be pursued to higher validity in the questionnaire realm" (Cattell et al., 1970). Still, low N seems to indicate more spontaneity and naturalness, more artlessness and less shrewdness. High Factor Q2 distinguishes one who is accustomed to making his own decisions and
PERSONALITY OF THE MIDDLE-AGED RUNNER
tive benefits of their activity. Most of the subjects appeared to represent the "positive addiction" described by Glasser (1976) in that they have run for a number of years, run frequently and easily for an hour or more, and are convinced that what they are doing is good for them. SUMMARY
The runners and joggers studied were clearly different from the general population in terms of circulorespiratory fitness and body composition measures. They could be compared in terms of aerobic fitness with men 20 years younger who are categorized as being in "good" condition (American Heart Association, 1972). The personality traits which motivate men to run and maintain high levels of fitness are more difficult to determine, but perhaps this sample provides an insight into what makes the middle-aged runner run. The subjects studied were clearly more intelligent than average, had a high socioeconomic status, were more imaginative and self-sufficient than average, but tended to be introverted to some extent. The introversion tendency may have been a more important factor in motivating these men to run or jog rather than take up a team or dual sport. The high levels of self-sufficiency and imaginativeness may have been a result of running rather than a cause, since increases in these traits were found with improvements in fitness by Ismail and Trachtman (1973). REFERENCES
American Heart Association. (Commitee on Exercise) Exercise testing and training of apparently healthy individuals: A handbook for physicians, American Heart Assn., New York, 1972. Brozek, J., & Keys, A. The evaluation of leannessfatness in man: Norms and interrelationships. British Journal of Nutrition, 1951,5, 194-206. Bruce, R. A., & Lerman, J. Exercise testing and training in relation to myocardial infarction. Postgraduate Medicine, 1975,57, 59-65. Buccola, V. A., & Stone, W. J. Effects of jogging and cycling programs on physiological and personality variables in aged men. Research Quarterly, 1975, 46, 134-139. Burdick, J. A., & Zloty, R. B. Wakeful heart rate, personality and performance — A study of distance runner. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1973,13, 17-25. Cattell, R. B., Eber, H. W., & Tatsuoka, M. M. Handbook for the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire.
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present study of middle-aged runners has the highest number of significant personality factors or traits. The estimation of VO2 max using the Bruce treadmill protocol may tend to underestimate the VO2 max in highly trained individuals such as many of the subjects of this study. Many subjects cannot tolerate the high incline and stop because of leg fatigue before reaching circulo-respiratory limits. In spite of this fact, the aerobic fitness level of these subjects was estimated to be higher than that found by McDonough, Kusumi, and Bruce (1970) in active middle-aged men and slightly higher than that of 32 well-trained men of the same mean age reported by Pollock, Miller, Linnerud, Royston, Smith, and Sonner (1973). The VO2 max was, however, lower than that found for comparable age groups of champion American runners and race walkers (Pollock, Miller, & Wilmore, 1974) and well trained Swedish orienteering competitors (Grimby & Saltin, 1966). The rate of decline in maximal aerobic capacity with age as estimated in the present cross-sectional study (-0.53 ml/kg min per year) is slightly less than has been noted by Dehn and Bruce (1972) who found a -0.59 ml/kg min per year decline in heavy exercisers over a 2.6-year period. Their crosssectional data, however, yielded a mean rate of decline of only -0.28 ml/kg min per year in active and sedentary groups combined. The marathon runners among the group were clearly superior to the nonmarathoners with regard to maximal physiological factors and body composition measures and tended to have lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels. These differences probably reflect the longer distance training regimens involved in marathon preparation. There was little indication that personality differences existed between the two groups that could be either a result of or a casual factor in the decision to run the marathon distance. Regular running or jogging, and especially long distance training, is a highly individualistic activity, since it is difficult to meet regularly in groups because of the relatively small number of participants and because of different running regimens and schedules. Runners apparently either possess or develop high levels of self-sufficiency and imagination, along with the intelligence to foresee the posi-
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Morgan, W. P. Selected psychological considerations in sports. Research Quarterly, 1974, 45, 374-390. Morgan, W. P., & Costill, D. L. Psychological characteristics of the marathon runner. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1972, 12, 42-46. Morgan, W. L., & Pollock, M. L. Psychological characterization of the elite distance runner. Paper presented at New York Academy of Science, Conference on the Marathon, Oct., 1976. Pollock, M. L., Bohannon, R. L., Cooper, K. H., Ayres, J. J., Ward, A. White, S. R., & Linnerud, A. C. A comparative analysis of four protocols for maximal treadmill stress testing. American Heart Journal, 1976, 92, 39-46. Pollock, M. L., Miller, H. S., Jr., & Wilmore, J. Physiological characteristics of champion American track athletes 40 to 75 years of age. Journal of Gerontology, 1974, 29, 645-649. Pollock, M. L., Miller, H. S., Jr., Linnerud, A. C , Royster, C. L., Smith, W. E., & Sonner, W. H. Physiological findings in well-trained middle-aged American men. British Association of Sports Medicine Journal, 1973, 7, 222-229. Rathbun, E. N., & Pace, N. Studies on body composition. I. The determination of total body fat by means of the body specific gravity, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1945, 158, 667-676. Sharp, M. W., & Reilley, R. R. The relationship of aerobic physical fitness to selected personality traits. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1975,5/, 428-430. Young, R. J., & Ismail, A. H. Personality differences of adult men before and after a physical fitness program. Research Quarterly, 1976,47, 513-519.
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Institute for Personality & Ability Testing, Champaign, IL, 1970. Darden, E. Sixteen personality factor profiles of competitive bodybuilders and weightlifters. Research Quarterly, 1972, 4J, 142-147. Dehn, M. M., & Bruce, R. A. Longitudinal variation in maximal oxygen intake with age and activity. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1972, 33, 805-807. Glasser, W. Positive addiction. Harper & Row, New York, 1976. Grimby, G., & Saltin, B. Physiological analysis of physically well-trained middle-aged and old athletes. Acta Medico Scandinavica, 1966, 179, 513-526. Hammer, W. M., & Wilmore, J. H. An exploratory investigation in personality measures and physiological alterations during a 10-week jogging program. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1973, 13, 238-247. Ismail, A. H., & Trachtman, L. E. Jogging the imagination. Psychology Today, 1973, 6, 79-82. Jette, M. Habitual exercisers: A blood serum and personality profile. Journal of Sports Medicine, 1975, 3, 12-17. Johnsgard, K., Ogilvie, B., & Merritt, K. The stress seekers: A psychological study of sports parachutists, racing drivers, and football players. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 1975, 15. 158-169. Kroll, W. Sixteen personality factor profiles of collegiate wrestlers. Research Quarterly, 1967, 38, 49-56. Kroll, W., & Carlson, B. R. Discriminant function and hierarchial grouping analysis of karate participant's personality profiles. Research Quarterly, 1967, 38, 405-411. McDonough, J. R., Kusumi, F., & Bruce, R. A. Variations in maximal oxygen intake with physical activity in middle-aged men. Circulation, 1970, 41, 743-751.
