International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 2016, 11, 55 -60 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-0133 © 2016 Human Kinetics, Inc.
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION
Performance Analysis of Elite Female Amateur Boxers and Comparison With Their Male Counterparts Philip Davis, Peter R. Benson, Robert Waldock, and Andrew J. Connorton Female boxing debuted at the 2012 London Olympic Games. To better understand the performance aspects of the sport, video footage of eighteen 4 × 2-min bouts were analyzed. The boxers involved in the competition were of an elite level (mean ± SD), age 26.4 ± 4.6 y, height 169.3 ± 6.2 cm, and weight 60.3 ± 10.0 kg. Analysis revealed an activity rate of ~1.6 actions/s, including ~16 punches, ~3.3 defensive movements, and ~63 vertical hip movements, all per minute, over the 4 × ~132-s rounds (R). A 2 × 4 (outcome × round) ANOVA with repeated measures over the rounds was used to analyze the data. Winners maintained a higher activity rate in round 1 (R1) and R2; a higher movement rate in R2, R3, and R4; and an increased punch accuracy including the ratio of total punches to punches landed in R3 and air punches as a percentage of punches missed in R1 and R3. Specific techniques that discriminate between successful and unsuccessful female amateur boxers include the straight rear-hand and body punches, higher for winners in R1, as well as uppercut punches and defensive foot movements, higher for winners in R4. Findings highlight the current demands of elite amateur female boxing. These data will be useful for those designing training programs and may also be useful for guiding sport-specific fitness testing. Keywords: combat sports, video analysis, boxing Despite the long history of boxing and its phases of change, apart from a demonstration bout in the 1904 Olympic Games female amateur boxing was banned until 1988, when it was accepted by the Swedish Amateur Boxing Association. The International Amateur Boxing Association later approved the first female world championship in 2001.1 However, female boxing was not included in the Olympic Games until London 2012. Currently, female amateur boxing is contested over 10 weight categories, although Olympic female boxing is only contested over 3 categories: 48 to 51, 57 to 60, and 69 to 75 kg. A bout consists of 4 rounds of 2 minutes (4 × 2) with 1-minute breaks between rounds.2 A point is awarded to a boxer by a panel of 5 judges for landing a clean punch with the knuckle area of the glove against the front or sides of the head or body above the belt.3 However, when boxing in-close only 1 point is awarded to the boxer who is deemed most successful.3 The boxer with the most points at the end of the bout is announced the winner.3 The activity profile of elite male amateur boxing has been discussed previously in the literature; each subsequent paper gives more insight and detail. Over the 4 × 2-minute format it was reported that Bosnian and Herzegovina male boxers used the lead straight punch and the lead hook to the head the most, representing 29% and 23%, respectively, of all attacking actions.4 Egyptian nationallevel 3 × 3-minute male boxers threw ~15 punches/min; winners had more lead- and rear-hand punches in round 3 and more straight, hook, and uppercut punches to the head in round 1 than the losers (unfortunately they do not specify lead or rear hand here).5 It is suggested that for novice amateur male boxers to land punches in 3 × 2-minute bouts they must maintain a high frequency of lead-hand straight punches to the head, together with punching combinations.6 Defensive movements must initiate a counterattack The authors are with Combat Sports Performance, Braintree, Essex, United Kingdom. Address author correspondence to Philip Davis at drdavisphilip@ gmail.com.
and boxers must be able to tolerate a blood lactate increase of ~1.8 mmol · L–1 · min–1. However, that study found that regardless of landing punches, triple-punch combinations, even if they did not hit their target, had the highest probability of being scored by judges.6 The most recent study in this area reported that 3 × 3-minute male Olympic bouts consisted of ~1.3 actions/s, comprising ~20 punches, ~2.5 defensive movements, and ~47 vertical hip movements, all per minute, over 3 subsequent rounds lasting up to 252 seconds.7 At this level, unlike the novice boxers, rear-hand punches and the ability to increase punching accuracy over subsequent rounds were important for success. However, the study concluded that “technical discrimination between winners and losers at [the Olympic] level was difficult; outcome may be more dependent on which punch is ‘lucky’ enough to be scored by the judges or who ‘appears’ to be dominant on the day.”7(p56) Despite the recent inclusion of female elite-level boxing in the Olympic Games and the widespread interest in boxing in general, little information is available describing the competition demands of any level of amateur female boxing. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to analyze video footage of competitive female Olympic bouts of 4 × 2-minute duration. This analysis would produce an activity profile of elite boxing including insight into what a “typical” bout comprises, changes over the progression of a bout, and discrimination between winners and losers, as well as highlighting similarities and differences between female and male boxers. This will benefit those designing training programs, coaches, and those involved in sport-specific testing of elite female boxers by highlighting the requirements to be successful at this level.
Methods Participants Twenty-four elite-level female boxers (mean ± SD [lower/upper 95% confidence intervals]) age 26.4 ± 4.6 (24.6/28.1) years, height 55
56 Davis et al
169.3 ± 6.2 (166.8/172.0) cm, body mass 60.3 ± 10.0 (58.8/66.7) kg, were competing over 6 final and 12 semifinal bouts in the London Olympic Games 2012 and the Association of International Amateur Boxing World Championships 2012. The boxers represent all 3 of the Olympic weight categories—48 to 51, 57 to 60, and 69 to 75 kg—with 8 boxers in each. Female amateur boxers had 5.8 ± 4.2 years of experience competing at international level and collectively had won 50 gold, 18 silver, and 13 bronze medals.
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Procedures The bouts were analyzed in high definition using Windows Media Player in slow-motion replay; the replay speed is adjustable in 0.1-second increments, allowing accurate viewing and calculation of time-based parameters. The footage was obtained from the official Olympic channel on the Internet8,9; the resolution was high-definition 1080p and was originally recorded using the British Broadcasting Company’s high-definition television cameras. Two cameras were placed in separate corners of the ring, and 1 on a maneuverable wire above the ring. Data were recorded for both boxers in each bout. All bouts were analyzed by the same qualified boxing coach, and 3 random bouts were analyzed twice to check for consistency by comparing the 2 different results from those bouts with interclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Attacking movements were recorded, detailing whether the movement was made with the lead or rear hand with a straight, hook, or uppercut technique; aimed at the head or body of the opponent; and if the movement hit or missed the target area. Furthermore, whether the movement was a single punch, part of a combination, or missed the opponent completely (air punch) was recorded. Defensive actions recorded included defense made with the hand, trunk, and foot. Vertical hip movements were defined as any visually identifiable vertical activity of the pelvis. Activity rate per round (actions/s) included all attacking and defensive actions and vertical hip movements divided by the net activity time: Net activity time = round time – total clinch time. Air punches as a percentage of missed = 100/punches missed × air punches. For further details on procedures and parameters measured, please refer to Davis et al6 and Davis et al.7
Data Analysis Results are reported as mean ± SD. Values are reported for winners and losers combined and only reported separately where a difference was found (P < .05). A 4 (round: first, second, third, or fourth) × 2 (outcome: winner or loser) analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures was applied for differences in technique, considering round and outcome as within and between factors, respectively. Bonferroni adjustments were applied as appropriate. For differences in technique between the current and the previous 3 × 2-minute6 and 3 × 3-minute7 studies, a 1-way ANOVA with Tukey post hoc was applied. For all statistics the significance level was set at P < .05.
Results All bouts lasted the full duration. In 1 of the 18 bouts (6%) the judges’ decision did not reflect punches landed over the duration of the bout, despite a difference of 5 punches being landed. The ICCs used to measure the consistency of the video analysis had a mean of .998, which is within the acceptable limit. There was no difference in height between winners (168.8 ± 6.0 cm) and losers
(170.2 ± 6.8 cm) or in body mass (winners 60.8 ± 10.7, losers 59.7 ± 10.5 kg; both P > .05). The attacking parameters straight rear-hand (P = .031) and total body punches (P = .047) were both higher for winners in round 1 (R1), while total uppercut punches were higher for winners in R4 (P = .014). Air punches as a percentage of punches missed were lower for winners in R1 (P = .009) and R3 (P = .033), and the ratio of total punches to landed punches was also lower for winners in R3 (P = .006). Hook rear-hand-landed decreased between R2 and R3 (P = .012) and between R2 and R4 (P = .046), while straight lead-hand-landed decreased between R2 and R4 (P = .006) and between R3 and R4 (P = .022) (Table 1). Vertical hip movements were higher for winners in R2 (P = .006), R3 (P = .032), and R4 (P = .019). Actions per second and total punches landed were both higher for winners in R1 (both P < .020) and R2 (both P < .039). Foot defense was also higher for winners in R4 (P = .036) (Table 1). The overall bout activity-to-break ratio not including breaks between rounds was 6.6:1; due to the clock being stopped for referee stoppages, the average time spent in each round was 132 seconds. The average time before the first stop of the round was ~41 seconds. Total stop frequency (all P < .001), referee stop frequency (all P < .004), and clinch time (all P < .045) were all larger in R2, R3, and R4 than R1. Both total stop time (both P < .045) and clinch frequency (both P = .011) were larger in R3 and R4 than R1. Clinch time constituted the main fraction of stop time, being 55%, 55%, 61%, and 50% in rounds 1 to 4, respectively. Referee stop time remained the same over subsequent rounds at ~12 seconds. The time taken for announcement of a winner (~64 s) and for the boxers to leave the ring (~36 s) created a total time of 100 ± 31 seconds (Table 2).
Discussion We believe that the current study is the first to provide an activity profile of elite female amateur boxing over the 4 × 2-minute format. The results suggest that a successful strategy in female 4 × 2-minute boxing should include the ability to maintain a high activity rate, a high amount of vertical hip movements, and a lower ratio of total attack to landed punches and air punches as a percentage of missed. Important specific technique includes the straight rear-hand, uppercut, and body punches, as well as defensive foot movements, as they discriminate between winners and losers (Table 1). However, there was no suggestion of the boxers’ anthropometrics having an influence, with neither mass nor height being different (P > .05) between winners and losers. Unsurprisingly, there are both similarity and difference in the male6,7 and female versions of the sport (Table 3). These differences are important and highlight the variation in preparation, technique, and strategy that should be considered by coaches. Furthermore, this study shows no evidence to support the common belief in the nonacademic literature that the straight leadhand punch is a successful boxing technique.10–12 Regardless of winning or losing, the activity profile is flat throughout a bout, with many parameters showing no increase or decrease between subsequent rounds. This is in contrast to novice 3 × 2-minute bouts’ having a J-shaped profile and elite male 3 × 3-minute bouts’ having an inverted U.6,7 It is suggested that the flat activity profile is due to boxer fatigue, where neither boxer is able to increase her effort significantly to impose dominance in any of the rounds, as seen in the male sport.6,7 This idea is further supported by total stop time, total stop frequency, total clinch frequency, and referee stop frequency, all increasing with round number. Time
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Table 1 Attacking Movements and Punch Combinations in Relation to Round and Outcome, Mean ± SD Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Activity rate (/s)
1.5 ± 0.3
1.6 ± 0.3*
1.6 ± 0.3
1.6 ± 0.3
winners
1.6 ± 0.3‡
1.8 ± 0.3‡
1.7 ± 0.3
1.7 ± 0.3
losers
1.4 ± 0.2
1.5 ± 0.3
1.5 ± 0.3
1.5 ± 0.3
Total punches landed
4.2 ± 2.9
4.7 ± 3.6
4.3 ± 2.8
3.6 ± 2.9
winners
5.4 ± 3.2‡
5.9 ± 4.3‡
5.1 ± 3.1
4.2 ± 2.9
losers
3.0 ± 2.0
3.5 ± 2.3
3.4 ± 2.1
3.1 ± 2.8
Straight rear landed
1.05 ± 1.09
0.97 ± 1.46
0.94 ± 1.09
1.00 ± 1.24
winners
1.44 ± 1.20‡
1.39 ± 1.82
1.00 ± 0.97
1.17 ± 1.42
losers
0.67 ± 0.84
0.56 ± 0.86
0.89 ± 1.23
0.83 ± 1.04
Total uppercut
0.64 ± 1.29
0.83 ± 1.63
0.78 ± 1.55
0.64 ± 0.90
winners
0.78 ± 1.40
0.94 ± 1.76
0.39 ± 085
0.28 ± 0.57‡
losers
0.50 ± 1.20
0.72 ± 1.53
1.17 ± 1.98
1.00 ± 1.03
Total to body
2.3 ± 2.6
2.6 ± 2.7
1.8 ± 2.5
1.9 ± 2.7
winners
3.1 ± 3.2‡
2.5 ± 3.3
1.9 ± 3.0
1.8 ± 2.2
losers
1.4 ± 1.5
2.7 ± 2.1
1.7 ± 1.8
1.9 ± 3.2
Ratio of total attack to landed
10.5 ± 7.4
11.8 ± 9.5
10.7 ± 6.8
10.8 ± 8.3
winners
10.1 ± 7.9
9.6 ± 7.3
7.6 ± 4.3‡
11.1 ± 7.5
losers
10.9 ± 7.1
14.0 ± 11.1
13.7 ± 7.6
10.4 ± 9.2
Vertical hip movements
124.5 ± 32.0
130.2 ± 30.8
124.4 ± 24.9
121.6 ± 23.6
winners
134.6 ± 36.2
143.9 ± 32.2‡
133.2 ± 28.4‡
130.6 ± 28.0‡
losers
114.4 ± 24.3
116.4 ± 22.6
115.6 ± 17.4
112.5 ± 13.7
87.9 ± 8.4
86.7 ± 8.1
86.4 ± 9.1
89.1 ± 7.0
Air punches as percentage of misses winners
84.3 ± 10.0‡
83.9 ± 9.3‡
83.8 ± 6.7
87.6 ± 6.2
losers
91.4 ± 4.5
89.6 ± 5.6
89.0 ± 10.6
90.87 ± 7.6
Foot defense
2.1 ± 1.5
2.0 ± 1.7
2.1 ± 1.8
2.4 ± 2.0
winners
2.5 ± 1.5
2.4 ± 1.9
2.5 ± 1.8
3.1 ± 2.2‡
losers
1.8 ± 1.4
1.6 ± 1.5
1.8 ± 1.7
1.7 ± 1.4
Hook rear-hand landed
0.72 ± 1.00
0.75 ± 0.87
0.22 ± 0.42†
0.33 ± 0.53†
Straight lead-hand landed
0.86 ± 0.90
1.5 ± 1.5
1.4 ± 1.6
0.7 ± 0.8†#
*Significant difference (P < .05) from round 1. †Significant difference (P < .05) from round 2. #Significant difference (P < .05) from round 3. ‡Significant difference (P < .05) between winners and losers.
before first stop also appears to decrease with round number, from 53 to 33 seconds, although it was not significant, possibly due to the large standard deviations (Table 2). It would therefore appear that the boxers maintain their rate of attack and defense (Table 1) by sacrificing their bout and movement discipline, as represented by increased clinching and referee stoppage (Table 2). This is similar to novice male 3 × 2-minute boxing where fatigue was exhibited by an increase in total stop time and frequency and a decrease in time before first stop and vertical hip movements with rounds.6 Total punches landed not only discriminated between winners and losers in this study but also agreed with winners and losers as decided by the judges; surprisingly, this is not always so. In the current study only 1 out of 18 bouts had a disagreement between the judges’ decision and punches landed. Previous studies have reported 1:7 in elite males7 and as low as 1:5 in novice males.6
Punches per minute in the current study (~16) are similar to that of 3 × 3-minute Egyptian male national-level boxers (~15) (although it is thought that this result is unusually low for this level of boxing).5 The current study is also ~56% lower than 3 × 3- and 4 × 2-minute Commonwealth male boxers (~37.5 punches/min) (although these data are based on older boxing formats).13,14 They are also ~24% lower than previously reported 3 × 2-minute novice male boxers (~22 punches/min) and 3 × 3-minute elite male boxers (~20 punches/min).6,7 This result highlights how much less frequent female attacking movements are than in the male sport (Table 1).6,7 The difference in the amount of punches to the head and body in the current study was large, creating a ratio of ~21:1, much higher than the previously reported 5:1 in men.6,7 The ratio in the current study is also potentially lower than it should have been, as there were a total of 44 rounds where a boxer did not throw any
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Table 2 Time and Activity Data in Relation to Round and Outcome, Mean ± SD Total stop time (s) Total stop frequency
Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Postbout
18.8 ± 13.7
25.7 ± 19.5
28.9 ± 21.0*
32.6 ± 21.0*
2.5 ± 1.3
4.0 ± 2.3*
4.3 ± 2.3*
5.4 ± 3.5*
Clinch time (s)
9.4 ± 7.1
14.2 ± 11.9*
16.4 ± 12.0*
17.8 ± 14.6*
Clinch frequency
1.5 ± 1.1
2.1 ± 1.4
2.3 ± 1.5*
2.8 ± 2.3*
Referee stop time (s)
9.4 ± 11.2
11.6 ± 11.6
12.6 ± 14.2
14.8 ± 10.5
Referee stop frequency
1.0 ± 0.8
1.9 ± 1.3*
2.0 ± 1.5*
2.6 ± 1.8*
Time before first stop (s)
52.6 ± 31.3
40.5 ± 31.1
33.1 ± 30.9
38.4 ± 27.0
Total time in round (s)
129.4 ± 11.2
131.6 ± 11.6
132.6 ± 14.2
134.8 ± 10.5
Time to announce (s)
64.3 ± 19.0
Time to leave ring (s)
35.7 ± 18.0
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*Significant difference (P < .05) from round 1.
Table 3 Comparison of Variables (/min) With Previous Studies, Mean ± SD Current study
3 × 2 study6
Total attack lead hand
10.8 ± 4.0
13.7 ± 4.0*
12.2 ± 4.9
Total attack rear hand
6.8 ± 3.2
7.9 ± 3.1
9.5 ± 3.6*
Hook rear hand
3 × 3 study7
2.0 ± 1.7
4.0 ± 2.6*
3.9 ± 2.2*
Uppercut punches
0.36 ± 0.48
1.4 ± 1.7*
1.4 ± 1.6*
Head punches
33.2 ± 12.3
18.1 ± 4.7*
18.2 ± 6.5*
Punches/min
16.1 ± 6.0
21.6 ± 5.6*
20.1 ± 6.2*
Air punches
2.3 ± 1.9
N/A
5.2 ± 3.1*
Total defense
3.3 ± 1.9
3.8 ± 2.4
2.7 ± 1.3
Triple-punch combination
1.4 ± 0.76
1.1 ± 0.89
1.5 ± 0.77
Block and counter combo
0.64 ± 0.72
0.22 ± 0.38*
1.0 ± 0.69*
Body-head combination
0.32 ± 0.41
0.70 ± 0.74
0.98 ± 0.89*
Vertical hip movements
62.6 ± 12.4
37.3 ± 10.0*
46.5 ± 9.3*
Total stop time
13.3 ± 7.3
6.4 ± 5.9*
11.6 ± 5.3
Activity-to-break ratio (:1) Actions/s
6.6 ± 6.7
9.1 ± 7.0*
18.1 ± 7.5*
1.59 ± 0.24
1.18 ± 0.25*
1.31 ± 0.24*
Abbreviation: N/A, parameter was not recorded from the video footage in this study and so is not available for comparison. The mean of the parameter was found from all rounds together and divided by total minutes to get actions/min. Compared variables were chosen for 1 of 2 reasons: They were mentioned as being important and/or decisive to performance in the previous studies or they were considered by the authors as being pertinent to boxing. *Significant difference (P < .05) from current study.
body punches at all; this included 3 boxers who only threw 1 body punch over all 4 rounds. Previous studies suggested that the reason for their 5:1 ratio was a lack of judges’ scoring body punches as landed punches, which reduced the boxer’s desire to use them.6,7 We believe that this may be only part of the reason in the current study. As the difference in ratios between studies is so large, we think that there may be a technical deficiency in female boxing, especially as technical skills such as the body-head combination and uppercut punches were also much less used in comparison with their male counterparts (Table 3). Whether this deficiency is due to the boxers’ inability or the coaches’ strategy is not clear.
The difference between the novice and elite male levels of this sport have been discussed previously,7 highlighting that the mean activity rate in the elite boxers (~1.31 actions/s) was higher than in the novice boxers (~1.18 actions/s). In the current study they were much higher (~1.59); however, as discussed previously, the punches per minute were lower. This considerably higher activity rate seems to be partly a result of elevated vertical hip movements (~63/min) in the current study compared with 3 × 2-minute (~37/min) and 3 × 3-minute (~47/min) (Table 3). Anecdotally, these vertical hip movements seemed to have little or no tactical benefit, as the majority were due to a constant bouncing movement, a technical error often
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Activity Profile of Elite Female Amateur Boxers 59
seen in beginner and recreational boxers. If half of a boxer’s time is spent in the air midbounce she can make neither attacking nor defensive movements with any great power or accuracy, reducing the amount of time she has for effective technique. If the female boxers had an amount of vertical hip movement similar to that of the male boxers (~42) it would mean that their actions per second would also be similar to that of their male counterparts (~1.20). When unnecessarily overworking the legs by almost 33%, there should be not only technical considerations but possibly also metabolic.15,16 When comparing specific technique data of the current study (4 × 2) with those of Davis et al6 novice male (3 × 2) and Davis et al7 elite male (3 × 3), hook rear hand (both P < .002), uppercut punches (both P < .010), punches per minute (both P < .005), and the activity-to-break ratio (both P < .049) were all lower in the current study than in both the 3 × 2 study6 and the 3 × 3 study.7 Total attack rear-hand (P = .001), body-head combinations (P < .001), and air punches (P < .001) were all lower in the current study than in the 3 × 3 study.7 Vertical hip movements (both P < .002) and actions per second (both P < .002) were both higher in the current study than in both the 3 × 2 study6 and the 3 × 3 study.7 Block and counterstrike combinations in the current study were higher than in the 3 × 2 study6 (P = .045) and lower than in the 3 × 3 study7 (P = .028). Total attack lead hand was lower (P = .024) and total stop time was higher (P < .001) in the current study than in the 3 × 2 study6 (Table 3). The activity-to-break ratio in the current study was 6.6:1, compared with 9:1 in novice male boxing6 and 18:1 in Olympic male boxing,7 highlighting how much less physically demanding female boxing is, even when comparing elite female boxers against novice male boxers6 (Table 3). This lower ratio is a consequence of the reduced amount of time available to perform actions, due to clinching. This low ratio is also the second contributor to the current study’s high actions per second. If the female boxers had a higher activity-to-break ratio, similar to that of the male boxers, it would result in a further reduction in actions per second, reducing the “reduced vertical hip movement” estimation of 1.2 to below that of the novice males, 1.18. We suggest that these excessive actions per second not only could be responsible for wasted use of available energy but also could increase the demand on the anaerobic alactic energy supply, which has previously been show in male boxers to already be at or very close to maximum,16 which could subsequently increase the reliance on anaerobic lactic sources, potentially exacerbating bout and movement discipline further. A limiting factor of the current study is the lack of physiological data. Unfortunately it is not possible to monitor heart rate in competitive bouts due to competition rules.2 Collecting in-bout blood samples is not possible, as only the coach and his “second” are allowed ringside. Furthermore, the time taken for a winner to be announced and leave the ring in the current study was ~100 seconds (Table 2). Although faster than their male counterparts’ ~125 seconds,7 it is still not fast enough to collect a postbout peak blood lactate sample in the 40 seconds previously reported to be needed to get a peak sample.16
Conclusion The current study is the first to provide a detailed activity profile including changes (or lack of) over the progression of a bout in Olympic-level female amateur boxers over the 4 × 2-minute format.
The main results indicate that bouts require the ability to maintain an activity rate of ~1.6 actions/s, comprising ~16 punches, ~3.3 defensive movements, and ~63 vertical hip movements, all per minute, over 4 rounds lasting ~130 seconds each. Winning boxers need to be physically prepared so that they have the ability to maintain a high activity rate, a high amount of vertical hip movements, and a lower ratio of total attack to landed punches and air punches as a percentage of missed, over a total bout length of almost 12 minutes. Specific important technique that discriminates between winners and losers includes the straight rear-hand, uppercut, and body punches, as well as defensive foot movements. This study makes clear the different technical and tactical demands in elite female boxing compared with elite male boxing and highlights variation in preparation, technique, and strategy that should be considered by coaches.
Practical Implications The current study suggests that, when training for a winning strategy, one should focus on the boxer’s ability to maintain a high activity rate, a high movement rate, and increased punch accuracy. If the boxer’s low amounts of body punches, body-head combinations, and uppercuts are not due to personal choice or strategic advice from coaches, they could be due to a technical deficiency, so technical training in these areas may help impose dominance by using techniques that opponents are not used to. A further focus on vertical hip movements may be of benefit. Reducing the time spent in the air may subsequently increase the amount of time the boxers have for effective technique, increasing their currently low number of punches per minute and enabling them to impose attacking dominance. Furthermore, the difference between female elite boxers and their male counterparts needs to be considered so that different strategies for preparation and technique training are adopted. However, this study highlights that a winning boxing strategy uses movement patterns that can be easily replicated in training.
References 1. AIBA, International Boxing Federation. The History of Boxing. 2008. http://www.aiba.org/aiba-boxing-history2/. Accessed December 11, 2015. 2. The Amateur Boxing Association of England Limited. Rules and Regulations of Amateur Boxing. 2009. 3. Open Boxing AIBA. (AOB). Competition Rules. http://www.aiba.org/ aiba-technical-competition-rules/. Accessed December 11, 2015. 4. Kapo S, Kajmovic H, Cutuk H, Berisa S. The level of use of technical and tactical elements in boxing based on the analysis of the 15th B&H individual boxing championship. Homo Sport. 2008;2:15–20. 5. Asker S. Technical and tactical aspects that differentiate winning and losing performance in boxing. Int J Perform Anal Sport. 2011;11:356– 364. 6. Davis P, Wittekind A, Beneke R. Amateur boxing: activity profile of winners and losers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8:84–91. PubMed 7. Davis P, Benson PR, Pitty JD, Connorton AJ, Waldock R. The activity profile of elite male amateur boxing. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2015;10(1):53–57. PubMed http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.20130474
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13. Smith M, Dyson R, Hale T, Hamilton M, Kelley J, Wellington P. The effects of restricted energy and fluid intake on simulated amateur boxing performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001;11:238–247. PubMed 14. Smith M. (2006). Physiological profile of senior and junior England international amateur boxers. J Sports Sci Med. 2006;5(CSSI):74–89. 15. Davis P. The Energetics of Amateur Boxing [dissertation]. Essex, UK: University of Essex. 2013. 16. Davis P, Leithauser RM, Beneke R. The energetics of semicontact 3 × 2-min amateur boxing. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2014;9(2):233– 239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/IJSPP.2013-0006
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8. Official Olympic Channel by the IOC. (2012). YouTube. http://www. youtube.com/Olympic. Accessed March 1, 2014. 9. Official AIBA Channel. (2012). YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/ AIBABoxing. March 1, 2014. 10. Blower G. Boxing Training, Skills and Techniques. Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press; 2007. 11. Hickey K. Boxing—The Amateur Boxing Association Coaching Manual. London, UK: Kaye and Ward; 1980. 12. Hickey K. Boxing, Know the Game. 2nd ed. London, UK: A&C Black, Soho Square; 2006.
IJSPP Vol. 11, No. 1, 2016
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION
Performance Analysis of Elite Female Amateur Boxers and Comparison With Their Male Counterparts Philip Davis, Peter R. Benson, Robert Waldock, and Andrew J. Connorton Female boxing debuted at the 2012 London Olympic Games. To better understand the performance aspects of the sport, video footage of eighteen 4 × 2-min bouts were analyzed. The boxers involved in the competition were of an elite level (mean ± SD), age 26.4 ± 4.6 y, height 169.3 ± 6.2 cm, and weight 60.3 ± 10.0 kg. Analysis revealed an activity rate of ~1.6 actions/s, including ~16 punches, ~3.3 defensive movements, and ~63 vertical hip movements, all per minute, over the 4 × ~132-s rounds (R). A 2 × 4 (outcome × round) ANOVA with repeated measures over the rounds was used to analyze the data. Winners maintained a higher activity rate in round 1 (R1) and R2; a higher movement rate in R2, R3, and R4; and an increased punch accuracy including the ratio of total punches to punches landed in R3 and air punches as a percentage of punches missed in R1 and R3. Specific techniques that discriminate between successful and unsuccessful female amateur boxers include the straight rear-hand and body punches, higher for winners in R1, as well as uppercut punches and defensive foot movements, higher for winners in R4. Findings highlight the current demands of elite amateur female boxing. These data will be useful for those designing training programs and may also be useful for guiding sport-specific fitness testing. Keywords: combat sports, video analysis, boxing Despite the long history of boxing and its phases of change, apart from a demonstration bout in the 1904 Olympic Games female amateur boxing was banned until 1988, when it was accepted by the Swedish Amateur Boxing Association. The International Amateur Boxing Association later approved the first female world championship in 2001.1 However, female boxing was not included in the Olympic Games until London 2012. Currently, female amateur boxing is contested over 10 weight categories, although Olympic female boxing is only contested over 3 categories: 48 to 51, 57 to 60, and 69 to 75 kg. A bout consists of 4 rounds of 2 minutes (4 × 2) with 1-minute breaks between rounds.2 A point is awarded to a boxer by a panel of 5 judges for landing a clean punch with the knuckle area of the glove against the front or sides of the head or body above the belt.3 However, when boxing in-close only 1 point is awarded to the boxer who is deemed most successful.3 The boxer with the most points at the end of the bout is announced the winner.3 The activity profile of elite male amateur boxing has been discussed previously in the literature; each subsequent paper gives more insight and detail. Over the 4 × 2-minute format it was reported that Bosnian and Herzegovina male boxers used the lead straight punch and the lead hook to the head the most, representing 29% and 23%, respectively, of all attacking actions.4 Egyptian nationallevel 3 × 3-minute male boxers threw ~15 punches/min; winners had more lead- and rear-hand punches in round 3 and more straight, hook, and uppercut punches to the head in round 1 than the losers (unfortunately they do not specify lead or rear hand here).5 It is suggested that for novice amateur male boxers to land punches in 3 × 2-minute bouts they must maintain a high frequency of lead-hand straight punches to the head, together with punching combinations.6 Defensive movements must initiate a counterattack The authors are with Combat Sports Performance, Braintree, Essex, United Kingdom. Address author correspondence to Philip Davis at drdavisphilip@ gmail.com.
and boxers must be able to tolerate a blood lactate increase of ~1.8 mmol · L–1 · min–1. However, that study found that regardless of landing punches, triple-punch combinations, even if they did not hit their target, had the highest probability of being scored by judges.6 The most recent study in this area reported that 3 × 3-minute male Olympic bouts consisted of ~1.3 actions/s, comprising ~20 punches, ~2.5 defensive movements, and ~47 vertical hip movements, all per minute, over 3 subsequent rounds lasting up to 252 seconds.7 At this level, unlike the novice boxers, rear-hand punches and the ability to increase punching accuracy over subsequent rounds were important for success. However, the study concluded that “technical discrimination between winners and losers at [the Olympic] level was difficult; outcome may be more dependent on which punch is ‘lucky’ enough to be scored by the judges or who ‘appears’ to be dominant on the day.”7(p56) Despite the recent inclusion of female elite-level boxing in the Olympic Games and the widespread interest in boxing in general, little information is available describing the competition demands of any level of amateur female boxing. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to analyze video footage of competitive female Olympic bouts of 4 × 2-minute duration. This analysis would produce an activity profile of elite boxing including insight into what a “typical” bout comprises, changes over the progression of a bout, and discrimination between winners and losers, as well as highlighting similarities and differences between female and male boxers. This will benefit those designing training programs, coaches, and those involved in sport-specific testing of elite female boxers by highlighting the requirements to be successful at this level.
Methods Participants Twenty-four elite-level female boxers (mean ± SD [lower/upper 95% confidence intervals]) age 26.4 ± 4.6 (24.6/28.1) years, height 55
56 Davis et al
169.3 ± 6.2 (166.8/172.0) cm, body mass 60.3 ± 10.0 (58.8/66.7) kg, were competing over 6 final and 12 semifinal bouts in the London Olympic Games 2012 and the Association of International Amateur Boxing World Championships 2012. The boxers represent all 3 of the Olympic weight categories—48 to 51, 57 to 60, and 69 to 75 kg—with 8 boxers in each. Female amateur boxers had 5.8 ± 4.2 years of experience competing at international level and collectively had won 50 gold, 18 silver, and 13 bronze medals.
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Procedures The bouts were analyzed in high definition using Windows Media Player in slow-motion replay; the replay speed is adjustable in 0.1-second increments, allowing accurate viewing and calculation of time-based parameters. The footage was obtained from the official Olympic channel on the Internet8,9; the resolution was high-definition 1080p and was originally recorded using the British Broadcasting Company’s high-definition television cameras. Two cameras were placed in separate corners of the ring, and 1 on a maneuverable wire above the ring. Data were recorded for both boxers in each bout. All bouts were analyzed by the same qualified boxing coach, and 3 random bouts were analyzed twice to check for consistency by comparing the 2 different results from those bouts with interclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Attacking movements were recorded, detailing whether the movement was made with the lead or rear hand with a straight, hook, or uppercut technique; aimed at the head or body of the opponent; and if the movement hit or missed the target area. Furthermore, whether the movement was a single punch, part of a combination, or missed the opponent completely (air punch) was recorded. Defensive actions recorded included defense made with the hand, trunk, and foot. Vertical hip movements were defined as any visually identifiable vertical activity of the pelvis. Activity rate per round (actions/s) included all attacking and defensive actions and vertical hip movements divided by the net activity time: Net activity time = round time – total clinch time. Air punches as a percentage of missed = 100/punches missed × air punches. For further details on procedures and parameters measured, please refer to Davis et al6 and Davis et al.7
Data Analysis Results are reported as mean ± SD. Values are reported for winners and losers combined and only reported separately where a difference was found (P < .05). A 4 (round: first, second, third, or fourth) × 2 (outcome: winner or loser) analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures was applied for differences in technique, considering round and outcome as within and between factors, respectively. Bonferroni adjustments were applied as appropriate. For differences in technique between the current and the previous 3 × 2-minute6 and 3 × 3-minute7 studies, a 1-way ANOVA with Tukey post hoc was applied. For all statistics the significance level was set at P < .05.
Results All bouts lasted the full duration. In 1 of the 18 bouts (6%) the judges’ decision did not reflect punches landed over the duration of the bout, despite a difference of 5 punches being landed. The ICCs used to measure the consistency of the video analysis had a mean of .998, which is within the acceptable limit. There was no difference in height between winners (168.8 ± 6.0 cm) and losers
(170.2 ± 6.8 cm) or in body mass (winners 60.8 ± 10.7, losers 59.7 ± 10.5 kg; both P > .05). The attacking parameters straight rear-hand (P = .031) and total body punches (P = .047) were both higher for winners in round 1 (R1), while total uppercut punches were higher for winners in R4 (P = .014). Air punches as a percentage of punches missed were lower for winners in R1 (P = .009) and R3 (P = .033), and the ratio of total punches to landed punches was also lower for winners in R3 (P = .006). Hook rear-hand-landed decreased between R2 and R3 (P = .012) and between R2 and R4 (P = .046), while straight lead-hand-landed decreased between R2 and R4 (P = .006) and between R3 and R4 (P = .022) (Table 1). Vertical hip movements were higher for winners in R2 (P = .006), R3 (P = .032), and R4 (P = .019). Actions per second and total punches landed were both higher for winners in R1 (both P < .020) and R2 (both P < .039). Foot defense was also higher for winners in R4 (P = .036) (Table 1). The overall bout activity-to-break ratio not including breaks between rounds was 6.6:1; due to the clock being stopped for referee stoppages, the average time spent in each round was 132 seconds. The average time before the first stop of the round was ~41 seconds. Total stop frequency (all P < .001), referee stop frequency (all P < .004), and clinch time (all P < .045) were all larger in R2, R3, and R4 than R1. Both total stop time (both P < .045) and clinch frequency (both P = .011) were larger in R3 and R4 than R1. Clinch time constituted the main fraction of stop time, being 55%, 55%, 61%, and 50% in rounds 1 to 4, respectively. Referee stop time remained the same over subsequent rounds at ~12 seconds. The time taken for announcement of a winner (~64 s) and for the boxers to leave the ring (~36 s) created a total time of 100 ± 31 seconds (Table 2).
Discussion We believe that the current study is the first to provide an activity profile of elite female amateur boxing over the 4 × 2-minute format. The results suggest that a successful strategy in female 4 × 2-minute boxing should include the ability to maintain a high activity rate, a high amount of vertical hip movements, and a lower ratio of total attack to landed punches and air punches as a percentage of missed. Important specific technique includes the straight rear-hand, uppercut, and body punches, as well as defensive foot movements, as they discriminate between winners and losers (Table 1). However, there was no suggestion of the boxers’ anthropometrics having an influence, with neither mass nor height being different (P > .05) between winners and losers. Unsurprisingly, there are both similarity and difference in the male6,7 and female versions of the sport (Table 3). These differences are important and highlight the variation in preparation, technique, and strategy that should be considered by coaches. Furthermore, this study shows no evidence to support the common belief in the nonacademic literature that the straight leadhand punch is a successful boxing technique.10–12 Regardless of winning or losing, the activity profile is flat throughout a bout, with many parameters showing no increase or decrease between subsequent rounds. This is in contrast to novice 3 × 2-minute bouts’ having a J-shaped profile and elite male 3 × 3-minute bouts’ having an inverted U.6,7 It is suggested that the flat activity profile is due to boxer fatigue, where neither boxer is able to increase her effort significantly to impose dominance in any of the rounds, as seen in the male sport.6,7 This idea is further supported by total stop time, total stop frequency, total clinch frequency, and referee stop frequency, all increasing with round number. Time
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Table 1 Attacking Movements and Punch Combinations in Relation to Round and Outcome, Mean ± SD Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Activity rate (/s)
1.5 ± 0.3
1.6 ± 0.3*
1.6 ± 0.3
1.6 ± 0.3
winners
1.6 ± 0.3‡
1.8 ± 0.3‡
1.7 ± 0.3
1.7 ± 0.3
losers
1.4 ± 0.2
1.5 ± 0.3
1.5 ± 0.3
1.5 ± 0.3
Total punches landed
4.2 ± 2.9
4.7 ± 3.6
4.3 ± 2.8
3.6 ± 2.9
winners
5.4 ± 3.2‡
5.9 ± 4.3‡
5.1 ± 3.1
4.2 ± 2.9
losers
3.0 ± 2.0
3.5 ± 2.3
3.4 ± 2.1
3.1 ± 2.8
Straight rear landed
1.05 ± 1.09
0.97 ± 1.46
0.94 ± 1.09
1.00 ± 1.24
winners
1.44 ± 1.20‡
1.39 ± 1.82
1.00 ± 0.97
1.17 ± 1.42
losers
0.67 ± 0.84
0.56 ± 0.86
0.89 ± 1.23
0.83 ± 1.04
Total uppercut
0.64 ± 1.29
0.83 ± 1.63
0.78 ± 1.55
0.64 ± 0.90
winners
0.78 ± 1.40
0.94 ± 1.76
0.39 ± 085
0.28 ± 0.57‡
losers
0.50 ± 1.20
0.72 ± 1.53
1.17 ± 1.98
1.00 ± 1.03
Total to body
2.3 ± 2.6
2.6 ± 2.7
1.8 ± 2.5
1.9 ± 2.7
winners
3.1 ± 3.2‡
2.5 ± 3.3
1.9 ± 3.0
1.8 ± 2.2
losers
1.4 ± 1.5
2.7 ± 2.1
1.7 ± 1.8
1.9 ± 3.2
Ratio of total attack to landed
10.5 ± 7.4
11.8 ± 9.5
10.7 ± 6.8
10.8 ± 8.3
winners
10.1 ± 7.9
9.6 ± 7.3
7.6 ± 4.3‡
11.1 ± 7.5
losers
10.9 ± 7.1
14.0 ± 11.1
13.7 ± 7.6
10.4 ± 9.2
Vertical hip movements
124.5 ± 32.0
130.2 ± 30.8
124.4 ± 24.9
121.6 ± 23.6
winners
134.6 ± 36.2
143.9 ± 32.2‡
133.2 ± 28.4‡
130.6 ± 28.0‡
losers
114.4 ± 24.3
116.4 ± 22.6
115.6 ± 17.4
112.5 ± 13.7
87.9 ± 8.4
86.7 ± 8.1
86.4 ± 9.1
89.1 ± 7.0
Air punches as percentage of misses winners
84.3 ± 10.0‡
83.9 ± 9.3‡
83.8 ± 6.7
87.6 ± 6.2
losers
91.4 ± 4.5
89.6 ± 5.6
89.0 ± 10.6
90.87 ± 7.6
Foot defense
2.1 ± 1.5
2.0 ± 1.7
2.1 ± 1.8
2.4 ± 2.0
winners
2.5 ± 1.5
2.4 ± 1.9
2.5 ± 1.8
3.1 ± 2.2‡
losers
1.8 ± 1.4
1.6 ± 1.5
1.8 ± 1.7
1.7 ± 1.4
Hook rear-hand landed
0.72 ± 1.00
0.75 ± 0.87
0.22 ± 0.42†
0.33 ± 0.53†
Straight lead-hand landed
0.86 ± 0.90
1.5 ± 1.5
1.4 ± 1.6
0.7 ± 0.8†#
*Significant difference (P < .05) from round 1. †Significant difference (P < .05) from round 2. #Significant difference (P < .05) from round 3. ‡Significant difference (P < .05) between winners and losers.
before first stop also appears to decrease with round number, from 53 to 33 seconds, although it was not significant, possibly due to the large standard deviations (Table 2). It would therefore appear that the boxers maintain their rate of attack and defense (Table 1) by sacrificing their bout and movement discipline, as represented by increased clinching and referee stoppage (Table 2). This is similar to novice male 3 × 2-minute boxing where fatigue was exhibited by an increase in total stop time and frequency and a decrease in time before first stop and vertical hip movements with rounds.6 Total punches landed not only discriminated between winners and losers in this study but also agreed with winners and losers as decided by the judges; surprisingly, this is not always so. In the current study only 1 out of 18 bouts had a disagreement between the judges’ decision and punches landed. Previous studies have reported 1:7 in elite males7 and as low as 1:5 in novice males.6
Punches per minute in the current study (~16) are similar to that of 3 × 3-minute Egyptian male national-level boxers (~15) (although it is thought that this result is unusually low for this level of boxing).5 The current study is also ~56% lower than 3 × 3- and 4 × 2-minute Commonwealth male boxers (~37.5 punches/min) (although these data are based on older boxing formats).13,14 They are also ~24% lower than previously reported 3 × 2-minute novice male boxers (~22 punches/min) and 3 × 3-minute elite male boxers (~20 punches/min).6,7 This result highlights how much less frequent female attacking movements are than in the male sport (Table 1).6,7 The difference in the amount of punches to the head and body in the current study was large, creating a ratio of ~21:1, much higher than the previously reported 5:1 in men.6,7 The ratio in the current study is also potentially lower than it should have been, as there were a total of 44 rounds where a boxer did not throw any
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Table 2 Time and Activity Data in Relation to Round and Outcome, Mean ± SD Total stop time (s) Total stop frequency
Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Postbout
18.8 ± 13.7
25.7 ± 19.5
28.9 ± 21.0*
32.6 ± 21.0*
2.5 ± 1.3
4.0 ± 2.3*
4.3 ± 2.3*
5.4 ± 3.5*
Clinch time (s)
9.4 ± 7.1
14.2 ± 11.9*
16.4 ± 12.0*
17.8 ± 14.6*
Clinch frequency
1.5 ± 1.1
2.1 ± 1.4
2.3 ± 1.5*
2.8 ± 2.3*
Referee stop time (s)
9.4 ± 11.2
11.6 ± 11.6
12.6 ± 14.2
14.8 ± 10.5
Referee stop frequency
1.0 ± 0.8
1.9 ± 1.3*
2.0 ± 1.5*
2.6 ± 1.8*
Time before first stop (s)
52.6 ± 31.3
40.5 ± 31.1
33.1 ± 30.9
38.4 ± 27.0
Total time in round (s)
129.4 ± 11.2
131.6 ± 11.6
132.6 ± 14.2
134.8 ± 10.5
Time to announce (s)
64.3 ± 19.0
Time to leave ring (s)
35.7 ± 18.0
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*Significant difference (P < .05) from round 1.
Table 3 Comparison of Variables (/min) With Previous Studies, Mean ± SD Current study
3 × 2 study6
Total attack lead hand
10.8 ± 4.0
13.7 ± 4.0*
12.2 ± 4.9
Total attack rear hand
6.8 ± 3.2
7.9 ± 3.1
9.5 ± 3.6*
Hook rear hand
3 × 3 study7
2.0 ± 1.7
4.0 ± 2.6*
3.9 ± 2.2*
Uppercut punches
0.36 ± 0.48
1.4 ± 1.7*
1.4 ± 1.6*
Head punches
33.2 ± 12.3
18.1 ± 4.7*
18.2 ± 6.5*
Punches/min
16.1 ± 6.0
21.6 ± 5.6*
20.1 ± 6.2*
Air punches
2.3 ± 1.9
N/A
5.2 ± 3.1*
Total defense
3.3 ± 1.9
3.8 ± 2.4
2.7 ± 1.3
Triple-punch combination
1.4 ± 0.76
1.1 ± 0.89
1.5 ± 0.77
Block and counter combo
0.64 ± 0.72
0.22 ± 0.38*
1.0 ± 0.69*
Body-head combination
0.32 ± 0.41
0.70 ± 0.74
0.98 ± 0.89*
Vertical hip movements
62.6 ± 12.4
37.3 ± 10.0*
46.5 ± 9.3*
Total stop time
13.3 ± 7.3
6.4 ± 5.9*
11.6 ± 5.3
Activity-to-break ratio (:1) Actions/s
6.6 ± 6.7
9.1 ± 7.0*
18.1 ± 7.5*
1.59 ± 0.24
1.18 ± 0.25*
1.31 ± 0.24*
Abbreviation: N/A, parameter was not recorded from the video footage in this study and so is not available for comparison. The mean of the parameter was found from all rounds together and divided by total minutes to get actions/min. Compared variables were chosen for 1 of 2 reasons: They were mentioned as being important and/or decisive to performance in the previous studies or they were considered by the authors as being pertinent to boxing. *Significant difference (P < .05) from current study.
body punches at all; this included 3 boxers who only threw 1 body punch over all 4 rounds. Previous studies suggested that the reason for their 5:1 ratio was a lack of judges’ scoring body punches as landed punches, which reduced the boxer’s desire to use them.6,7 We believe that this may be only part of the reason in the current study. As the difference in ratios between studies is so large, we think that there may be a technical deficiency in female boxing, especially as technical skills such as the body-head combination and uppercut punches were also much less used in comparison with their male counterparts (Table 3). Whether this deficiency is due to the boxers’ inability or the coaches’ strategy is not clear.
The difference between the novice and elite male levels of this sport have been discussed previously,7 highlighting that the mean activity rate in the elite boxers (~1.31 actions/s) was higher than in the novice boxers (~1.18 actions/s). In the current study they were much higher (~1.59); however, as discussed previously, the punches per minute were lower. This considerably higher activity rate seems to be partly a result of elevated vertical hip movements (~63/min) in the current study compared with 3 × 2-minute (~37/min) and 3 × 3-minute (~47/min) (Table 3). Anecdotally, these vertical hip movements seemed to have little or no tactical benefit, as the majority were due to a constant bouncing movement, a technical error often
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Activity Profile of Elite Female Amateur Boxers 59
seen in beginner and recreational boxers. If half of a boxer’s time is spent in the air midbounce she can make neither attacking nor defensive movements with any great power or accuracy, reducing the amount of time she has for effective technique. If the female boxers had an amount of vertical hip movement similar to that of the male boxers (~42) it would mean that their actions per second would also be similar to that of their male counterparts (~1.20). When unnecessarily overworking the legs by almost 33%, there should be not only technical considerations but possibly also metabolic.15,16 When comparing specific technique data of the current study (4 × 2) with those of Davis et al6 novice male (3 × 2) and Davis et al7 elite male (3 × 3), hook rear hand (both P < .002), uppercut punches (both P < .010), punches per minute (both P < .005), and the activity-to-break ratio (both P < .049) were all lower in the current study than in both the 3 × 2 study6 and the 3 × 3 study.7 Total attack rear-hand (P = .001), body-head combinations (P < .001), and air punches (P < .001) were all lower in the current study than in the 3 × 3 study.7 Vertical hip movements (both P < .002) and actions per second (both P < .002) were both higher in the current study than in both the 3 × 2 study6 and the 3 × 3 study.7 Block and counterstrike combinations in the current study were higher than in the 3 × 2 study6 (P = .045) and lower than in the 3 × 3 study7 (P = .028). Total attack lead hand was lower (P = .024) and total stop time was higher (P < .001) in the current study than in the 3 × 2 study6 (Table 3). The activity-to-break ratio in the current study was 6.6:1, compared with 9:1 in novice male boxing6 and 18:1 in Olympic male boxing,7 highlighting how much less physically demanding female boxing is, even when comparing elite female boxers against novice male boxers6 (Table 3). This lower ratio is a consequence of the reduced amount of time available to perform actions, due to clinching. This low ratio is also the second contributor to the current study’s high actions per second. If the female boxers had a higher activity-to-break ratio, similar to that of the male boxers, it would result in a further reduction in actions per second, reducing the “reduced vertical hip movement” estimation of 1.2 to below that of the novice males, 1.18. We suggest that these excessive actions per second not only could be responsible for wasted use of available energy but also could increase the demand on the anaerobic alactic energy supply, which has previously been show in male boxers to already be at or very close to maximum,16 which could subsequently increase the reliance on anaerobic lactic sources, potentially exacerbating bout and movement discipline further. A limiting factor of the current study is the lack of physiological data. Unfortunately it is not possible to monitor heart rate in competitive bouts due to competition rules.2 Collecting in-bout blood samples is not possible, as only the coach and his “second” are allowed ringside. Furthermore, the time taken for a winner to be announced and leave the ring in the current study was ~100 seconds (Table 2). Although faster than their male counterparts’ ~125 seconds,7 it is still not fast enough to collect a postbout peak blood lactate sample in the 40 seconds previously reported to be needed to get a peak sample.16
Conclusion The current study is the first to provide a detailed activity profile including changes (or lack of) over the progression of a bout in Olympic-level female amateur boxers over the 4 × 2-minute format.
The main results indicate that bouts require the ability to maintain an activity rate of ~1.6 actions/s, comprising ~16 punches, ~3.3 defensive movements, and ~63 vertical hip movements, all per minute, over 4 rounds lasting ~130 seconds each. Winning boxers need to be physically prepared so that they have the ability to maintain a high activity rate, a high amount of vertical hip movements, and a lower ratio of total attack to landed punches and air punches as a percentage of missed, over a total bout length of almost 12 minutes. Specific important technique that discriminates between winners and losers includes the straight rear-hand, uppercut, and body punches, as well as defensive foot movements. This study makes clear the different technical and tactical demands in elite female boxing compared with elite male boxing and highlights variation in preparation, technique, and strategy that should be considered by coaches.
Practical Implications The current study suggests that, when training for a winning strategy, one should focus on the boxer’s ability to maintain a high activity rate, a high movement rate, and increased punch accuracy. If the boxer’s low amounts of body punches, body-head combinations, and uppercuts are not due to personal choice or strategic advice from coaches, they could be due to a technical deficiency, so technical training in these areas may help impose dominance by using techniques that opponents are not used to. A further focus on vertical hip movements may be of benefit. Reducing the time spent in the air may subsequently increase the amount of time the boxers have for effective technique, increasing their currently low number of punches per minute and enabling them to impose attacking dominance. Furthermore, the difference between female elite boxers and their male counterparts needs to be considered so that different strategies for preparation and technique training are adopted. However, this study highlights that a winning boxing strategy uses movement patterns that can be easily replicated in training.
References 1. AIBA, International Boxing Federation. The History of Boxing. 2008. http://www.aiba.org/aiba-boxing-history2/. Accessed December 11, 2015. 2. The Amateur Boxing Association of England Limited. Rules and Regulations of Amateur Boxing. 2009. 3. Open Boxing AIBA. (AOB). Competition Rules. http://www.aiba.org/ aiba-technical-competition-rules/. Accessed December 11, 2015. 4. Kapo S, Kajmovic H, Cutuk H, Berisa S. The level of use of technical and tactical elements in boxing based on the analysis of the 15th B&H individual boxing championship. Homo Sport. 2008;2:15–20. 5. Asker S. Technical and tactical aspects that differentiate winning and losing performance in boxing. Int J Perform Anal Sport. 2011;11:356– 364. 6. Davis P, Wittekind A, Beneke R. Amateur boxing: activity profile of winners and losers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8:84–91. PubMed 7. Davis P, Benson PR, Pitty JD, Connorton AJ, Waldock R. The activity profile of elite male amateur boxing. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2015;10(1):53–57. PubMed http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.20130474
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