Urolithiasis (2014) 42:81–86 DOI 10.1007/s00240-013-0610-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy for the treatment of radiolucent renal stones in children: is it different opaque stone treatment? S¸ enol Adanur • Tevfik Ziypak • Ahmet Ali Sancaktutar • Abdu¨lkadir Tepeler • Berkan Res¸ orlu • Haluk So¨ylemez • ¨ zbey • Ali U ¨ nsal Mansur Dag˘gu¨lli • I˙sa O
Received: 12 June 2013 / Accepted: 26 September 2013 / Published online: 18 October 2013 Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL), stone-free rates, and related complications in children with radiolucent renal stones. A total of 56 patients aged \16 years from four institutions were enrolled in our study. Asymptomatic, clinically insignificant residual fragments measuring \4 mm or a complete stone-free status was accepted as the criterion for clinical success. Complications were evaluated according to the modified Clavien classification. The mean age of the patients was 7.8 ± 4.5 years. The mean stone size was calculated as 24.07 ± 10.4 mm. The median operative and fluoroscopy times were 53.2 min (15–170 min) and 172.4 s (5–520 s), respectively. The success rate after PNL monotherapy was 87.4 %; the total success rate with shock wave lithotripsy used as an auxillary treatment method was detected as 94.6 %. The total complication rate was 19.6 % (11 patients). No adjacent organ injury was observed. All of the complications that ¨ zbey S¸ . Adanur (&) T. Ziypak I˙. O Department of Urology, Medical Faculty, School of Medicine, Ataturk University, 25240 Erzurum, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Sancaktutar H. So¨ylemez M. Dag˘gu¨lli Department of Urology, Medical Faculty, Dicle University, Diyarbakır, Turkey A. Tepeler Department of Urology, Medical Faculty, Bezmialem Vakıf University, Istanbul, Turkey B. Res¸ orlu Department of Urology, Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey ¨ nsal A. U Department of Urology, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
occurred were minor according to the Clavien classification (Clavien Grades I–II). PNL can be applied to radiolucent pediatric renal stones in children with similar success, and complication rates as noted for radiopaque stones. Keywords Children Radiolucent stone Percutaneous nephrolithotomy
Introduction Urolithiasis is a globally serious problem. The prevalence of this disease has demonstrated increments in both the adult and pediatric populations in the last quarter of the twentieth century [1]. A prevalence rate of 14.8 %, supported by a nationwide epidemiological study performed in 1991, is accepted as indicative of an endemic status in Turkey [2]. Stone disease in the pediatric age group can be associated with metabolic diseases, genetic diseases, geographic regions, socioeconomic conditions, drug exposure, infection diseases, and other environmental factors with a high risk of recurrence [3]. Therefore, appropriate treatment methods should be selected for this age group. Minimally invasive procedures are the most important treatment modalities for this age group. The medical and surgical treatment of urolithiasis in children has evolved during the last two decades. Minimally invasive methods have developed rapidly, and have replaced open surgical treatment modalities for renal or ureteral stones. The first pediatric percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL) series was performed in 1985 on seven pediatric patients with a median age of 14 years using adult-sized instruments [4]. Following the first reports of PNL procedures performed by Woodside on children, PNL
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has been accepted as a minimally invasive procedure in children as well as adults. According to European Association of Urology (EAU) guidelines, shock wave lithotripsy (SWL), which is another minimally invasive treatment option, can be applied to pediatric renal stones smaller than 2 cm [5]. Stones larger than 2 cm in diameter and renal stones irresponsive to SWL can be treated effectively using PNL [6]. Renal stones can be classified according to their order of increasing degree of permeability to radiation as radiopaque (impermeable), poorly radiopaque, and radiolucent calculi [5]. This classification is important because it changes the modalities of diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of the patients. The diagnosis, management, and follow-up of radiolucent stones in particular require much more experienced approaches. Only 2–3 % of all cases of nephrolithiasis occur in children and adolescents. Nearly 3–10 % of these urinary calculi are radiolucent [7]. As far as we can tell, no study investigating the effectiveness of PNL in the treatment of radiolucent stones in the pediatric age group has been cited in Pubmed, or appeared in the medical literature in the English language. We believe this is the first study in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of PNL as a minimally invasive method in the management of radiolucent stones in children.
Patients and methods We evaluated PNL procedures as applied to radiolucent pediatric stones in four urology departments that are highly experienced in the management of urolithiasis. The medical files and records of 56 patients aged\16 years who had undergone PNL procedures for the treatment of radiolucent renal stones during the period between 2009 and 2012 were analyzed retrospectively. Patients with radiopaque stones, musculoskeletal deformities, abnormal renal anatomy, and bleeding diathesis were excluded from the study. All of the patients underwent metabolic evaluations, including analyses of urine pH, urinary stones, serum calcium, phosphorus, and uric acid, plus measurements of calcium, phosphorus, uric acid, cystine, and creatinine in 24 h urine samples. In all of the patients, the urinary analyses were performed and the urine cultures were obtained preoperatively. The operations were carried on if the patients had sterile urine cultures. For preoperative radiological evaluations, kidney–ureter–bladder (KUB) radiograms, intravenous pyelograms, renal sonograms (US), and non-contrasted whole abdominal computed tomograms (NCCT) were obtained. Indications for PNL were based on the size of the stone, and the stone’s resistance to SWL treatment [8]. Stones
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larger than 20 mm, and those smaller than 20 mm but refractory to SWL treatment were included in the analysis. Pre- and postoperative complications were evaluated according to the modified Clavien classification [9]. The PNL technique and the positioning of the patient on the operating table were similar among the four centers.
Surgical technique In all of the centers, while the patient was placed in the lithotomy position, first a ureteral catheter was inserted through a (9–13F) rigid cystoscope. Then, the patient was laid into the prone position. A radiopaque agent was delivered through a ureteral catheter so as to perform retrograde pyelographic examination. Percutaneous renal access was achieved using an 18 G needle, and a guidewire under ultrasonographic guidance or with the aid of fluoroscopy in cases with calyces where the stones formed a filling defect. Amplatz or balloon dilator was used as a dilating instrument. Also, 15–22F nephroscopes were employed. To avoid hypothermia, irrigation fluids were heated, and extremities were covered with warm blankets. The stones were fragmented using ultrasonic or pneumatic lithotriptors. Stone forceps were used for stone extraction. A 14F nelaton or foley catheter was used as a nephrostomy tube in case it was needed. The ureteral catheters were removed after termination of the procedure. The patient characteristics, location and size of the stone(s), number of access points, operative and fluoroscopy times, stone-free rates, the types and frequencies of complications, blood transfusion rates, and the duration of hospitalizations were recorded. The portable ultrasound and antegrade pyelography were used to determine postoperative residual stones. The nephrostomy tubes were removed on the postoperative first or second days. The patients were discharged after the cessation of both hematuria, and (if present) leakage from the nephrostomy tract. The presence of clinically insignificant (\4 mm) postoperative residual fragments or a stone-free status was considered as treatment success. The patients were followed up with US at postoperative first month, while noncontrasted CTs were obtained for patients with suspect hydronephrosis and urinary stones. Identification of substance of stones was done by chemical analysis (wet chemistry).
Results The total number of renal stones in children and the numbers of PNL procedures for radiolucent and radiopaque pediatric stones were shown for each hospital during the
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83
Table 1 The numbers of PNL procedures for radiolucent and radiopaque pediatric stones Number of PNL procedures for radiolucent stones
Number of PNL procedures for radiopaque stones
Center 1
8
38
Center 2
13
110
Center 3 Center 4
9 26
32 127
Total number
56
307
Table 3 Distribution of stone compositions Stone analysis Uric acid
15 (26.7)
Matrix
12 (21.4)
Struvite
8 (14.2)
Cystine Unknown
7 (12.5) 14 (25)
Table 4 Complications of PNL Postoperative fever
Table 2 Patient, stone and operative characteristics No.
%
Mean
Range
7.8
1–16
Prolonged tract leakage Required blood transfusion Overall complication
Age Female/male Stone side (right/left)
31/25 24/32
History of unsuccessful SWL
18
Stone localization Multi-calyces
23
Upper and pelvis
5
9
Pelvis
13
23
Lower calyx
15
27
41
Stone burden (mm)
24.07
Operative time (min)
53.2
15–170
Fluoroscopy time (sn)
172.4
5–520
3.08
1–6
Type of lithotriptor Ultrasonic
32
57
Pneumatic
24
43
Auxillary treatment procedure
7
12.5
After PNL stone-free rate Final stone-free rate
49 53
87.4 94.6
Hospitalization time (days)
n (%)
same time period in Table 1. In these populations, a total of 56 pediatric cases with radiolucent stone were enrolled in the study. The patient population consisted of 25 (44.6 %) female and 31 male (55.4 %) children. The mean age of the patients was 7.8 ± 4.5 years (1–16 years). Calculi were localized in the right (n = 24; 42.8 %) and left (n = 32; 57.2 %) kidneys. They were situated in the renal pelvis (n = 13; 23 %), lower calyces (n = 15; 27 %), both upper calyces and pelvis (n = 5), and multiple calyces (n = 23). Eighteen patients had a history of failed SWL. We found metabolic abnormalities in 36 patients (64.2 %). Eight patients had hypocitraturia, seven had cystinuria, seven had hyperuricosuria, six had hyperuricemia, five had hypercalciuria, and three had hypomagnesuria. The patient, stone, and operative characteristics are presented in Table 2.
5 (8.9 %) 1 (1.8 %) 5 (8.9 %) 11 (19.6 %)
In all of the patients, the procedure was realized through a single access site. The mean renal stone diameter was calculated as 24.07 ± 10.4 mm. The mean operative time for PNL was 53.2 min (15–170 min). The mean fluoroscopy time was 172.4 s (5–520 s). For the fragmentation of the stones, ultrasonic (n = 32 patients; 57 %) or pneumatic (n = 24; 43 %) lithotriptors were used. Following the PNL procedure, a 14F Foley or Nelaton catheter was inserted intrarenally. Eighteen patients (32.1 %) underwent tubeless PNL. The mean hospital stay was 3.08 days (1–6 days). Following the PNL procedure, complete stone-free rates were achieved in 45 (80.3 %) patients, and clinically insignificant residual stones (\4 mm) were detected in four (7.1 %) patients. The total success rate of the PNL procedure in the patients with clinically insignificant residual stones and those who were completely relieved from their calculi was determined as 87.4 %. Seven patients (12.5 %) with residual stones who had not received SWL therapy preoperatively underwent postoperative SWL treatment. In four of these seven patients, stone-free status was achieved after SWL. The total stone-free rate was determined as 94.6 % when SWL was applied as an auxillary treatment to PNL in patients with urolithiasis, including those with clinically insignificant residual stones. Distribution of stone compositions was shown in Table 3. The total complication rate of the PNL procedures was 19.6 % (n = 11). Major intraoperative complications and additional organ injury were not observed. Blood transfusion was required in a total of five patients during postoperative (n = 3) and intraoperative (n = 2) periods. Postoperative fever was observed during the first post-PNL day in five patients, which was relieved spontaneously in three patients. In the remaining two patients, the febrile state was kept under control with the administration of
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third generation cephalosporins. Urine leakage from the nephrostomy tract was observed in one patient after the removal of the nephrostomy tube. All emergent complications were minor as assessed by the modified Clavien classification criteria (Clavien Grades I–II). None of the patients developed any major complications (Clavien Grades III–IV). The complications are listed in Table 4.
Discussion The management of urolithiasis in children differs from that of adults because of the factors that have an impact on treatment modalities, such as anatomic and metabolic abnormalities, relatively smaller sized kidneys, and higher stone recurrence rates. These etiologic factors increase the importance of minimally invasive urologic treatment modalities in pediatric urolithiasis [10]. In most of the centers in Europe, SWL is currently the primary mode of treatment for upper urinary tract stones in children. However, a lack of consensus still exists relating to the precise definition of a stone-free state, the decision of clinically significant residual stone fragments, and what size stones would be treated. In additon, the requirement of multiple SWL sessions and the need for general anesthesia in pediatric cases comprise disadvantages of the procedure [11]. The localization of radiolucent renal and ureteral stones during SWL is generally accomplished by US or the imaging of the collecting system after IV injection of the contrast agent through percutaneously or retrograd inserted ureteral catheters [12]. In our PNL series, 18 pediatric cases had a history of failed SWL applied to their radiolucent kidney stones. We used US to focus on kidney stones. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL), which is a standard urolithiasis therapy for adults, has also become a standard procedure for pediatric cases with the appropriate indications [13]. A successful percutaneous access into the collecting system is the most critical step during a PNL procedure. Accurately and precisely targeted PNL access increases the chance of a direct approach to the stone and its visualization, while shortening operative time [14]. Intraoperative US is as effective as conventional fluoroscopy and KUB in delineating residual stone fragments. The use of US as an imaging modality during every stage of the operation might protect the patient and the surgical team from the harmful effects of the radiation, and also decrease the risk of adjacent organ and tissue injury. At the same time, non-opaque and semi-opaque stones can be visualized and managed more easily [15]. The combined use of US and fluoroscopy can also shorten the duration of fluoroscopic examinations [16, 17]. For our patients, we
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used intraoperative US during the PNL procedures to assess both access into the calyceal system and postoperative stone-free status. In patients with adequate pelvicalyceal dilation, we performed US-guided intrarenal access, while in the remaining patients we previously delivered a radiopaque agent through a retrogradely inserted ureteral catheter, and then entered into the calyx, under the guidance of fluoroscopy showing the filling defect of the targeted stone. Stone-free rates of PNL monotherapy reported range from 86 to 98 % in the recent literature [10]. In the literature, a limited number of PNL applications have been cited for the management of radiolucent kidney stones. In a study by Resorlu et al. [18] the authors compared the efficacies of SWL, retrograde intrarenal surgery (RIRS), and PNL for the clearance of radiolucent kidney stones. They reported a success rate of 91.4 % after PNL procedures were applied to 140 patients with radiolucent stones. Penbegu¨l et al. [19] reported a success rate of 82.35 % following PNL monotherapy performed on a total of 17 children with radiopaque (n = 14) and semi-opaque (n = 3) stones under US-guided intrarenal access. In our study involving 56 pediatric patients with radiolucent stones, while our success rate after PNL monotherapy was 87.4 %, our final stone-free rate was 94.6 %. According to this stone clearance rate, the success rate of PNL applied to radiolucent stones was found to be comparable to that of the radiopaque calculi. We interpreted these relatively higher stone clearance rates, and deemed it necessary to perform routine preoperative retrograde pyelography with simultaneous visualization of the ureterorenal unit and the creation of a filling defect of the targeted stone. In addition, routine intraoperative US guidance should be used to detect residual stone fragments (if any) starting from the renal access and following the appropriate removal of the calculi. In the literature, tubeless PNL has been reported to reduce postoperative pain, the need for postoperative analgesia, hospital stays, and perioperative costs [20]. Khairy Salem et al. [21] presented their experiences with tubeless PNL in pediatric patients so as to determine its indications and limitations. They also reported relatively shorter hospital stays, fewer perioperative problems, and a decreased number of painful episodes related to tubeless PNL applications. We also used tubeless PNL in 18 (32.1 %) patients, and achieved shorter operation times, bloodless intraoperative manipulations, and complete stone-free rates. One of the most frequently encountered and serious complications of PNL is massive bleeding with a rate apparently climbing up to 7–15 %, as cited in the literature. Bleeding is an important factor that increases mortality and the risk of the postoperative retention of residual stone
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fragments. The caliber of the instruments used in PNL, stone burden, and operative times have been reported to affect the requirement for blood transfusion in pediatric cases [22, 23]. In our study, in parallel with the literature findings, a total of five (8.9 %) patients had bleeding episodes requiring blood transfusions during (n = 2) and after (n = 3) the operation. Pediatric PNL procedures convey a relatively higher risk of hypothermia when compared with those applied to adults [24]. Especially in cases that pose difficulties during intracalyceal access or in prolonged PNL applications because of heavy stone burden, children can easily enter into a hypothermic state owing to cold irrigations and their partly uncovered body, which can all contribute to longer anesthesia times [25]. To avoid these adverse effects, we warmed the patients with hot compresses preoperatively, and 15 min before the operation we heated the irrigation fluids up to body temperature, and used them during the operation. Additionally, near the completion of the procedure we warmed our patients with an automatic heater mounted under the operating table. Therefore, we did not encounter any incidents of hypothermia or prolonged anesthesia times. We recommend the routine application of these three preventive measures in every pediatric case. Probably the most disturbing complication of PNL is colonic perforation, which can lead to sepsis, peritonitis, and colonic fistula. In the PNL series cited in the literature, colonic perforation has been reported at a rate of 0.2–0.8 % [26]. It generally occurs in the presence of a retrorenal colon. In the normal healthy population, a retrorenal colon is seen with an incidence of 1 % [27]. In studies conducted by Gedik et al. [28] routine CT examinations were recommended to avoid the development of intestinal perforation. We did not encounter any complications of colonic perforation in our series of PNL performed for radiolucent stones. However, in one of our cases, a CT revealed a case with a retrorenal colon. In this patient, under ultrasonographic guidance, we created an access tract more medially, avoiding any intestinal segment. We think that in the presence of a retrorenal colon, the combined use of fluoroscopic and ultrasonographic techniques will ensure successful intrarenal access. One of the minor complications encountered after PNL procedures is prolonged drainage from the nephrostomy tract, which is seen in 8 % of the cases [23]. We also observed this complication in 1 (1.7 %) of our patients. Because of urine leakage from the nephrostomy tract, we placed a 4.8F 20 cm JJ ureteral stent on the postoperative fourth day with the achievement of complete dryness. It is difficult to determine treatment strategy in the pediatric age group with radiolucent stones. Besides the above mentioned disadvantages of SWL, complications of PNL make it difficult to decide on this issue. In the
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light of all this information and literature, despite the difficulties of SWL in radiolucent stones, it should be preferred as the first choice because of less invasiveness than PNL. Also our indications were consist of stones larger than 20 mm, and those smaller than 20 mm but refractory to SWL treatment. On the other hand, another minimal invazive treatment modality is RIRS in this population. However, ureteral calibration is more thin and insertion of access sheath is more difficult in pediatric patient than adults [29]. In addition, learning curve of this procedure is long, so expert institutions/or surgeans are limited [30]. Furthermore pediatric patients need more experience. These disadvanatges limit RIRS procedure in this group. Besides all this fact, RIRS should be preferred as the first choice before PNL in experienced centers. The limitations of this study include the application of PNL procedures by surgeons with various levels of experience, and its retrospective design.
Conclusion Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL) procedures performed on radiolucent renal stones in children are safe, and they are effective treatment modalities that can be applied to appropriately indicated renal stones with the inherent advantages of higher stone-free rates, shorter hospital stays, and acceptable complication rates without the recurrent requirements for anesthesia. Conflict of interest of interest.
The authors declare that they have no conflict
References 1. Okuyama M (2011) Epidemiology of urolithiasis. Clin Calcium 21(10):1442–1447 2. Akinci M, Esen T, Tellaloglu S (1991) Urinary stone disease inTurkey: an updated epidemiological study. Eur Urol 20:200–203 3. Routh JC, Graham DA, Nelson CP (2010) Epidemiological trends in pediatric urolithiasis at United States freestanding pediatric hospitals. J Urol 184(3):1100–1104 4. Woodside JR, Stevens GF, Stark GL et al (1985) Percutaneous stone removal in children. J Urol 134(6):1166–1167 5. Turk C, Knoll T, Petrik A et al (2012) Guidelines on urolithiasis, pp 1–100 6. Raju GA, Norris RD, Ost MC (2010) Endoscopic stone management in children. Curr Opin Urol 20(4):309–312 7. Mokhless IA, Sakr MA, Abdeldaeim HM, Hashad MM (2009) Radiolucent renal stones in children: combined use of shock wave lithotripsy and dissolution therapy. Urology 73(4):772–775 8. Nouralizadeh A, Basiri A, Javaherforooshzadeh A et al (2009) Experience of percutane nephrolithotomy using adult-size instruments in children less than 5 years old. J Pediatr Urol 5:351–354
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86 9. Dindo D, Demartines N, Clavien PA (2004) Classification of surgical complications: a new proposal with evaluation in a cohort of 6336 patients and results of a survey. Ann Surg 240(2):205–213 10. Guven S, Istanbulluoglu O, Ozturk A et al (2010) Percutaneous nephrolithotomy is highly efficient and safe in infants and children under 3 years of age. Urol Int 85(4):455–460 11. Bilen CY, Gunay M, Ozden E et al (2010) Tubeless mini percutaneous nephrolithotomy in infants and preschool children: a preliminary report. J Urol 184(6):2498–2502 12. Hiros M, Spahovic H, Selimovic M et al (2011) Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy and intravenous contrast media application for localization of radiolucent calculi. Med Arh 65(2):86–88 13. Unsal A, Resorlu B, Kara C et al (2010) Safety and efficacy of percutaneous nephrolithotomy in infants, preschool age, and older children with different sizes of instruments. Urology 76(1):247–252 14. Miller NL, Matlaga BR, Lingeman JE (2007) Techniques for fluoroscopic percutaneous renal access. J Urol 178(1):15–23 15. Alan C, Koc¸og˘lu H, Ates¸ F, Ersay AR (2011) Ultrasound-guided X-ray free percutaneous nephrolithotomy for treatment of simple stones in the flank position. Urol Res 39(3):205–212 16. Basiri A, Ziaee AM, Kianian HR, Mehrabi S, Karami H, Moghaddam SM (2008) Ultrasonographic versus fluoroscopic access for percutaneous nephrolithotomy: a randomized clinical trial. J Endourol 22:281–284 17. Osman M, Wendt-Nordahl G, Heger K, Michel MS, Alken P, Knoll T (2005) Percutaneous nephrolithotomy with ultrasonography-guided renal access: experience from over 300 cases. BJU Int 96(6):875–878 18. Resorlu B, Unsal A, Ziypak T et al (2012) Comparison of retrograde intrarenal surgery, shockwave lithotripsy, and percutaneous nephrolithotomy for treatment of medium-sized radiolucent renal stones treatment of medium-sized radiolucent renal stones. World J Urol 2012 Nov 22
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Urolithiasis (2014) 42:81–86 19. Penbegu¨l N, Tepeler A, Sancaktutar AA et al (2012) Safety and efficacy of ultrasound-guided percutaneous nephrolithotomy for treatment of urinary stone disease in children. Urology 79(5):1015–1019 20. Wang J, Zhao C, Zhang C, Fan X, Lin Y, Jiang Q (2012) Tubeless vs standard percutaneous nephrolithotomy: a metaanalysis. BJU Int 109(6):918–924 21. Khairy Salem H, Morsi HA, Omran A, Daw MA (2007) Tubeless percutaneous nephrolithotomy in children. J Pediatr Urol 3:235–238 22. Erdenetsesteg G, Manohar T, Singh H, Desai MR (2006) Endourological management of pediatric urolithiasis: proposed clinical guidelines. J Endourol 20:737–748 23. Kapoor R, Solanki F, Singhania P, Andankar M, Pathak HR (2008) Safety and efficacy of percutaneous nephrolithotomy in the pediatric population. J Endourol 22:637–640 24. Roberts S, Bolton DM, Stoller ML (1994) Hypothermia associated with percutaneous nephrolithotomy. Urology 44:832–835 25. Vorrakitpokatorn P, Permtongchuchai K, Raksamani EO et al (2006) Perioperative complications and risk factors of percutaneous nephrolithotomy. J Med Assoc Thai 89(6):826–833 26. Vallancien G, Capdeville R, Veillon B et al (1985) Colonic perforation during percutaneous nephrolithotomy. J Urol 134(6):1185–1187 27. Skoog SJ, Reed MD, Gaudier FA Jr, Dunn NP (1985) The posterolateral and the retrorenal colon: implication in percutaneous stone extraction. J Urol 134(1):110–112 28. Gedik A, Tutus A, Kayan D, Yılmaz Y, Bircan K (2011) Percutaneous nephrolithotomy in pediatric patients: is computerized tomography a must? Urol Res 39(1):45–49 29. Smaldone MC, Cannon GM Jr, Wu HY et al (2007) Is ureteroscopy first line treatment for pediatric stone disease? J Urol 178(5):2128–2131 30. Unsal A, Resorlu B (2011) Retrograde intrarenal surgery in infants and preschool-age children. J Pediatr Surg 46(11):2195–2199
ORIGINAL PAPER
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy for the treatment of radiolucent renal stones in children: is it different opaque stone treatment? S¸ enol Adanur • Tevfik Ziypak • Ahmet Ali Sancaktutar • Abdu¨lkadir Tepeler • Berkan Res¸ orlu • Haluk So¨ylemez • ¨ zbey • Ali U ¨ nsal Mansur Dag˘gu¨lli • I˙sa O
Received: 12 June 2013 / Accepted: 26 September 2013 / Published online: 18 October 2013 Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL), stone-free rates, and related complications in children with radiolucent renal stones. A total of 56 patients aged \16 years from four institutions were enrolled in our study. Asymptomatic, clinically insignificant residual fragments measuring \4 mm or a complete stone-free status was accepted as the criterion for clinical success. Complications were evaluated according to the modified Clavien classification. The mean age of the patients was 7.8 ± 4.5 years. The mean stone size was calculated as 24.07 ± 10.4 mm. The median operative and fluoroscopy times were 53.2 min (15–170 min) and 172.4 s (5–520 s), respectively. The success rate after PNL monotherapy was 87.4 %; the total success rate with shock wave lithotripsy used as an auxillary treatment method was detected as 94.6 %. The total complication rate was 19.6 % (11 patients). No adjacent organ injury was observed. All of the complications that ¨ zbey S¸ . Adanur (&) T. Ziypak I˙. O Department of Urology, Medical Faculty, School of Medicine, Ataturk University, 25240 Erzurum, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Sancaktutar H. So¨ylemez M. Dag˘gu¨lli Department of Urology, Medical Faculty, Dicle University, Diyarbakır, Turkey A. Tepeler Department of Urology, Medical Faculty, Bezmialem Vakıf University, Istanbul, Turkey B. Res¸ orlu Department of Urology, Kecioren Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey ¨ nsal A. U Department of Urology, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
occurred were minor according to the Clavien classification (Clavien Grades I–II). PNL can be applied to radiolucent pediatric renal stones in children with similar success, and complication rates as noted for radiopaque stones. Keywords Children Radiolucent stone Percutaneous nephrolithotomy
Introduction Urolithiasis is a globally serious problem. The prevalence of this disease has demonstrated increments in both the adult and pediatric populations in the last quarter of the twentieth century [1]. A prevalence rate of 14.8 %, supported by a nationwide epidemiological study performed in 1991, is accepted as indicative of an endemic status in Turkey [2]. Stone disease in the pediatric age group can be associated with metabolic diseases, genetic diseases, geographic regions, socioeconomic conditions, drug exposure, infection diseases, and other environmental factors with a high risk of recurrence [3]. Therefore, appropriate treatment methods should be selected for this age group. Minimally invasive procedures are the most important treatment modalities for this age group. The medical and surgical treatment of urolithiasis in children has evolved during the last two decades. Minimally invasive methods have developed rapidly, and have replaced open surgical treatment modalities for renal or ureteral stones. The first pediatric percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL) series was performed in 1985 on seven pediatric patients with a median age of 14 years using adult-sized instruments [4]. Following the first reports of PNL procedures performed by Woodside on children, PNL
123
82
has been accepted as a minimally invasive procedure in children as well as adults. According to European Association of Urology (EAU) guidelines, shock wave lithotripsy (SWL), which is another minimally invasive treatment option, can be applied to pediatric renal stones smaller than 2 cm [5]. Stones larger than 2 cm in diameter and renal stones irresponsive to SWL can be treated effectively using PNL [6]. Renal stones can be classified according to their order of increasing degree of permeability to radiation as radiopaque (impermeable), poorly radiopaque, and radiolucent calculi [5]. This classification is important because it changes the modalities of diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of the patients. The diagnosis, management, and follow-up of radiolucent stones in particular require much more experienced approaches. Only 2–3 % of all cases of nephrolithiasis occur in children and adolescents. Nearly 3–10 % of these urinary calculi are radiolucent [7]. As far as we can tell, no study investigating the effectiveness of PNL in the treatment of radiolucent stones in the pediatric age group has been cited in Pubmed, or appeared in the medical literature in the English language. We believe this is the first study in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of PNL as a minimally invasive method in the management of radiolucent stones in children.
Patients and methods We evaluated PNL procedures as applied to radiolucent pediatric stones in four urology departments that are highly experienced in the management of urolithiasis. The medical files and records of 56 patients aged\16 years who had undergone PNL procedures for the treatment of radiolucent renal stones during the period between 2009 and 2012 were analyzed retrospectively. Patients with radiopaque stones, musculoskeletal deformities, abnormal renal anatomy, and bleeding diathesis were excluded from the study. All of the patients underwent metabolic evaluations, including analyses of urine pH, urinary stones, serum calcium, phosphorus, and uric acid, plus measurements of calcium, phosphorus, uric acid, cystine, and creatinine in 24 h urine samples. In all of the patients, the urinary analyses were performed and the urine cultures were obtained preoperatively. The operations were carried on if the patients had sterile urine cultures. For preoperative radiological evaluations, kidney–ureter–bladder (KUB) radiograms, intravenous pyelograms, renal sonograms (US), and non-contrasted whole abdominal computed tomograms (NCCT) were obtained. Indications for PNL were based on the size of the stone, and the stone’s resistance to SWL treatment [8]. Stones
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larger than 20 mm, and those smaller than 20 mm but refractory to SWL treatment were included in the analysis. Pre- and postoperative complications were evaluated according to the modified Clavien classification [9]. The PNL technique and the positioning of the patient on the operating table were similar among the four centers.
Surgical technique In all of the centers, while the patient was placed in the lithotomy position, first a ureteral catheter was inserted through a (9–13F) rigid cystoscope. Then, the patient was laid into the prone position. A radiopaque agent was delivered through a ureteral catheter so as to perform retrograde pyelographic examination. Percutaneous renal access was achieved using an 18 G needle, and a guidewire under ultrasonographic guidance or with the aid of fluoroscopy in cases with calyces where the stones formed a filling defect. Amplatz or balloon dilator was used as a dilating instrument. Also, 15–22F nephroscopes were employed. To avoid hypothermia, irrigation fluids were heated, and extremities were covered with warm blankets. The stones were fragmented using ultrasonic or pneumatic lithotriptors. Stone forceps were used for stone extraction. A 14F nelaton or foley catheter was used as a nephrostomy tube in case it was needed. The ureteral catheters were removed after termination of the procedure. The patient characteristics, location and size of the stone(s), number of access points, operative and fluoroscopy times, stone-free rates, the types and frequencies of complications, blood transfusion rates, and the duration of hospitalizations were recorded. The portable ultrasound and antegrade pyelography were used to determine postoperative residual stones. The nephrostomy tubes were removed on the postoperative first or second days. The patients were discharged after the cessation of both hematuria, and (if present) leakage from the nephrostomy tract. The presence of clinically insignificant (\4 mm) postoperative residual fragments or a stone-free status was considered as treatment success. The patients were followed up with US at postoperative first month, while noncontrasted CTs were obtained for patients with suspect hydronephrosis and urinary stones. Identification of substance of stones was done by chemical analysis (wet chemistry).
Results The total number of renal stones in children and the numbers of PNL procedures for radiolucent and radiopaque pediatric stones were shown for each hospital during the
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Table 1 The numbers of PNL procedures for radiolucent and radiopaque pediatric stones Number of PNL procedures for radiolucent stones
Number of PNL procedures for radiopaque stones
Center 1
8
38
Center 2
13
110
Center 3 Center 4
9 26
32 127
Total number
56
307
Table 3 Distribution of stone compositions Stone analysis Uric acid
15 (26.7)
Matrix
12 (21.4)
Struvite
8 (14.2)
Cystine Unknown
7 (12.5) 14 (25)
Table 4 Complications of PNL Postoperative fever
Table 2 Patient, stone and operative characteristics No.
%
Mean
Range
7.8
1–16
Prolonged tract leakage Required blood transfusion Overall complication
Age Female/male Stone side (right/left)
31/25 24/32
History of unsuccessful SWL
18
Stone localization Multi-calyces
23
Upper and pelvis
5
9
Pelvis
13
23
Lower calyx
15
27
41
Stone burden (mm)
24.07
Operative time (min)
53.2
15–170
Fluoroscopy time (sn)
172.4
5–520
3.08
1–6
Type of lithotriptor Ultrasonic
32
57
Pneumatic
24
43
Auxillary treatment procedure
7
12.5
After PNL stone-free rate Final stone-free rate
49 53
87.4 94.6
Hospitalization time (days)
n (%)
same time period in Table 1. In these populations, a total of 56 pediatric cases with radiolucent stone were enrolled in the study. The patient population consisted of 25 (44.6 %) female and 31 male (55.4 %) children. The mean age of the patients was 7.8 ± 4.5 years (1–16 years). Calculi were localized in the right (n = 24; 42.8 %) and left (n = 32; 57.2 %) kidneys. They were situated in the renal pelvis (n = 13; 23 %), lower calyces (n = 15; 27 %), both upper calyces and pelvis (n = 5), and multiple calyces (n = 23). Eighteen patients had a history of failed SWL. We found metabolic abnormalities in 36 patients (64.2 %). Eight patients had hypocitraturia, seven had cystinuria, seven had hyperuricosuria, six had hyperuricemia, five had hypercalciuria, and three had hypomagnesuria. The patient, stone, and operative characteristics are presented in Table 2.
5 (8.9 %) 1 (1.8 %) 5 (8.9 %) 11 (19.6 %)
In all of the patients, the procedure was realized through a single access site. The mean renal stone diameter was calculated as 24.07 ± 10.4 mm. The mean operative time for PNL was 53.2 min (15–170 min). The mean fluoroscopy time was 172.4 s (5–520 s). For the fragmentation of the stones, ultrasonic (n = 32 patients; 57 %) or pneumatic (n = 24; 43 %) lithotriptors were used. Following the PNL procedure, a 14F Foley or Nelaton catheter was inserted intrarenally. Eighteen patients (32.1 %) underwent tubeless PNL. The mean hospital stay was 3.08 days (1–6 days). Following the PNL procedure, complete stone-free rates were achieved in 45 (80.3 %) patients, and clinically insignificant residual stones (\4 mm) were detected in four (7.1 %) patients. The total success rate of the PNL procedure in the patients with clinically insignificant residual stones and those who were completely relieved from their calculi was determined as 87.4 %. Seven patients (12.5 %) with residual stones who had not received SWL therapy preoperatively underwent postoperative SWL treatment. In four of these seven patients, stone-free status was achieved after SWL. The total stone-free rate was determined as 94.6 % when SWL was applied as an auxillary treatment to PNL in patients with urolithiasis, including those with clinically insignificant residual stones. Distribution of stone compositions was shown in Table 3. The total complication rate of the PNL procedures was 19.6 % (n = 11). Major intraoperative complications and additional organ injury were not observed. Blood transfusion was required in a total of five patients during postoperative (n = 3) and intraoperative (n = 2) periods. Postoperative fever was observed during the first post-PNL day in five patients, which was relieved spontaneously in three patients. In the remaining two patients, the febrile state was kept under control with the administration of
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third generation cephalosporins. Urine leakage from the nephrostomy tract was observed in one patient after the removal of the nephrostomy tube. All emergent complications were minor as assessed by the modified Clavien classification criteria (Clavien Grades I–II). None of the patients developed any major complications (Clavien Grades III–IV). The complications are listed in Table 4.
Discussion The management of urolithiasis in children differs from that of adults because of the factors that have an impact on treatment modalities, such as anatomic and metabolic abnormalities, relatively smaller sized kidneys, and higher stone recurrence rates. These etiologic factors increase the importance of minimally invasive urologic treatment modalities in pediatric urolithiasis [10]. In most of the centers in Europe, SWL is currently the primary mode of treatment for upper urinary tract stones in children. However, a lack of consensus still exists relating to the precise definition of a stone-free state, the decision of clinically significant residual stone fragments, and what size stones would be treated. In additon, the requirement of multiple SWL sessions and the need for general anesthesia in pediatric cases comprise disadvantages of the procedure [11]. The localization of radiolucent renal and ureteral stones during SWL is generally accomplished by US or the imaging of the collecting system after IV injection of the contrast agent through percutaneously or retrograd inserted ureteral catheters [12]. In our PNL series, 18 pediatric cases had a history of failed SWL applied to their radiolucent kidney stones. We used US to focus on kidney stones. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL), which is a standard urolithiasis therapy for adults, has also become a standard procedure for pediatric cases with the appropriate indications [13]. A successful percutaneous access into the collecting system is the most critical step during a PNL procedure. Accurately and precisely targeted PNL access increases the chance of a direct approach to the stone and its visualization, while shortening operative time [14]. Intraoperative US is as effective as conventional fluoroscopy and KUB in delineating residual stone fragments. The use of US as an imaging modality during every stage of the operation might protect the patient and the surgical team from the harmful effects of the radiation, and also decrease the risk of adjacent organ and tissue injury. At the same time, non-opaque and semi-opaque stones can be visualized and managed more easily [15]. The combined use of US and fluoroscopy can also shorten the duration of fluoroscopic examinations [16, 17]. For our patients, we
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used intraoperative US during the PNL procedures to assess both access into the calyceal system and postoperative stone-free status. In patients with adequate pelvicalyceal dilation, we performed US-guided intrarenal access, while in the remaining patients we previously delivered a radiopaque agent through a retrogradely inserted ureteral catheter, and then entered into the calyx, under the guidance of fluoroscopy showing the filling defect of the targeted stone. Stone-free rates of PNL monotherapy reported range from 86 to 98 % in the recent literature [10]. In the literature, a limited number of PNL applications have been cited for the management of radiolucent kidney stones. In a study by Resorlu et al. [18] the authors compared the efficacies of SWL, retrograde intrarenal surgery (RIRS), and PNL for the clearance of radiolucent kidney stones. They reported a success rate of 91.4 % after PNL procedures were applied to 140 patients with radiolucent stones. Penbegu¨l et al. [19] reported a success rate of 82.35 % following PNL monotherapy performed on a total of 17 children with radiopaque (n = 14) and semi-opaque (n = 3) stones under US-guided intrarenal access. In our study involving 56 pediatric patients with radiolucent stones, while our success rate after PNL monotherapy was 87.4 %, our final stone-free rate was 94.6 %. According to this stone clearance rate, the success rate of PNL applied to radiolucent stones was found to be comparable to that of the radiopaque calculi. We interpreted these relatively higher stone clearance rates, and deemed it necessary to perform routine preoperative retrograde pyelography with simultaneous visualization of the ureterorenal unit and the creation of a filling defect of the targeted stone. In addition, routine intraoperative US guidance should be used to detect residual stone fragments (if any) starting from the renal access and following the appropriate removal of the calculi. In the literature, tubeless PNL has been reported to reduce postoperative pain, the need for postoperative analgesia, hospital stays, and perioperative costs [20]. Khairy Salem et al. [21] presented their experiences with tubeless PNL in pediatric patients so as to determine its indications and limitations. They also reported relatively shorter hospital stays, fewer perioperative problems, and a decreased number of painful episodes related to tubeless PNL applications. We also used tubeless PNL in 18 (32.1 %) patients, and achieved shorter operation times, bloodless intraoperative manipulations, and complete stone-free rates. One of the most frequently encountered and serious complications of PNL is massive bleeding with a rate apparently climbing up to 7–15 %, as cited in the literature. Bleeding is an important factor that increases mortality and the risk of the postoperative retention of residual stone
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fragments. The caliber of the instruments used in PNL, stone burden, and operative times have been reported to affect the requirement for blood transfusion in pediatric cases [22, 23]. In our study, in parallel with the literature findings, a total of five (8.9 %) patients had bleeding episodes requiring blood transfusions during (n = 2) and after (n = 3) the operation. Pediatric PNL procedures convey a relatively higher risk of hypothermia when compared with those applied to adults [24]. Especially in cases that pose difficulties during intracalyceal access or in prolonged PNL applications because of heavy stone burden, children can easily enter into a hypothermic state owing to cold irrigations and their partly uncovered body, which can all contribute to longer anesthesia times [25]. To avoid these adverse effects, we warmed the patients with hot compresses preoperatively, and 15 min before the operation we heated the irrigation fluids up to body temperature, and used them during the operation. Additionally, near the completion of the procedure we warmed our patients with an automatic heater mounted under the operating table. Therefore, we did not encounter any incidents of hypothermia or prolonged anesthesia times. We recommend the routine application of these three preventive measures in every pediatric case. Probably the most disturbing complication of PNL is colonic perforation, which can lead to sepsis, peritonitis, and colonic fistula. In the PNL series cited in the literature, colonic perforation has been reported at a rate of 0.2–0.8 % [26]. It generally occurs in the presence of a retrorenal colon. In the normal healthy population, a retrorenal colon is seen with an incidence of 1 % [27]. In studies conducted by Gedik et al. [28] routine CT examinations were recommended to avoid the development of intestinal perforation. We did not encounter any complications of colonic perforation in our series of PNL performed for radiolucent stones. However, in one of our cases, a CT revealed a case with a retrorenal colon. In this patient, under ultrasonographic guidance, we created an access tract more medially, avoiding any intestinal segment. We think that in the presence of a retrorenal colon, the combined use of fluoroscopic and ultrasonographic techniques will ensure successful intrarenal access. One of the minor complications encountered after PNL procedures is prolonged drainage from the nephrostomy tract, which is seen in 8 % of the cases [23]. We also observed this complication in 1 (1.7 %) of our patients. Because of urine leakage from the nephrostomy tract, we placed a 4.8F 20 cm JJ ureteral stent on the postoperative fourth day with the achievement of complete dryness. It is difficult to determine treatment strategy in the pediatric age group with radiolucent stones. Besides the above mentioned disadvantages of SWL, complications of PNL make it difficult to decide on this issue. In the
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light of all this information and literature, despite the difficulties of SWL in radiolucent stones, it should be preferred as the first choice because of less invasiveness than PNL. Also our indications were consist of stones larger than 20 mm, and those smaller than 20 mm but refractory to SWL treatment. On the other hand, another minimal invazive treatment modality is RIRS in this population. However, ureteral calibration is more thin and insertion of access sheath is more difficult in pediatric patient than adults [29]. In addition, learning curve of this procedure is long, so expert institutions/or surgeans are limited [30]. Furthermore pediatric patients need more experience. These disadvanatges limit RIRS procedure in this group. Besides all this fact, RIRS should be preferred as the first choice before PNL in experienced centers. The limitations of this study include the application of PNL procedures by surgeons with various levels of experience, and its retrospective design.
Conclusion Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL) procedures performed on radiolucent renal stones in children are safe, and they are effective treatment modalities that can be applied to appropriately indicated renal stones with the inherent advantages of higher stone-free rates, shorter hospital stays, and acceptable complication rates without the recurrent requirements for anesthesia. Conflict of interest of interest.
The authors declare that they have no conflict
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