World Journal
of Microbiology
& Biotechnology
12. 451-456
Needs and means for education and training in biotechnology: perspectives from developing countries and Europe J. M. Grainger A plenary discussion session on ‘Biotechnology education and training programs’ at the Xth International Conference on The Global Impacts of Applied Microbiology in 1995 gave an opportunity to identify current priorities for biotechnology in developing countries. The discussion focused on three major areas: the nature of the skills required; education and training for the various categories of staff; the role of the scientific community in informing the decision makers about biotechnology and its prospects. Comparable discussions are taking place in Europe and elsewhere in the industrialized world. They are exemplified by developments arising from a White Paper on ‘Growth, Competitiveness, Employment’ published by the European Commission in 1993 which included a reinforcement of the work of the European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE) for teachers in schools. There are also widespread anxieties about the effects of deficiencies in the amount of attention being given to microbiology in undergraduate courses. Key words: Biotechnology,
Current
Priorities
education,
Europe, developing
for Developing
countries.
Countries
Developing countries are being increasingly involved in the general advancement of science and technology which is enabling biotechnology to make progress in various parts of the world. There is enormous scope for introducing strategies which are appropriately designed for local circumstances, needs and limitations. Important contributions can be made to the general advancement in biotechnology at the national level through partnerships with other developing countries and with more industrial.. ized ones. Through these means, opportunmes arise to share in the benefits of improvements in economic growth and the quality of life. However, the extent to which biotechnology can realise its potential is dependent upon several factors, a key one of which is
The author is with the National Centre for Biotechnology Education, The University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 226, Reading RG6 GAJ,UK; fax: 0044 173 431 6671. @ 7996 Rapid Science
Publishers
provision of a sound infrastructure in education and training. Recognition of the importance of providing an opportunity for scientists from developing countries to discuss the key issue of education and training is an established feature of the ‘Global Aspects of Applied Microbiology’(GIAM) series of international conferences. At GIAM X held in Elsinore, Denmark in 1995 there was an evening roundtable on ‘Biotechnology education and training programs’. There follows an account of the major issues and conclusions of the discussions which were stimulated by the various presentations, two of which are reported elsewhere in this journal (Betsch 1996; Boh 1996). Nature of the Skills Required Biotechnology is characterized by the need for a range of levels of skill; low level skills for traditional technology and high level skills for the novel technologies that are emerging. There may be much variation in the particular level of skill needed from country to country and from region to
]. M. Grainger region within a country. There is an immediate need in developing countries to recognize the increasing dependence on technology by concentrating on the provision of adequate supplies of basic skills. For instance, in fermentation and microbiology, it is desirable to promote the successful development of indigenous industries, particularly agriculture, to reduce pollution from industrial waste, and to improve the use of resources. There is also pressure to introduce the new skills required to support the establishment of gene cloning techniques and modem fermentation technology to enhance agriculture, health care and environmental protection. Education and Training in Schools, Colleges, Universities and Indust y It is being increasingly appreciated that the creation of a strong workforce depends on a sound educational provision in schools. Therefore, it is vital to give much more attention, at the school level, to generating interest in science and technology and to the provision of a sound education and training in the basic skills. This then provides opportunities for progression either to immediate employment or to technical or higher education. Practising biotechnologists can also play an important role in supporting education in schools and in teacher training by providing appropriate support in the form of advice, materials and equipment in collaboration with the teachers. There is much debate about the merits of different types of undergraduate courses at university level, that is, should courses be designed to provide a broad coverage of biotechnology or to concentrate on one of the basic disciplines (e.g. microbiology, molecular biology, biochemistry, engineering), and should a management component be incorporated? These questions are also the focus of much debate in developed countries by both academics and industrialists. The categories of trained staff needed in research, development and production extends widely from technicians to scientists, all of whom require appropriate training for the specific skills needed. There is also a need for industry to appreciate the value to its commercial success of sustaining the morale of the workforce and retaining the services of employees by providing up-dating and retraining courses. However, industry also has a responsibility for providing employment in the first place. It is also important to realise that some social and cultural traditions discourage the involvement of some members of the community, particularly women, in certain categories of work. Such practices have to be identified and addressed because they are an obstacle to progress. Educating the Decision Makers In addition to the provision of formal education ing, the scientific community has a responsibility
452
World ~ourmal ofMicrobio/qy
6 Biotechnology, Vol 12, 1996
and trainto inform
and educate the decision makers in government, the legislature, the investment industry and education, about biotechnology and its prospects for improving competitiveness and the quality of life. However, it is important to ensure that decision makers realize that investment in biotechnology is a long term strategy, that is, there will be no quick return. On the other hand, there is much to be learned by biotechnologists from such interactions with decision makers; an appreciation of political, social and financial implications. Various programmes and strategies are used in more developed countries for promoting the understanding of biotechnology among the general public in order to address the anxieties which are inevitably associated with the introduction of unfamiliar technologies, particularly gene technology. However, such programmes are not seen as being a priority for developing countries until a sound biotechnology industry is becoming well established. The Way Forward Priorities for advances in education lie in strengthening the school sector, removing social and cultural barriers to work practices and enhancing interactions between scientists and decision makers. The main focus of training should be to enhance the exploitation of indigenous opportunities by introducing innovations, if necessary derived and adapted from appropriate technology and good practice in use elsewhere, this embodies improvements in the use of technology transfer. There is much benefit to be gained from sharing experiences and expertise through joint ventures involving international, intra-national and inter-sector co-operation. Regarding the availability of financial support for forming co-operative ventures, it is apparent that there is a great need for scientists to gain a better understanding of the provision of funding from governments, international agencies and private sources and the means of access to them. Progress will be hampered without some form of opportunity for continued dialogue and development of initiatives. Therefore, ways should be found to sustain continuing interactions on the issues raised because rapid advances in education and training are vital to the success of biotechnology in developing countries as we enter a period of likely increase in dependence on technology. The discussion at GIAM X reported here was generated from a plenary roundtable session on Biotechnology education and training programs which was attended by all of the conference delegates, virtually all of whom contributed to the discussion. The session extended well beyond its allocated time and the delegates requested that the organising committee for the next GIAM conference (GIAM XI) be asked to expand the time allocated to education and training. Among other benefits would be an opportunity to
Needs and means for biotechnology education discuss and establish mechanisms and joint ventures.
for on-going
interactions
Growth, Competitiveness and Employment Europe: into The 2lst Century
in
The Major Challenge Ahead The European Commission (EC) presented a White Paper entitled ‘Growth, Competitiveness, Employment - The challenges and ways forward into the 21st century’ to a meeting of the European Summit in Brussels in 1993 (Commission of the European Communities 1993). The reason was the constraint on the continued sustainable development of the European economies being imposed by inadequate growth and investment, and deteriorating prospects for employment. The problem was summarised as follows: over the last 20 years (i) the European economy’s potential rate of growth has shrunk (from around 4% to around 2.5% a year); (ii) unemployment has been steadily rising from cycle to cycle; (iii) the investment ratio has fallen by five percentage points; (iv) the competitive position in relation to the USA and Japan has worsened with respect to employment, share of export markets, research and development and innovation and its subsequent incorporation into goods brought to the market, and the development of new products. The EC took the view that the way forward lies in joint responses of local and national communities which would strengthen the hand of each member state and therefore that of the European Union (EU). The Promise of Biotechnology In the White Paper, the promise of biotechnology was acknowledged as offering outstanding opportunities for lifting Europe from recession through the creation of innovation in highly competitive areas of the economy and thereby providing improvements to the quality of life. In this regard, biotechnology was ranked with information and communication technologies and the audio-visual sector as one of the key areas which will be crucial to the growth of the economy of the EU in the 21st century. The value of the techniques of modem biotechnology in complementing and substituting those of classical biotechnology are seen to lead to the creation of new products and highly competitive processes in the industrial, agricultural and health sectors, and also improvements in the environment. However, as well as delivering this very positive message, consideration was also given to important issues that may jeopardize a significant expansion of biotechnology in the EU. In particular, concern was expressed that public expenditure on research and development is less than that provided in the US and Japan and the short-fall has not been compensated for by the private sector. Attention was
also drawn to unfavourable attitudes in the EU in as a whole as compared with US and Japan regarding hostility and social inertia to biotechnology. Preparations for the next stage came in the form of a communication from the Commission’s Biotechnology Coordinating Committee, a high-level interservice group with a remit to develop a coherent policy on biotechnology for the Commission. This formed the basis for an over-all Communication to the European Council meeting in Corfu in June 1994 (Commission of the European Communities 1994). Several topics were addressed with the aim of sustaining the Commission’s declared objective of ensuring a good and safe climate for research, development, investment, production and marketing in biotechnology in Europe. The topics were: (i) review of the regulatory framework; (ii) level of scientific advice available for use when drawing up the regulations; (iii) funding for research and development; (iv) support for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) including through technology transfer; (v) the investment climate; (vi) ethical and legal aspects; (vii) public understanding. Under the heading of public understanding of biotechnology, the Commission reinforced its long established recognition of the critical reactions to some aspects of modem biotechnology that are understandably raised among the general public. Therefore, all parties involved should have access to reliable information on the applications of biotechnology, particularly on potential advantages and issues of safety, ethics and environmental protection. Three existing EC initiatives in the area of public understanding were chosen for increased support: (i) surveys and other analytical work on public attitudes; (ii) raising awareness among the key players in industry, policy making, the media, public interest groups, and education; (iii) raising awareness and providing information to the general public, including the work being conducted by the European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE) with schools. While it appeared from the discussions at GIAM X that it may be premature to embark upon activities concerned with public awareness of and attitudes to biotechnology for developing countries, it was quite clear that the other two issues, those of raising awareness among key players and increasing support for education at school level, should be given high priority world-wide. The European Initiative for Biotechnology Education It is a common criticism from industry, parents and social analysts in the EU that too many young people leave school with deficiencies in essential basic training and with inadequate appreciation of the necessary interaction between the application of science and technology and society (Commission of the European Communities 1993). A contribution towards an alleviation of this general problem, which is also reported for the USA (Sussman 1994), can be
World]oumal
of Microbiology
h Biotechnology, I/o/ 12, 1996
453
J. M. Grainger made through addressing biotechnology in schools. What is needed is the continued development of existing efforts to provide good and effective teaching materials and methods, which serve to heighten appreciation of the value of an education and training in the underlying principles and skills of biotechnology in young people. Another advantage is that by providing those of school age with an understanding and awareness of biotechnology, they are better prepared for the time when they will be called upon as citizens to discuss and make informed decisions about the issues involved. As a means towards these ends, the EC launched the European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE) through its Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development (DG XII) in 1991 at an international workshop held at The University of Reading, UK, as part of a concerted action in biotechnology (Grainger 19%; Table I). EIBE is now a trans-European interdisciplinary network of some 30 experts in biotechnology and biotechnology education drawn from 20 centres in 12 EU countries (Grainger 19%). To date the work of EIBE has concentrated on the development of innovative teaching materials and media to support in-service and initial training for school teachers. In addition, research has begun on the analysis of data on the conceptions, interests, attitudes and values of teachers and students. The EC has reinforced the EIBE programme of developing materials and providing expertise to school teachers throughout the EU, and holding workshops and conferences to encourage openness and aid dialogue. Currently EIBE receives funding for concerted action under the Biotechnology Programme of the EC Fourth Framework Programme. Concerted actions are considered to be appropriate when national funding is widely available and/or when the pooling of data facilitates common interpretation of facts and contributes to the basis for the development of harmonized standards and procedures. EIBE works mainly through identifying good practice in biotechnology education wherever it may be found and then collaborating in development and adaptation, including translation to several languages, to provide educational materials and methods that are suitable for wide use in the member states. However, it is essential that there is a system of strategically located educational centres to provide the means for the effective dissemination of the new ideas, materials and resources to the schools. The first such centre in Europe was the National Centre for Biotechnology Education (NCBE) at The University of Reading, UK which was established in 1985 initially with pump-priming funds from government. Subsequently, NCBE was required to become a totally self-funding enterprise from 1992. The Role of Training and Education The topic of training and education
454
World hxczl
featured prominently
of Microbiology b Biotechnology, Vol 12. 1996
in
the EC White Paper. Its importance was so regarded that one of three chapters of the section on employment was devoted to a general consideration of the adaptation of education and vocational training systems in respect of all the areas of technology which were considered to be crucial to the economic growth of the EU. Education and training are seen to play a key role in improving growth, competitiveness and employment as well as providing for personal development and enhancing the coherence of society. However, education and training should not be considered in isolation from other aspects of development because the greatest benefits will not be gained without exploring interactions with economic and social policy. Additionally, education and training should not be limited to occasional periods of acquisition of knowledge. They should be planned as a continuing feature of the whole fabric of provision, beginning with school education and continuing through initial training for, and continuing training during, employment. A further benefit of considering education and training as a ‘whole career’ activity is the provision of improved support in the difficult period of transition from school and advanced academic and vocational education to the world of work. Employers, with appropriate support from government and other public bodies, have an important responsibility to make sustained contributions to education and training. Also, universities could extend their traditional role by developing partnerships in the private and public sectors to provide in-service training for school teachers, continuing training and re-training for managers and instructors, and skills up-dating for research workers, etc. In these various ways, a society which is increasingly engaged in technology can begin to satisfy its needs for a work force which understands both the technological and social nature of developments and has learned the ability to gain new knowledge and skills throughout working life. Above all, however, the full potential of such measures can be effectively realised only if the need for greater supplies of existing skills or the introduction of new ones is anticipated accurately and in good time.
Can Microbial Go Round?
Diversity
Make The World
Microbiology education provides an important example of there being a deficiency in the supply of particular skills for biotechnology at a time of need. This is a particularly appropriate example to take in the present context because a major part of the Earths rich resource of microbial diversity is to be found in less industrialized countries. It is accepted that they are in need of support in developing the expertise needed for them to share in the benefits to be derived from their biological resources and to protect their environment. Furthermore, it is expected that sources of
Needs and means for biotechnology education Table tion.
1. Aims
of the European
initiative
for biotechnology
educa-
(i) To improve public information by means of school, college and related educational activities. (ii) To enable teachers from scientific and other interdisciplinary fields to gain easier access to improved biotechnology training, information and resource materials. (iii) To recognise and explore the differing cultural contexts in which biotechnology and biotechnology education are embedded, to promote an understanding of the divergent values, beliefs and practices that exist within and across national boundaries and to analyse how these factors might relate to perception, reception and development of biotechnology locally, nationally and supranationally. (iv) To contribute to public awareness of biotechnology and to facilitate an informed level of public debate by a broadbased educational approach integrating technical and societal aspects of biotechnology directed at all future citizens as both science and non-science subjects. (v) To address important public concerns raised by biotechnology, due to its various personal, social, ethical, economic and environmental implications.
the necessary support are to be found in the more industrialized world. However, there is serious concern in some developed countries about the effects of reductions in microbiological components of undergraduate courses on their supplies of appropriately trained personnel. Concern was expressed recently by the European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) Working Party on Applied Molecular Genetics that microbiology is at serious risk of being neglected in education and research in Europe (Diderichsen 1995a; Turner & Diderichsen 1995). This is a longstanding deficiency; Bull et al. (1982) reported that the lack of skills in microbial physiology was one of four main shortages delaying advances in biotechnology at that time. Similar anxieties have been expressed in the US where increases in the teaching of molecular biology and biochemistry have occurred at the expense of a ‘downgrading’ of microbiology in university courses over several decades (Woese 1994). In the UK almost all university departments of microbiology have been absorbed into ‘schools’ or faculties which encompass several disciplines. Taking these concerns along with those which deplore the lack of attention being given by governments and industry world-wide to the scientific and industrial importance of microbial diversity (Fox 1994; Diderichsen I99Sb; Diderichsen et al. 1995), it is little wonder that there are moves afoot to address the problem. The US National Science Foundation is funding summer schools in microbial physiology at the University of Georgia in Athens and, with the Department of Energy, at Ohio State University in Columbus. The American Society for Microbiology has conducted a national survey of personnel and training needs in the microbiological sciences (Fox 1996); and the
UK National Committee for Microbiology (composed of more than 20 learned societies in the UK with significant numbers of microbiologists as members) has been established to provide a means of representation for the overall interests of microbiology.
Education and Training: and Mutualism
a Case for Symbiosis
This account illustrates many similarities between developing and developed countries on the basic issues, which are exercising the minds and stimulating the activities of those who are in positions to influence and contribute to developments in biotechnology. Although the stages of advancement may vary in different parts of the world, all parties have much to gain from increased co-operation. The area of education and training is the one above all others which can provide a common channel which links them together through a variety of means including national and international agencies, conferences and other types of meeting, and initiatives from learned societies. There are several precedents for such collaborative action, for example, the joint International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS)/Intemational Commission on Food Microbiology and Health (ICFMH) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) consultation on postgraduate teaching in advanced food science which took place in Denmark in 1989 (Park 1990). It is from the establishment of such links that other mutually advantageous benefits of biotechnology may flow.
References Bull, A. T., Holt, G. & Lilly, M. D. 1982 Biotechnology International Trends and Perspectives. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Betsch, D. F. 1996 The value of biotechnology education for nonscientists in the USA. World journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology,
12, 439-443.
Boh, B. 1996 Organisation knowledge. World Journal
of biotechnological of Microbiology
information
into
and Biotechnology,
12,
425-437.
Commission of the European Communities 1993 Growth, tiveness, the 21st
employment - 7’he challenges and century (White Paper). Bulletin of Supplement 6/93. Luxembourg:
munities, Publications of the European Communities. Commission of the European Communities and the White Paper -preparing the next sion to the Council, and Social Committee. Newsletter, 4, l-11. Diderichsen, B. 1995a European Federation 2. Diderichsen, B. 1995b
ways
competiforward into
the European ComOffice for Official
1994 Biotechnology on growth, competitiveness and employment stage. Communication from the Commisthe European Parliament and the Economic European Biotechnology Information Service The future of for Biotechnology Opinion
paper
microbiology Newsletter, on
in Europe. July issue,
microbial
WorldJournal of Microbiology & Biofecknology. Vol 12. 1996
diversity.
455
1. M.
Grainger
European Federation for Biotechnology Newsletter, October issue, 2. Diderichsen, B., Gunde-Cimemxm, N., Pouwels, P., Piihler, A. & Schwab, H. 1995 Microbial diversity: a Europear Federation of Biotechnology Working Party on Applied Molecular Genetics Opinion Paper. Frankfurt: DECHEMA. (cited by Diderichsen 199sb). Fox, J. L. 1994 Microbial diversity: low profile, immense breadth. American Society for Microbiology News 60, 533-536. Fox, J. L. 1996 Employment prospects for US microbiologists are sound. American Society for Microbiology News 62, 181-184. Grainger, J. M. 1992 A European initiative to promote public understanding of biotechnology through school and college education. Biotechnology Education 3, 89-91. Grainger, J. M. 1995 Of white papers, the EU, biotechnology,
456
World Journal of Microbiology 6 Biotechnology, Vol 12. 1996
public understanding and schools. Society for General Microbiology Quarterly 22, 53-55. Park, R. W. A. 1990 Joint IUMS/ICFMH and UNESCO consultation on postgraduate teaching in advanced food microbiology with recommendations of a core curriculum. Internafional Journ~ll of Food Microbiology 11, 107-118. Turner, G. & Diderichsen, B. 1995 The future of microbiology in Europe: European Federation of Biotechnology Working Party on Applied Molecular Genetics Opinion Paper. Frankfurt: DECHEMA. (cited by Diderichsen 1995a). Sussman, A. 1994 Science education partnerships and systemic reform. American Society for Microbiology News 60, 404-405. Woese, C. L. 1994 There must be a prokaryote somewhere: microbiology’s search for itself. Microbiological Reviews 5 8, l-9.
of Microbiology
& Biotechnology
12. 451-456
Needs and means for education and training in biotechnology: perspectives from developing countries and Europe J. M. Grainger A plenary discussion session on ‘Biotechnology education and training programs’ at the Xth International Conference on The Global Impacts of Applied Microbiology in 1995 gave an opportunity to identify current priorities for biotechnology in developing countries. The discussion focused on three major areas: the nature of the skills required; education and training for the various categories of staff; the role of the scientific community in informing the decision makers about biotechnology and its prospects. Comparable discussions are taking place in Europe and elsewhere in the industrialized world. They are exemplified by developments arising from a White Paper on ‘Growth, Competitiveness, Employment’ published by the European Commission in 1993 which included a reinforcement of the work of the European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE) for teachers in schools. There are also widespread anxieties about the effects of deficiencies in the amount of attention being given to microbiology in undergraduate courses. Key words: Biotechnology,
Current
Priorities
education,
Europe, developing
for Developing
countries.
Countries
Developing countries are being increasingly involved in the general advancement of science and technology which is enabling biotechnology to make progress in various parts of the world. There is enormous scope for introducing strategies which are appropriately designed for local circumstances, needs and limitations. Important contributions can be made to the general advancement in biotechnology at the national level through partnerships with other developing countries and with more industrial.. ized ones. Through these means, opportunmes arise to share in the benefits of improvements in economic growth and the quality of life. However, the extent to which biotechnology can realise its potential is dependent upon several factors, a key one of which is
The author is with the National Centre for Biotechnology Education, The University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 226, Reading RG6 GAJ,UK; fax: 0044 173 431 6671. @ 7996 Rapid Science
Publishers
provision of a sound infrastructure in education and training. Recognition of the importance of providing an opportunity for scientists from developing countries to discuss the key issue of education and training is an established feature of the ‘Global Aspects of Applied Microbiology’(GIAM) series of international conferences. At GIAM X held in Elsinore, Denmark in 1995 there was an evening roundtable on ‘Biotechnology education and training programs’. There follows an account of the major issues and conclusions of the discussions which were stimulated by the various presentations, two of which are reported elsewhere in this journal (Betsch 1996; Boh 1996). Nature of the Skills Required Biotechnology is characterized by the need for a range of levels of skill; low level skills for traditional technology and high level skills for the novel technologies that are emerging. There may be much variation in the particular level of skill needed from country to country and from region to
]. M. Grainger region within a country. There is an immediate need in developing countries to recognize the increasing dependence on technology by concentrating on the provision of adequate supplies of basic skills. For instance, in fermentation and microbiology, it is desirable to promote the successful development of indigenous industries, particularly agriculture, to reduce pollution from industrial waste, and to improve the use of resources. There is also pressure to introduce the new skills required to support the establishment of gene cloning techniques and modem fermentation technology to enhance agriculture, health care and environmental protection. Education and Training in Schools, Colleges, Universities and Indust y It is being increasingly appreciated that the creation of a strong workforce depends on a sound educational provision in schools. Therefore, it is vital to give much more attention, at the school level, to generating interest in science and technology and to the provision of a sound education and training in the basic skills. This then provides opportunities for progression either to immediate employment or to technical or higher education. Practising biotechnologists can also play an important role in supporting education in schools and in teacher training by providing appropriate support in the form of advice, materials and equipment in collaboration with the teachers. There is much debate about the merits of different types of undergraduate courses at university level, that is, should courses be designed to provide a broad coverage of biotechnology or to concentrate on one of the basic disciplines (e.g. microbiology, molecular biology, biochemistry, engineering), and should a management component be incorporated? These questions are also the focus of much debate in developed countries by both academics and industrialists. The categories of trained staff needed in research, development and production extends widely from technicians to scientists, all of whom require appropriate training for the specific skills needed. There is also a need for industry to appreciate the value to its commercial success of sustaining the morale of the workforce and retaining the services of employees by providing up-dating and retraining courses. However, industry also has a responsibility for providing employment in the first place. It is also important to realise that some social and cultural traditions discourage the involvement of some members of the community, particularly women, in certain categories of work. Such practices have to be identified and addressed because they are an obstacle to progress. Educating the Decision Makers In addition to the provision of formal education ing, the scientific community has a responsibility
452
World ~ourmal ofMicrobio/qy
6 Biotechnology, Vol 12, 1996
and trainto inform
and educate the decision makers in government, the legislature, the investment industry and education, about biotechnology and its prospects for improving competitiveness and the quality of life. However, it is important to ensure that decision makers realize that investment in biotechnology is a long term strategy, that is, there will be no quick return. On the other hand, there is much to be learned by biotechnologists from such interactions with decision makers; an appreciation of political, social and financial implications. Various programmes and strategies are used in more developed countries for promoting the understanding of biotechnology among the general public in order to address the anxieties which are inevitably associated with the introduction of unfamiliar technologies, particularly gene technology. However, such programmes are not seen as being a priority for developing countries until a sound biotechnology industry is becoming well established. The Way Forward Priorities for advances in education lie in strengthening the school sector, removing social and cultural barriers to work practices and enhancing interactions between scientists and decision makers. The main focus of training should be to enhance the exploitation of indigenous opportunities by introducing innovations, if necessary derived and adapted from appropriate technology and good practice in use elsewhere, this embodies improvements in the use of technology transfer. There is much benefit to be gained from sharing experiences and expertise through joint ventures involving international, intra-national and inter-sector co-operation. Regarding the availability of financial support for forming co-operative ventures, it is apparent that there is a great need for scientists to gain a better understanding of the provision of funding from governments, international agencies and private sources and the means of access to them. Progress will be hampered without some form of opportunity for continued dialogue and development of initiatives. Therefore, ways should be found to sustain continuing interactions on the issues raised because rapid advances in education and training are vital to the success of biotechnology in developing countries as we enter a period of likely increase in dependence on technology. The discussion at GIAM X reported here was generated from a plenary roundtable session on Biotechnology education and training programs which was attended by all of the conference delegates, virtually all of whom contributed to the discussion. The session extended well beyond its allocated time and the delegates requested that the organising committee for the next GIAM conference (GIAM XI) be asked to expand the time allocated to education and training. Among other benefits would be an opportunity to
Needs and means for biotechnology education discuss and establish mechanisms and joint ventures.
for on-going
interactions
Growth, Competitiveness and Employment Europe: into The 2lst Century
in
The Major Challenge Ahead The European Commission (EC) presented a White Paper entitled ‘Growth, Competitiveness, Employment - The challenges and ways forward into the 21st century’ to a meeting of the European Summit in Brussels in 1993 (Commission of the European Communities 1993). The reason was the constraint on the continued sustainable development of the European economies being imposed by inadequate growth and investment, and deteriorating prospects for employment. The problem was summarised as follows: over the last 20 years (i) the European economy’s potential rate of growth has shrunk (from around 4% to around 2.5% a year); (ii) unemployment has been steadily rising from cycle to cycle; (iii) the investment ratio has fallen by five percentage points; (iv) the competitive position in relation to the USA and Japan has worsened with respect to employment, share of export markets, research and development and innovation and its subsequent incorporation into goods brought to the market, and the development of new products. The EC took the view that the way forward lies in joint responses of local and national communities which would strengthen the hand of each member state and therefore that of the European Union (EU). The Promise of Biotechnology In the White Paper, the promise of biotechnology was acknowledged as offering outstanding opportunities for lifting Europe from recession through the creation of innovation in highly competitive areas of the economy and thereby providing improvements to the quality of life. In this regard, biotechnology was ranked with information and communication technologies and the audio-visual sector as one of the key areas which will be crucial to the growth of the economy of the EU in the 21st century. The value of the techniques of modem biotechnology in complementing and substituting those of classical biotechnology are seen to lead to the creation of new products and highly competitive processes in the industrial, agricultural and health sectors, and also improvements in the environment. However, as well as delivering this very positive message, consideration was also given to important issues that may jeopardize a significant expansion of biotechnology in the EU. In particular, concern was expressed that public expenditure on research and development is less than that provided in the US and Japan and the short-fall has not been compensated for by the private sector. Attention was
also drawn to unfavourable attitudes in the EU in as a whole as compared with US and Japan regarding hostility and social inertia to biotechnology. Preparations for the next stage came in the form of a communication from the Commission’s Biotechnology Coordinating Committee, a high-level interservice group with a remit to develop a coherent policy on biotechnology for the Commission. This formed the basis for an over-all Communication to the European Council meeting in Corfu in June 1994 (Commission of the European Communities 1994). Several topics were addressed with the aim of sustaining the Commission’s declared objective of ensuring a good and safe climate for research, development, investment, production and marketing in biotechnology in Europe. The topics were: (i) review of the regulatory framework; (ii) level of scientific advice available for use when drawing up the regulations; (iii) funding for research and development; (iv) support for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) including through technology transfer; (v) the investment climate; (vi) ethical and legal aspects; (vii) public understanding. Under the heading of public understanding of biotechnology, the Commission reinforced its long established recognition of the critical reactions to some aspects of modem biotechnology that are understandably raised among the general public. Therefore, all parties involved should have access to reliable information on the applications of biotechnology, particularly on potential advantages and issues of safety, ethics and environmental protection. Three existing EC initiatives in the area of public understanding were chosen for increased support: (i) surveys and other analytical work on public attitudes; (ii) raising awareness among the key players in industry, policy making, the media, public interest groups, and education; (iii) raising awareness and providing information to the general public, including the work being conducted by the European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE) with schools. While it appeared from the discussions at GIAM X that it may be premature to embark upon activities concerned with public awareness of and attitudes to biotechnology for developing countries, it was quite clear that the other two issues, those of raising awareness among key players and increasing support for education at school level, should be given high priority world-wide. The European Initiative for Biotechnology Education It is a common criticism from industry, parents and social analysts in the EU that too many young people leave school with deficiencies in essential basic training and with inadequate appreciation of the necessary interaction between the application of science and technology and society (Commission of the European Communities 1993). A contribution towards an alleviation of this general problem, which is also reported for the USA (Sussman 1994), can be
World]oumal
of Microbiology
h Biotechnology, I/o/ 12, 1996
453
J. M. Grainger made through addressing biotechnology in schools. What is needed is the continued development of existing efforts to provide good and effective teaching materials and methods, which serve to heighten appreciation of the value of an education and training in the underlying principles and skills of biotechnology in young people. Another advantage is that by providing those of school age with an understanding and awareness of biotechnology, they are better prepared for the time when they will be called upon as citizens to discuss and make informed decisions about the issues involved. As a means towards these ends, the EC launched the European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE) through its Directorate-General for Science, Research and Development (DG XII) in 1991 at an international workshop held at The University of Reading, UK, as part of a concerted action in biotechnology (Grainger 19%; Table I). EIBE is now a trans-European interdisciplinary network of some 30 experts in biotechnology and biotechnology education drawn from 20 centres in 12 EU countries (Grainger 19%). To date the work of EIBE has concentrated on the development of innovative teaching materials and media to support in-service and initial training for school teachers. In addition, research has begun on the analysis of data on the conceptions, interests, attitudes and values of teachers and students. The EC has reinforced the EIBE programme of developing materials and providing expertise to school teachers throughout the EU, and holding workshops and conferences to encourage openness and aid dialogue. Currently EIBE receives funding for concerted action under the Biotechnology Programme of the EC Fourth Framework Programme. Concerted actions are considered to be appropriate when national funding is widely available and/or when the pooling of data facilitates common interpretation of facts and contributes to the basis for the development of harmonized standards and procedures. EIBE works mainly through identifying good practice in biotechnology education wherever it may be found and then collaborating in development and adaptation, including translation to several languages, to provide educational materials and methods that are suitable for wide use in the member states. However, it is essential that there is a system of strategically located educational centres to provide the means for the effective dissemination of the new ideas, materials and resources to the schools. The first such centre in Europe was the National Centre for Biotechnology Education (NCBE) at The University of Reading, UK which was established in 1985 initially with pump-priming funds from government. Subsequently, NCBE was required to become a totally self-funding enterprise from 1992. The Role of Training and Education The topic of training and education
454
World hxczl
featured prominently
of Microbiology b Biotechnology, Vol 12. 1996
in
the EC White Paper. Its importance was so regarded that one of three chapters of the section on employment was devoted to a general consideration of the adaptation of education and vocational training systems in respect of all the areas of technology which were considered to be crucial to the economic growth of the EU. Education and training are seen to play a key role in improving growth, competitiveness and employment as well as providing for personal development and enhancing the coherence of society. However, education and training should not be considered in isolation from other aspects of development because the greatest benefits will not be gained without exploring interactions with economic and social policy. Additionally, education and training should not be limited to occasional periods of acquisition of knowledge. They should be planned as a continuing feature of the whole fabric of provision, beginning with school education and continuing through initial training for, and continuing training during, employment. A further benefit of considering education and training as a ‘whole career’ activity is the provision of improved support in the difficult period of transition from school and advanced academic and vocational education to the world of work. Employers, with appropriate support from government and other public bodies, have an important responsibility to make sustained contributions to education and training. Also, universities could extend their traditional role by developing partnerships in the private and public sectors to provide in-service training for school teachers, continuing training and re-training for managers and instructors, and skills up-dating for research workers, etc. In these various ways, a society which is increasingly engaged in technology can begin to satisfy its needs for a work force which understands both the technological and social nature of developments and has learned the ability to gain new knowledge and skills throughout working life. Above all, however, the full potential of such measures can be effectively realised only if the need for greater supplies of existing skills or the introduction of new ones is anticipated accurately and in good time.
Can Microbial Go Round?
Diversity
Make The World
Microbiology education provides an important example of there being a deficiency in the supply of particular skills for biotechnology at a time of need. This is a particularly appropriate example to take in the present context because a major part of the Earths rich resource of microbial diversity is to be found in less industrialized countries. It is accepted that they are in need of support in developing the expertise needed for them to share in the benefits to be derived from their biological resources and to protect their environment. Furthermore, it is expected that sources of
Needs and means for biotechnology education Table tion.
1. Aims
of the European
initiative
for biotechnology
educa-
(i) To improve public information by means of school, college and related educational activities. (ii) To enable teachers from scientific and other interdisciplinary fields to gain easier access to improved biotechnology training, information and resource materials. (iii) To recognise and explore the differing cultural contexts in which biotechnology and biotechnology education are embedded, to promote an understanding of the divergent values, beliefs and practices that exist within and across national boundaries and to analyse how these factors might relate to perception, reception and development of biotechnology locally, nationally and supranationally. (iv) To contribute to public awareness of biotechnology and to facilitate an informed level of public debate by a broadbased educational approach integrating technical and societal aspects of biotechnology directed at all future citizens as both science and non-science subjects. (v) To address important public concerns raised by biotechnology, due to its various personal, social, ethical, economic and environmental implications.
the necessary support are to be found in the more industrialized world. However, there is serious concern in some developed countries about the effects of reductions in microbiological components of undergraduate courses on their supplies of appropriately trained personnel. Concern was expressed recently by the European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) Working Party on Applied Molecular Genetics that microbiology is at serious risk of being neglected in education and research in Europe (Diderichsen 1995a; Turner & Diderichsen 1995). This is a longstanding deficiency; Bull et al. (1982) reported that the lack of skills in microbial physiology was one of four main shortages delaying advances in biotechnology at that time. Similar anxieties have been expressed in the US where increases in the teaching of molecular biology and biochemistry have occurred at the expense of a ‘downgrading’ of microbiology in university courses over several decades (Woese 1994). In the UK almost all university departments of microbiology have been absorbed into ‘schools’ or faculties which encompass several disciplines. Taking these concerns along with those which deplore the lack of attention being given by governments and industry world-wide to the scientific and industrial importance of microbial diversity (Fox 1994; Diderichsen I99Sb; Diderichsen et al. 1995), it is little wonder that there are moves afoot to address the problem. The US National Science Foundation is funding summer schools in microbial physiology at the University of Georgia in Athens and, with the Department of Energy, at Ohio State University in Columbus. The American Society for Microbiology has conducted a national survey of personnel and training needs in the microbiological sciences (Fox 1996); and the
UK National Committee for Microbiology (composed of more than 20 learned societies in the UK with significant numbers of microbiologists as members) has been established to provide a means of representation for the overall interests of microbiology.
Education and Training: and Mutualism
a Case for Symbiosis
This account illustrates many similarities between developing and developed countries on the basic issues, which are exercising the minds and stimulating the activities of those who are in positions to influence and contribute to developments in biotechnology. Although the stages of advancement may vary in different parts of the world, all parties have much to gain from increased co-operation. The area of education and training is the one above all others which can provide a common channel which links them together through a variety of means including national and international agencies, conferences and other types of meeting, and initiatives from learned societies. There are several precedents for such collaborative action, for example, the joint International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS)/Intemational Commission on Food Microbiology and Health (ICFMH) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) consultation on postgraduate teaching in advanced food science which took place in Denmark in 1989 (Park 1990). It is from the establishment of such links that other mutually advantageous benefits of biotechnology may flow.
References Bull, A. T., Holt, G. & Lilly, M. D. 1982 Biotechnology International Trends and Perspectives. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Betsch, D. F. 1996 The value of biotechnology education for nonscientists in the USA. World journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology,
12, 439-443.
Boh, B. 1996 Organisation knowledge. World Journal
of biotechnological of Microbiology
information
into
and Biotechnology,
12,
425-437.
Commission of the European Communities 1993 Growth, tiveness, the 21st
employment - 7’he challenges and century (White Paper). Bulletin of Supplement 6/93. Luxembourg:
munities, Publications of the European Communities. Commission of the European Communities and the White Paper -preparing the next sion to the Council, and Social Committee. Newsletter, 4, l-11. Diderichsen, B. 1995a European Federation 2. Diderichsen, B. 1995b
ways
competiforward into
the European ComOffice for Official
1994 Biotechnology on growth, competitiveness and employment stage. Communication from the Commisthe European Parliament and the Economic European Biotechnology Information Service The future of for Biotechnology Opinion
paper
microbiology Newsletter, on
in Europe. July issue,
microbial
WorldJournal of Microbiology & Biofecknology. Vol 12. 1996
diversity.
455
1. M.
Grainger
European Federation for Biotechnology Newsletter, October issue, 2. Diderichsen, B., Gunde-Cimemxm, N., Pouwels, P., Piihler, A. & Schwab, H. 1995 Microbial diversity: a Europear Federation of Biotechnology Working Party on Applied Molecular Genetics Opinion Paper. Frankfurt: DECHEMA. (cited by Diderichsen 199sb). Fox, J. L. 1994 Microbial diversity: low profile, immense breadth. American Society for Microbiology News 60, 533-536. Fox, J. L. 1996 Employment prospects for US microbiologists are sound. American Society for Microbiology News 62, 181-184. Grainger, J. M. 1992 A European initiative to promote public understanding of biotechnology through school and college education. Biotechnology Education 3, 89-91. Grainger, J. M. 1995 Of white papers, the EU, biotechnology,
456
World Journal of Microbiology 6 Biotechnology, Vol 12. 1996
public understanding and schools. Society for General Microbiology Quarterly 22, 53-55. Park, R. W. A. 1990 Joint IUMS/ICFMH and UNESCO consultation on postgraduate teaching in advanced food microbiology with recommendations of a core curriculum. Internafional Journ~ll of Food Microbiology 11, 107-118. Turner, G. & Diderichsen, B. 1995 The future of microbiology in Europe: European Federation of Biotechnology Working Party on Applied Molecular Genetics Opinion Paper. Frankfurt: DECHEMA. (cited by Diderichsen 1995a). Sussman, A. 1994 Science education partnerships and systemic reform. American Society for Microbiology News 60, 404-405. Woese, C. L. 1994 There must be a prokaryote somewhere: microbiology’s search for itself. Microbiological Reviews 5 8, l-9.
