Research article Received: 17 June 2014,

Revised: 19 January 2015,

Accepted: 19 January 2015

Published online in Wiley Online Library: 10 March 2015

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/bio.2885

Multiplexed DNA detection using a gold nanorod-based fluorescence resonance energy transfer technique Qiang Wu, Yanlong He, Jianniao Tian,* Juanni Zhang, Kun Hu, Yanchun Zhao* and Shulin Zhao ABSTRACT: A fluorescence resonance energy transfer method for multiplex detection DNA based on gold nanorods had been successfully constructed. This method is simple, easy to operate, good selectivity, no requirement to label the probe molecule and can analyze simultaneously multiple targets of DNA in one sample. The limit of detection for the 18-mer, 27-mer and 30-mer targets is 0.72, 1.0 and 0.43 nM at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3. The recoveries of three targets were 96.57–98.07%, 99.12–100.04% and 97.29–99.93%, respectively. The results show that the method can be used to analyze a clinical sample or a biological sample; it also can be used to develop new probes for rapid, sensitive and highly selective multiplex detection of analytes in real samples. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Keywords: multiplexed detection; dna; gold nanorods (aunrs); fluorescence resonance energy transfer technique (fret)

Introduction

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With the advent of nanotechnology, gold nanoparticles have received widespread interest in the detection of DNA owing to their unique optical properties and bioconjugation (1,2). The pioneering work was carried out by Elghanian et al. (3). Following this, a number of studies focusing on DNA detection using spherical gold nanoparticles has been reported (4). Recently, gold nanorods (AuNRs) achieved considerable attention owing to their anisotropic configuration and unique optical properties, which are dramatically affected by their size, shape and surrounding surface environments (5,6). Because of the tunable absorption spectrum and chemical properties of the AuNRs, they can be used for establishing a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) system as a fluorescence quencher or energy acceptor (7,8). In addition, the surface of AuNRs can easily be modified. Therefore, AuNRs have been explored for potential applications in biosensor (9–12), gene delivery (13,14), ion detection (15,16) and photothermal therapy (17–19). For example, Gopala et al. utilized the second-order non-linear optical properties of AuNRs to screen the HIV-1 viral DNA sequence with a sensitivity of about 100 pm (20) and Parab et al. reported an AuNR-based optical DNA biosensor for the diagnosis of pathogens (21). Rapid, multiplex and quantitative detection of sequence-specific or mutated genes associated with human diseases has played a central role in modern clinical treatments of molecular diagnostics and genomics research (22,23). Over the past decades, several advances in novel technologies and methods have been achieved (24,25). However, there are ever increasing requirements for improving analytical capabilities, in particular for signal multiplexing (26–30) and precise quantification (31,32). A variety of methods such as the G-quadruplex-based hybridization chain reaction (33), curcumin encapsulated in nanoparticle-assembled microcapsules (34), graphene-based molecular beacon (35), copper tetraphenylporphyrin complex (36), FRET between quantum dots

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and graphene oxide (37) and molecular beacon-functionalized gold nanoparticles (38) have been developed for the detection of DNA. However, these methods have several defects in that, for example, they are complicated to operate and need expensive reagents. In this study, we report the use of AuNRs to develop a novel multicolor nanoprobe for sensitive, selective and multiplexed analysis of DNA in a homogeneous solution. The fluorescence intensity of dyes slightly decreased due to the weak FRET, which occurred from dyes to AuNRs when probe DNA was added to AuNRs. In the presence of the complementary target DNA, the fluorescence intensity of dyes was further decreased because of the strengthened electrostatic interaction and FRET efficiency of double strands between target and probe. The unique fluorescence quenching property of AuNRs, makes multiplex detection easier to achieve compared with conventional fluorescence methods.

Experimental Chemicals Unless otherwise indicated, all reagents and solvents were purchased in their highest available purity and used without further

* Correspondence to: Jianniao Tian and Yanchun Zhao, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science of Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China. E-mail [email protected]; [email protected] Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Ministry of Education of China), School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science of Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, China

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Fluorescence multiplex detection purification or treatment. NaCl, MgCl2, HCl, Na2HPO4 and NaH2PO4 were of analytical grade and bought from the Shanghai Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd (China). HAuCl4.4H2O was purchased from Sigma (USA). Phosphate buffer solution (PBS) was prepared using the stock solution of Na2HPO4 and NaH2PO4 with different volume ratios. All oligonucleotides (Table 1) used in this present study were synthesized and purified by Sangon Biotech (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. (China). The oligonucleotide stock solutions were prepared with PBS-3 buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4, 0.3 M NaCl) and kept frozen. Ultrapure fresh water (resistivity ≥ 18.2 MΩ) was used throughout our experiments. Apparatus Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) absorption spectra were obtained by using a TU-1901 UV-visible spectrophotometer (Beijing Purkinje General Instrument Co., Ltd, Beijing, China). Photoluminescence measurements were performed at room temperature using a LS-55 luminescence spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, USA). Transmission electron micrographs and scan electron micrographs of the system were taken with a TEM-1230 ( JEOL, Japan). Synthesis of gold nanorods AuNRs were synthesized by a seed-mediated growth approach according to the method reported by Murphy and others (39,40). First, the gold seeds were prepared by mixing aqueous solutions of HAuCl4.4H2O (0.01 M, 0.125 mL) and CTAB (0.1 M, 5 mL). Next, freshly prepared ice-cold solution of sodium borohydride (0.01 M, 0.3 mL) was added. After shaking vigorously for about 5 min, the solution rapidly changed from yellow into light brown and then aged for 2 h at 27 °C before AuNR synthesis. After that, the gold seeds solution (0.192 mL) was injected in to the growth solution of CTAB (0.1 M, 80 mL), HAuCl4.4H2O (0.01 M, 4 mL), AgNO3 (0.01 M, 0.4 mL) and freshly prepared ascorbic acid (0.1 M, 0.64 mL) with stirring. The AuNR solution was kept at 27 °C for a period of 24 h. Then, the nanorods were purified by several cycles of suspension in ultrapure water, followed by centrifugation. They were isolated in the precipitate, and excess CTAB was removed in the supernatant. Finally, they were stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C before being used.

Fluorescence experiments The experiment was carried out at 37 °C. Typically, probe DNA (20 nmol/L) were added to PBS (10 mmol/L, pH 7.4, 0.1 M NaCl, 0.1 mM MgCl2), then, 30 mL of AuNRs (4.5 × 109/M/cm) were added to the mixed solution. After the mixed solution was vigorously stirred for 5 min, a corresponding concentration of DNA was added to the mixture above and reacted for 60 min at 37 °C (the solution volume was 0.5 mL in total). The fluorescence signals were measured at three wavelengths: 520, 582 and 665 nm by exciting the sample solutions at 485 nm for fluorescein amidite (FAM), 560 nm for 5(6)-Carboxytetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA) and 635 nm for cyanine dye 5 (Cy5). Slits for both the excitation and the emission were set at 10 nm for all dyes. All experiments were repeated three times. Each sample was measured three times.

Results and discussion Sensing mechanism Scheme 1 outlines the working principle of the AuNR-based multicolor nano-beacon for the multiplexed detection of DNA. It is wellknown that DNA can be adsorbed on to the surface of positively charged AuNRs because of the electrostatic interactions between the anionic backbone phosphates of oligonucleotides and the cationic surfactant bilayer around the nanorods (41,42). In addition, this assay is based that positively charged AuNRs have higher affinity for double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) than single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) because the surface charge density of dsDNA is much larger than that of ssDNA (43). When probe ssDNA is added to the AuNR suspension in the presence of target DNA, probe DNA will hybridize with target DNA to form dsDNA, which is adsorbed on to the surface of the positively charge AuNRs, and ternary probe DNA-CTAB-AuNR complexes are formed, FRET occurs when there is appreciable overlap between the emission spectrum of the donor and the absorption spectrum of the acceptor. AuNRs can act as electron acceptors to quench fluorophores in the photoinduced electron transfer process because the AuNRs have an absorption peak that overlaps with the emission peak of dyes. Therefore, the fluorescence intensity of probe DNA will decrease because of the quenching effect of AuNRs. The quenching

Table 1. DNA sequence used in this work Oligonucleotide name

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Description

TTT TTT GGG CCT CTT TTT AAG AAC GTT CTT AAA AAG AGG CCC GTT CTT AAT AAG AGG CCC GTA CTA AAT AAG TGG GCC CAA GAA TTT TTC TCC GGG CCT TGA CAT TAT TTT TGG TGT CCA GTC CTG CAG GAC TGG ACA CCA AAA ATA ATG TCA AGG CAG GAC TGG ACA CCA ATA ATA ATG TCA AGG CAG CAC TGC ACA CCA ATA ATA TTG TCT AGG GTC CTG ACC TGT GGT TTT TAT TAC AGT TCC ATC CTT ATC AAT ATT TAA CAA TAA TCC GGA TTA TTG TTA AAT ATT GAT AAG GAT GGA TTA TTG TTA ATT ATT GAT AAG GAT GGA TTA ATG ATA ATT ATT GAA AAG CAT CCT AAT AAC AAT TTA TAA CTA TTC CTA

Probe 1 Complementary DNA target Mismatch underlined Mismatch underlined Mismatch underlined Probe 2 Complementary DNA target Mismatch underlined Mismatch underlined Mismatch underlined Probe 3 Complementary DNA target Mismatch underlined Mismatch underlined Mismatch underlined

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FAM-P1 T1 T1M1 T1M2 T1M3 TAMRA-P2 T2 T2M1 T2M2 T2M3 Cy5-P3 T3 T3M1 T3M2 T3M3

Sequences (5′-3′) description

Q. Wu et al.

Fluorescence intensity (a.u.)

500

400

300

200

100

0 510

525

540

555

570

Wavelength (nm) Scheme 1. Schematic illustration of AuNR-based fluorescence resonance energy transfers for multiplex detection of DNA. AuNRs, gold nanorods; FRET, fluorescence resonance energy transfer technique.

efficiency is in proportion to the concentration of target DNA or the level of hybridization of target DNA and probe DNA. In the multicolor mode, three different oligonucleotides labeled at their 5′ terminus with different fluorescence dyes are mixed at equal molar ratio and co-adsorbed on the AuNR surface, forming a multicolor nano-beacon. The choice of three fluorescence dyes relies on the consideration of their spectral properties. From Fig. 1, it is clearly observed that there is overlap between the emission spectra of probe DNA and plasmon absorption bands of AuNRs, which make it is possible for FRET from FAM/TAMRA/Cy5 to AuNRs. 180

1.0

Absorbance

Cy5

120

0.6

0.4

60

0.2

Fluorescence intensity (a.u.)

FAM TAMRA

0.8

0 0.0 500

600

700

Wavelength (nm)

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Figure 1. Absorption spectra of gold nanorods and fluorescence emission spectra of FAM, TAMRA and Cy5. Cy5, cyanine dye 5; FAM, fluorescein amidite; TAMRA, 5(6)Carboxytetramethylrhodamine.

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In the absence of the target DNAs, all dyes are in close proximity to AuNRs, which results in slight fluorescence quenching due to the energy transfer effect. When the target DNAs are added in to the system the fluorescence intensity decreases rapidly because of the stronger electrostatic interactions between the duplex strand DNA and AuNRs. Consequently, the distance between the dye units and AuNRs is reduced, which gives rise to more efficient FRET from the FAM/TAMRA/Cy5 to the AuNRs. By monitoring the increase in the fluorescence quenching of the respective dyes, multiple DNA targets can be simultaneously detected. Remarkably, these new AuNR-based multicolor nanoprobes need only one labeled fluorophore for each target, which is simple and costeffective compared with traditional double-tagging FRET methods. Characterization of gold nanorods The nanorods were characterized by UV absorption spectroscopy (Fig. 2) and transmission electron microscopy (Fig. 3). The concentration of AuNRs (0.488 nM) was estimated by UV-vis spectroscopy based on an extinction coefficient of 4.5 × 109/M/cm at λ = 765 nm for AuNRs (44). Optimization of experimental conditions To obtain the best sensing performance, the optimal conditions for the detection of targets is essential. In this work, the effect of assay conditions (such as the quenching efficiency of AuNRs, reaction time between DNA and AuNRs, etc.) on the experimental results was investigated. First, to confirm the quenching efficiency of AuNRs to the fluorescence of dye-labeled oligonucleotides, the change of

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Fluorescence multiplex detection 1.25

0.8

10 20 30 40 50

Quenching efficiency (%)

AuNRs

Absorbance

0.6

0.4

0.2

1.00

L L L L L

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.0 0.00

400

500

600

700

800

900

FAM

TAMRA

Cy5

Volume of AuNRs ( L)

(nm) Figure 2. Ultraviolet-visible absorption of AuNRs. AuNRs, gold nanorods.

fluorescence intensity for three dye-labeled oligonucleotides (FAM-P1, TAMRA-P1 and Cy5-P1) caused by AuNRs were investigated. In these experiments, different concentrations of AuNRs were incubated with the dye-labeled oligonucleotides, and the fluorescence intensities of FAM at 520 nm, TAMRA at 580 nm and Cy5 at 665 nm were measured. As shown in Fig. 4, upon incubation with AuNRs, the fluorescence quenching efficiency of all dyelabeled oligonucleotides enhance with the increase of the concentration of AuNRs and the fluorescence quenching is well correlated to the relative amount of dye-labeled oligonucleotides adsorbed on the AuNR surface, which is due to more dyes brought closer to the quencher AuNRs. The quenching efficiency of three dyes is largest when 30 μL of AuNRs is used (Fig. 4), so we selected 30 μL AuNR for this study. Then, the hybridization time was investigated in this study and the results are shown in Fig. 5. From the results presented in Fig. 5, 60 min was selected as the hybridization time for this study.

Figure 4. Optimization of the amount of AuNRs on fluorescence resonance energy transfer technique quenching efficiency. The concentration of probe DNA and T is 20 nM and 40 nM. The standard deviations are obtained from at least three independent experiments. AuNRs, gold nanorods; Cy5, cyanine dye 5; FAM, fluorescein amidite; TAMRA, 5(6)-Carboxytetramethylrhodamine.

spectra of FAM at different concentrations of target sequences. Figure 6(B–D) shows the calibration curves corresponding to the fluorescence quenching efficiency of the respective dyes upon different concentrations of the specific DNA targets. As the concentration of the specific DNA targets increased, the fluorescence quenching efficiency of the respective dyes increased. The decline of fluorescence intensity increased with an increase in the concentrations of the target and was linear relative to the concentration of the target from 400 pM to 10 nM with a correlation coefficient of 0.997 (as seen in Fig. 6B), 400 pM–12 nM with a correlation coefficient of 0.970 (as seen in Fig. 6C) and 400 pM–15 nM with a correlation coefficient of 0.980 (as seen in Fig. 6D). The linear regression equation is:

Analytical performance

y ¼ ð0:069 ± 0:001Þx þ ð0:041 ± 0:004Þ

Under optimal conditions, the analytical performance of the fluorescent DNA biosensor was investigated using different concentrations of target DNA sequences. Figure 6(A) shows the fluorescence

y ¼ ð0:052 ± 0:003Þx þ ð0:033 ± 0:005Þ

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Figure 3. Transmission electron microscopy images of gold nanorods.

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Q. Wu et al. 1.00

Selectivity of the biosensor

F/F0

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00 0

20

40

60

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The designed AuNR-based multicolor nanoprobe was highly selective as each target DNA only perfectly hybridized with the specific dye-labeled probe, leading to a decrease in the fluorescence of the corresponding dye. With this performance, the multicolor nanoprobe might show an ability to discriminate the perfect target from the mismatched one. Thus, three single base mismatch DNA targets were tested. As shown in Fig. 7, only the specific targets lead to a dramatic fluorescence quenching enhancement toward corresponding dyes, while all the single base mismatch DNA targets lead to only minimal fluorescence quenching. These results demonstrated that the designed AuNR-based multicolor nanoprobe was highly specific, and exhibited an excellent ability to discriminate between single nucleotide polymorphisms.

Time (min) Figure 5. Effect of time on binding reaction in the system. The concentration of gold nanorods, probe DNA and T is 0.0586 nM, 20 nM and 40 nM respectively. The standard deviations are obtained from at least three independent experiments. Cy5, cyanine dye 5; FAM, fluorescein amidite; TAMRA, 5(6)-Carboxytetramethylrhodamine.

y ¼ ð0:028 ± 0:001Þx þ ð0:004 þ 0:002Þ The detection limit of 0.72 nM, 1.0 nM and 0.43 nM was estimated at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3, where F0 and F was the fluorescence intensity of the solution without and with the addition of target DNA. The results indicated that the proposed method could be used for the multiplex detection of DNAs with good sensitivity.

Target DNA detection in human serum samples To prove whether the fabricated biosensor could detect actual samples, sensitively and specifically, we detected the three targets of DNA simultaneously in real samples (100-fold diluted healthy human serum samples) and the results were listed in Tables 2–4, respectively. As shown in Tables 2–4, the recoveries of three targets were 96.57–98.07%, 99.12–100.04% and 97.29–99.93%, the data show that this method can be used to analyze multiple targets simultaneously in the actual clinical sample or a biological sample, this method has the potentiality of the designed method for real biological sample analysis.

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Figure 6. (A) Fluorescence spectra of probe DNA/gold nanorods in the absence and presence of different concentrations of T1. The relationship between the fluorescence intensity and the concentration of T1 (B), T2 (C) and T3 (D). The standard deviations are obtained from at least three independent experiments.

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Fluorescence multiplex detection 1.00

Conclusion

a2 a3

Quenching efficiency(%)

a1 0.75

0.50

b1 b2 0.25

c2 d2

c1

b3 c3

d3

d1 0.00

FAM

TAMRA

Cy5

Figure 7. Specificity of the system for DNA detection. (a1/a2/a3): FAM-P1-T1/TAMRAP1-T2/Cy5-P1-T3 (10 nM); (b1/b2/b3): T1M1/T2M1/T3M1 (100 nM); (c1/c2/c3): T1M2/ T2M2/T3M2 (100 nM); (d1/d2/d3): T1M3/T2M3/T3M3 (100 nM); (d1/d2/d3): noncomplementary (100 nM). The standard deviations are obtained from at least three independent experiments. Cy5, cyanine dye 5; FAM, fluorescein amidite; TAMRA, 5(6)Carboxytetramethylrhodamine.

In this work, we designed a simple AuNR-based fluorescent biosensor for the multiplexed analysis of DNA. By taking advantage of the high specificity of hybridization reactions of DNA and the super fluorescence quenching efficiency of AuNRs, the linear relationship of three targets is in the low concentration region and the limit of detection for the 18-mer, 27-mer and 30-mer targets 0.72 nM, 1.0 nM and 0.43 nM (at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3). Moreover, this method also exhibits an excellent ability to discriminate single nucleotide polymorphisms. Currently, the studies provide a platform for AuNR applications in biological systems. Acknowledgements This work has been supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 21165004, 21163002, 21465007), the Guangxi Natural Science Foundation of China (2012GXNSFBA053022) and the project of Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education of China (CMEMR2014-A).

References Table 2. Results of the determination of T1 in serum samples (n = 3) Sample

Added (nM)

Detected (nM)

Recovery (%)

Relative SD (%) (n = 3)

1 2 3 4

1.60 4.00 8.00 10.0

1.54 3.88 7.85 9.76

96.57 97.00 98.07 97.56

3.6 2.5 2.3 0.28

Table 3. Results of the determination of T2 in serum samples (n = 3) Sample

Added (nM)

Detected (nM)

Recovery (%)

Relative SD (%) (n = 3)

1 2 3 4

1.60 4.00 8.00 12.00

1.58 4.01 8.03 11.90

99.12 100.02 100.04 99.21

1.5 2.3 0.40 0.65

Table 4. Results of the determination of T3 in serum samples (n = 3) Added (nM)

Detected (nM)

Recovery (%)

Relative SD (%) (n = 3)

1 2 3 4

3.20 5.00 8.00 15.0

3.11 4.99 7.98 14.7

97.29 99.93 99.83 98.01

2.3 3.2 2.2 1.1

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Luminescence 2015; 30: 1226–1232

Multiplexed DNA detection using a gold nanorod-based fluorescence resonance energy transfer technique.

A fluorescence resonance energy transfer method for multiplex detection DNA based on gold nanorods had been successfully constructed. This method is s...
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