Psychological Reporb, 1991, 69, 320-322.
O Psychological Reports 1991
MOTHERS AND FATHERS OF YOUNG CHILDREN: COMPARISON O F PARENTING STYLES ' KATHLEEN S. BENTLEY AND ROBERT A. FOX Parenting Center Marquette University Summary.-This srudy compared the developmental expectations and parenting behaviors of 52 mothers and fathers with children between the ages of 1 and 4 years, using the Parenting Inventory: Young Children. While both mothers and fathers were nurturing parents, mothers obtained significantly higher nurturing scores. Possible reasons for this difference were discussed. Developmental expectations and discipline strategies did not differ between mothers and fathers.
Despite the acknowledged effects parents have on their child's development (Vukelich & Kliman, 1985), early parent-child interactions have not been extensively studied (McBride, 1984). The purpose of the present study was to contribute to the literature by comparing the parenting behaviors and developmental expectations of mothers and fathers of young children using the Parenting Inventory: Young Children (Fox, 1990), a 100-item rating scale developed to measure parenting of 1- to 4-yr.-old children. There are three subscales empirically derived through factor analysis: Expectations-50 items that measure parents' developmental expectations ("My child should use the toilet without help"), Discipline-30 items that assess parental responses to problem behaviors ("I yell at my child for whining"), and Nurturing-20 items that measure specific parent behaviors that promote a child's psychological growth ("I read to my child at bedtime"). Parents rate each item using a four-point frequency scale (4 = almost always/always, 3 = frequently, 2 = sometimes, and 1 = almost neverlnever). Based on a representative sample of 1,140 mothers from a large urban area, the three subscales were internally consistent: Expectations (coefficient alpha) = .97; Discipline = .91; and Nurturing = .82. A subsample of 45 mothers completed the inventory twice, separated by at least one week. Test-retest reliabilities for the three subscales were: Expectations = .98; Discipline = .87; and Nurturing = .81. The items are written at a third grade reading level. Participating in this study were 52 mothers and fathers of 1- to 4-yr.-old chddren, drawn from the normative sample for the inventory. Day-care centers throughout the large urban area were the primary sites for soliciting parents for this study. The sample was predominantly middle- to upper'This research was supported by a grant from the National Center for Nursing Research of the National Instimtes of Health (Contract 1 R01 NR01609-01A1) and the Helen V. Brach Foundation. Requests for reprints should be sent to Dt Robert A. Fox, Marquette University, School of Education, Milwaukee, WI 53233.
COMPARISON OF PARENTING STYLES
32 1
middle socioeconomic class, based on Stevens and Cho's Occupational Classification Scheme (1985). The parents' children included 30 boys and 22 girls (M age = 2.8 yr., SD = 1.2; 13 l-yr.-olds, 13 2-yr.-olds, 16 3-yr.-olds, 10 4yr.-olds). Parents with more than one child were asked to select only one child within the age range as the target for this study. Each parent independently completed the inventory. Raw scores for each subscale were computed. Scores on the Expectations subscale did not differ significantly ( p > .05) between mothers (M = 123.0, SD = 35.4) and fathers (M = 124.5, SD = 34.9). Mothers' Discipline scores (M = 42.4, SD = 9.8) also were not significantly different from the fathers' scores (M = 43.7, SD = 9.8). However, mothers' scores on the Nurturing subscale (M = 61.8, SD = 8.6) were significantly higher (t,, = 4.97, p < .001) than fathers' scores (M = 53.7, SD = 9.1). Pearson correlations also were computed between the mothers' and fathers' scores. As expected, significant correlations ( p < .01) were found for the Expectations (r = .94) and Discipline subscales (r = .79), but not for the Nurturing subscale ( r = .l3). The present results indicated that mothers and fathers in this sample had similar developmental expectations for their young children. This finding is supported by the equivalent total scores found between parents on the Expectations subscale and the high correlation found between mothers and fathers on the items comprising this scale. This finding is positive because it is important that a child experience consistent expectations across both parents. Similar results were found for the Discipline subscale. Based on the total Discipline subscale scores, parents tended to agree on how they disciplined their young child. However, the lower correlation found for this subscale suggests that the frequency of use for specific strategies of discipline may differ between parents. Mothers in the sample were more nurturing than fathers, which may in part be attributed to the fact that the inventory was originally developed with a sample of only mothers. Consequently, nurturing practices possibly unique to fathers were not included. Moreover, given that the maximum raw score on the Nurturing subscale is 80, in the present sample both mothers (M = 61.8, SD = 8.6) and fathers (M = 53.7, SD = 9.1) would be described as nurturing parents. Based on the nonsignificant correlation found between parents on this subscale, mothers and fathers may nurture their child's psychological growth in different ways. That is, mothers may choose certain nurturing strategies (e.g., reading, table activities) more frequently than fathers, who may in turn favor other nurturing approaches (e.g., playing with their child on the floor, taking walks). Perhaps, this combination of unique maternal and paternal nurturing practices creates a richer environment for the young cMd. However, given that the sample was not representative of the urban population from which it was drawn, caution must be exercised in generabzing the present results to other
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K. S. BENTLEY & R. A. FOX
samples of parents. The specific nature of similarities and differences in parenting between the mothers and fathers and their effects on the children's development requires additional research with larger, representative groups of parents. REFERENCES FOX, R. A. (1990) Assessing parenting of young children. Bethesda, MD: National Center for Nursing Research of the National Institutes of Health. (Contract 1 R01 NR0160901A1) M c B ~ E A. , B. (1984) The experience of being a parent. In H. H. Werley & J. J. Fitzpatrick (Eds.), Annual review of nursing research. Vol. 2 . New York: Springer Pp. 63-81. STEVENS,G., & CHO,J. H. (1985) Socioeconomic indexes and the new 1980 census occupational classification scheme. Social Science Research, 14, 142-168. VWKELICH,C., & KLIMAN,D. S. (1985) Mature and teenage mothers' infant growth expectations and use of child development information sources. Family Relations, 34, 189-196. Accepted August 16, 1991
O Psychological Reports 1991
MOTHERS AND FATHERS OF YOUNG CHILDREN: COMPARISON O F PARENTING STYLES ' KATHLEEN S. BENTLEY AND ROBERT A. FOX Parenting Center Marquette University Summary.-This srudy compared the developmental expectations and parenting behaviors of 52 mothers and fathers with children between the ages of 1 and 4 years, using the Parenting Inventory: Young Children. While both mothers and fathers were nurturing parents, mothers obtained significantly higher nurturing scores. Possible reasons for this difference were discussed. Developmental expectations and discipline strategies did not differ between mothers and fathers.
Despite the acknowledged effects parents have on their child's development (Vukelich & Kliman, 1985), early parent-child interactions have not been extensively studied (McBride, 1984). The purpose of the present study was to contribute to the literature by comparing the parenting behaviors and developmental expectations of mothers and fathers of young children using the Parenting Inventory: Young Children (Fox, 1990), a 100-item rating scale developed to measure parenting of 1- to 4-yr.-old children. There are three subscales empirically derived through factor analysis: Expectations-50 items that measure parents' developmental expectations ("My child should use the toilet without help"), Discipline-30 items that assess parental responses to problem behaviors ("I yell at my child for whining"), and Nurturing-20 items that measure specific parent behaviors that promote a child's psychological growth ("I read to my child at bedtime"). Parents rate each item using a four-point frequency scale (4 = almost always/always, 3 = frequently, 2 = sometimes, and 1 = almost neverlnever). Based on a representative sample of 1,140 mothers from a large urban area, the three subscales were internally consistent: Expectations (coefficient alpha) = .97; Discipline = .91; and Nurturing = .82. A subsample of 45 mothers completed the inventory twice, separated by at least one week. Test-retest reliabilities for the three subscales were: Expectations = .98; Discipline = .87; and Nurturing = .81. The items are written at a third grade reading level. Participating in this study were 52 mothers and fathers of 1- to 4-yr.-old chddren, drawn from the normative sample for the inventory. Day-care centers throughout the large urban area were the primary sites for soliciting parents for this study. The sample was predominantly middle- to upper'This research was supported by a grant from the National Center for Nursing Research of the National Instimtes of Health (Contract 1 R01 NR01609-01A1) and the Helen V. Brach Foundation. Requests for reprints should be sent to Dt Robert A. Fox, Marquette University, School of Education, Milwaukee, WI 53233.
COMPARISON OF PARENTING STYLES
32 1
middle socioeconomic class, based on Stevens and Cho's Occupational Classification Scheme (1985). The parents' children included 30 boys and 22 girls (M age = 2.8 yr., SD = 1.2; 13 l-yr.-olds, 13 2-yr.-olds, 16 3-yr.-olds, 10 4yr.-olds). Parents with more than one child were asked to select only one child within the age range as the target for this study. Each parent independently completed the inventory. Raw scores for each subscale were computed. Scores on the Expectations subscale did not differ significantly ( p > .05) between mothers (M = 123.0, SD = 35.4) and fathers (M = 124.5, SD = 34.9). Mothers' Discipline scores (M = 42.4, SD = 9.8) also were not significantly different from the fathers' scores (M = 43.7, SD = 9.8). However, mothers' scores on the Nurturing subscale (M = 61.8, SD = 8.6) were significantly higher (t,, = 4.97, p < .001) than fathers' scores (M = 53.7, SD = 9.1). Pearson correlations also were computed between the mothers' and fathers' scores. As expected, significant correlations ( p < .01) were found for the Expectations (r = .94) and Discipline subscales (r = .79), but not for the Nurturing subscale ( r = .l3). The present results indicated that mothers and fathers in this sample had similar developmental expectations for their young children. This finding is supported by the equivalent total scores found between parents on the Expectations subscale and the high correlation found between mothers and fathers on the items comprising this scale. This finding is positive because it is important that a child experience consistent expectations across both parents. Similar results were found for the Discipline subscale. Based on the total Discipline subscale scores, parents tended to agree on how they disciplined their young child. However, the lower correlation found for this subscale suggests that the frequency of use for specific strategies of discipline may differ between parents. Mothers in the sample were more nurturing than fathers, which may in part be attributed to the fact that the inventory was originally developed with a sample of only mothers. Consequently, nurturing practices possibly unique to fathers were not included. Moreover, given that the maximum raw score on the Nurturing subscale is 80, in the present sample both mothers (M = 61.8, SD = 8.6) and fathers (M = 53.7, SD = 9.1) would be described as nurturing parents. Based on the nonsignificant correlation found between parents on this subscale, mothers and fathers may nurture their child's psychological growth in different ways. That is, mothers may choose certain nurturing strategies (e.g., reading, table activities) more frequently than fathers, who may in turn favor other nurturing approaches (e.g., playing with their child on the floor, taking walks). Perhaps, this combination of unique maternal and paternal nurturing practices creates a richer environment for the young cMd. However, given that the sample was not representative of the urban population from which it was drawn, caution must be exercised in generabzing the present results to other
322
K. S. BENTLEY & R. A. FOX
samples of parents. The specific nature of similarities and differences in parenting between the mothers and fathers and their effects on the children's development requires additional research with larger, representative groups of parents. REFERENCES FOX, R. A. (1990) Assessing parenting of young children. Bethesda, MD: National Center for Nursing Research of the National Institutes of Health. (Contract 1 R01 NR0160901A1) M c B ~ E A. , B. (1984) The experience of being a parent. In H. H. Werley & J. J. Fitzpatrick (Eds.), Annual review of nursing research. Vol. 2 . New York: Springer Pp. 63-81. STEVENS,G., & CHO,J. H. (1985) Socioeconomic indexes and the new 1980 census occupational classification scheme. Social Science Research, 14, 142-168. VWKELICH,C., & KLIMAN,D. S. (1985) Mature and teenage mothers' infant growth expectations and use of child development information sources. Family Relations, 34, 189-196. Accepted August 16, 1991
