-
.
ORIGINAL RESEARC~'
B,
,
-i*u '"B
b
a
be.
.L
*.*A,**
i
s
*.
*. .
i
i
*.
varied according t d a ~ females ~ , evidencing significantly h &ITmales-f@Mtamins,C: ^E,:coppef?m&gnesium, and alurhi being higher i n males. It is?soncluded-that 7 to 8 month
ivitamin/mineral supplementation increased the blood nutritiona ~me~yitamins but did not affect any blood mineral levels,,and th niithtional indicators may p a y according+o sex. I,
- i6
3 t.P B, i s . . r~~ ~ e l f ?bki+ith o ~ the D*., of Physiolwgy m d ~#@8'~&w%$dral1;n f&te of Sport, Box* 176, ~eloonned,ACT 1616 A d ~ d i a .C&Whpole,i s giritH the b e p t of MathemaHcs, ~ & v e r s i t ~ r ~ ' o l lI3il'iy. e ~ e , of NewSouth walm, Austrilia. Dealtin hawith the Ikpt. of A p p H d S ~ i m'Uni~.af"C~14bkrrk.WcLeayis wflh ClinicayAssay$Pty. Ltd, SydRJt,Wank is %ffi th~~~hool*&~&6rmatio#~echnolo~~, Univ. of Southern ~ u e e n s l a n z
124
/ Telford, Catchpole, Deakin, McLeay, and Plank
to the literatufe by extending the period of vitamin/mineral supplementation from 1 and 3 months to 7 to 8 months and by involving females in the study. The purposes of the current investigation therefore were to (a) provide data on the vitamidmineral status of athletesfollowing intense training, (b) investigate the effects of vitamin/mineral supplementation on this nutritional status, and (c) investigate the nutritional status of the athletes with regard,toigender and type of sport.
thods
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
Subjects and Groups
Eighty-six athletes training in senior squads at the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) were studied. There were 50 males and 36 females: 24 basketball players (11 males, 13 females), 25 gymnasts (14 males, 11 females), 14 rowers (8 males, 6 females), and 23 swimmers (17 males, 6 females). Mean heights and weights at the completion of the experiment are presented in Table 1. All the athletes had completed a strenuous training and competition program lasting approximately 7 to 8 months. In addition, all had been training and competing for at least 5 years before coming to the Australian Institute of Sport. Table 1 Means and Standard Deviatlons at the Time of Blood Sampling Following the Training Season Age (yr) Suppl. Placebo
Basketball Male ( N = 5, 6) Female ( N= 7 , 6 ) Gymnastics Male (N= 7,7) Female (N=5,6) Swimmers Male ( N = 8 , 9) Female (N = 3 , 3 ) Rowers Male (N=4,4) Female (N= 3,3)
Height (cm) Suppl. Placebo
Weight (kg) Suppl. Placebo
17.3 21.4 17.3 k1.1
18.0 rtr0.6 18,2 k1.5
198.8 lt7.3 178.8 k7.3
193.5 k5.5 179.2 M.3
87.5 B.3 73.8 s.9
87.4 lt7.8 72.3 k7.7
17.3 k3.3 13.7 321.2
18.9 lt4.0 15.5 32.0
162.8 k9.8 f 55.9 k5.0
169.0 k5.7 155.0 36.4
53.2 58.7 46.0 f3.9
61 .O k8.9 46.8 k7.4
18.6 51.7 19.7 k1.3
14.3 32.6 19.5 M.5
184.0 k6.9 178.7 e.0
182.5
78.4 k7.2 71.5 k3.9
76.3 k8.6 64.1 k3.2
20.1 k0.9 20.2 M.6
20.4 M.9 20.8 lt1.3
186.6 52.7 175.5 rt4.2
188.3
84.8 k1.3 78.8 k3.9
87.8 s.1 75.0 e.3
1
Note. N refers to numbers of atkletes ik the supplement and placebo groups, respectively.
VitarninlMineral Supplementation / 125
The blood assessments of various nutrients were made from a blood sample taken at the beginning and at the end of a 7- to 8-month training period in which athletes had take11 multiviZ8min;lmifieral supplemnrs of*)lacebos. The athletes in the supplement group were matched with athletes in the placebo group for their sport, position of play or specific training, and place of residence (inside o r outside the AIS). As indicated in Table 1, the supplement groups were reasonably well matched with the placebo groups in age, height, and weight.
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
Athletes' Diet and Supplementation
A 3-day survey of dietary intake was conducted early in tM experimental period and this demonstrated the general nutritional adequacy of each" 8thlete:s diet. Through conventionalt methodology (25, 26), the'diets of both the supplement and control groups, on average, were shown to satisfy the current Australian recommended daily intakes of vitamins and minerals (18). Personal and-group dietary counseling was provided for each athlete throughout the study to ensure that athletes continued to consume a well-balanced diet. In accordance with the requirements of a corresponding study (24) on the effects of supplementation on athletic performance, the recognized problems associated with iron Status in athletes (5) required that any athlete with low plasma ferritin values ( ~ 3 nglfhl) 0 be treated with iron sulphate supplementation. Checks for low ferritin values were camed out every 8 weeks. Table 2 lists the constituents of the supplements. The athletes'compliance to taking the tablets was assessed by a dietitian at least every 60 days. During the consultation, the athlete was asked to bring hisher bottles of tablets so that the dietitian could directly assess the amount taken. This information, together with the athlete's responses to a short questionnaire helped place the athlete in a compliance category. Compliance Level 4 included athletes who had taken 70-100% of the tablets; Level 3 represented 40-70%, Level 2 represented 20-40%, and Level 1 represented 10-20%. Laboratory Methods
With the athlete in the fasting State, forearm venous blood samples were tdken in the morning before any training had taken plaoe. The laboratory methods for assessing the nutritional stat'us of the athletes are as follows: Thiarhine status was assessed by red cell transketolase activity (2); riboflavin by red cell glutathione reductase activity (19); pyridoxine by rod cell glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase activity and pyridolral phosphate effect (22); plasma ascorbic acid by 2,4-dinitrophenfrl hydrazine couplfiig (21); &no1 and total carotenoids using extraction by light petroleum (29); a-tocopherol and retinol using simultaneous determination in plasma by high performance liquid chromatography (8, 9); folate and B,, by radioimmunoassay in serum (Coming Magic No Boil Kit, 14). The concentrations of minerals were assayed using standard methods with SMI Spectraspan I11 B, D C Argon plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, and matched multimineral calibrator (BDH Seronorm Trace Metal Controls, two levels). The units of measu-rement for vitamins B,, B2, and*B6require some explanation. These,assays involve themeasurement of specific enzyme activities which require one of the above vitamins as a coenzyme. Thtee valuesare
126
1 ///I
/ Tefford, Catchpole, Deabin, Mcfeay,
and Plank
Table 2 Combined Constituents of the two Su
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
Vitamin A (retinyl) Acetate f4,500 i.u.) Vitamin B, Thiamine HCI
Calcium amino a Manganese amino a Zinc amino acid chel Calcium phosphate
Potassium aspartate Potassium chloride Ferrous fumarate PABA 75 mg, choline bitartrate 75 mg, inositol75 mg, lemon bioflavonoid complex 25 mg, hesperidin complex 25 mg, glutamic acid 25 mg, betaine 25rng, kelp 250 mg, lecithin 100 mg. "Vitaglow Sports S, Vitaglow Pty. Ltd., 6 Hayes St., Balgowlah NSW 2093, Australia.
'
presented for ,!itamin B1 (thiamine): B1-1, Bl-2, B1-3. Each provides information on the B, status. Bl-2is the erythrocyte transketolase activity @TKA), this activity being dependent on vitamin Bl derivative, coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). B1-3(ETKA + TPP)is the activity after the haemolysate has been saturated with added TPP. The difference is a measure of the enzyme which is inactive due to the unavailability of the coenzyme (i.e., vitamin Bl). This difference is expressed as a percentage (called the TPP effect), and is represented by B1-1in the tables. The lower the TPP effect., the greater the indicated vitamin level. TPP effect = The B2 (riboflavin) asshy is similar but uses the e n k m e erythrocyte glutathione reductase which requires the coenzyme fltivin adenifie dinucleotide (FAD), a derivative of ~iboflavin.The enzyme ta@ivity is measured With and without added coenzyme and the petcent feacf4vtltion is calculated as follows:
FdAD >effect*= e?;QS " a"1.@pB
&*
1
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
The vittf"ifi%iP&cmiI"&iRf acetate ~ B Y i i f i t k e :(EGOT) e n ~ y J~ ~ >tern l ~ ~and phosphate (P5P). Tfik enzyme
,measure, ,an analysis ~ f , ~ v a r i t mwas: ~e~ For each, blood vitamin an software package regression routine) to performed (using the Gens evaluate the effects due to (a) ,the vitm4nlmineral t+upplementationaM+(b)thes e of~the athlete. The dependent variable used was the final blood value (FBV), measured following the 7- to 8-m&th tgining progfam, The init%?'Mobdvalue8 wab4 (IBV) were used as'covariates,%lfice Wr some o"f tlle Hood measure~-"IaV a sig4i'ificant pr6dictor of FEW. IBV was used as a cdvadate in;g"refireflck to" taking'the (before-after) diffeknces in blood values as the dependent ;ariable, This was done bdcause"of the lack 6f control of the subje&s9diets and sdpfilemt%~ tation before the treatment period began, The covariate allows forgny differences, between the,treatmentand placebo groups in IBV values. Estimates for th ntation and their significance al10w~forsu~h~~differences. analyses are based on the model, FBV = Treatment + Gender repeated for a subset&f the,data consistin s with
Results tothjdiand "a ndffientStatus
I
I'
bh'
J
TI% numbers ;bf atfifes at ede6 of %he ecomplfance rbdels were as fdTIB%%$ supplement grbup and placebo g-odp, ~spectivelx:,~eve 4[(highest eompIia"iice), 15 and 19: Level 3,c 11 and 10; Level 2, 5 and 9:Fevdl 1 (lowest compliance). 11 and 6. Table 3 gives estimated'm'e'ins and ,standard deviations of thd supplementation. Several vitamins were found to va& with the treatment, namely
128
/ Telford, Catchpole, Deakin, McLeay, and Plank
Table 3
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
ard Errors Estimated Mean Final Blood Nbtrient Levels a for the Placebo pp and Supplementation ps Groups, the Corresponding Treatment Effect (change in supplementatio less the change in placebo) and its Significance Level
Nutrient measures
Placebo M SE
Supplement M SE
B1-l* (TPP% effect)
7.2
0.7
5.5
0.7
B,a (ETKA)
230
5
235
5
B,3 (ETKA+TPP) B2* (FAD eff) B *r, (P5P% eff)
253 0.80 72
8 0.01 4
247 0.81 37
8 0-01 4
B6a (EGOTA)
348
27
562
26
B63 (EGOTA+P
584
25
743
24
C rngldl E rngll A-1 pgll A-2 pgll
0.98 14.8 236 249
0.06 0.9 15 14
0.99 16.9 228 212
0.05 0.9 14 14
B1 prnolll
304
26
479
25
Folate nmolll
10.9
1.7
24.4
1.6
Cu pmolll Mg mmolll Zn prnol/l Ca mmolll PO, mrnolll Al pglrnl
16.9 0.94 17.8 2.50 1.11 0.25
0.4 0.01 0.7 0.02 0.01 0.01
17.1 0.93 17.1 2.49 1.10 0.24
0.4 0.01 0.7 0.02 0.01 0.01
Treatment effect
-1.7 (-2.9 +4.3 (14.8 -6.1 0.01 -36 (-46 204 (296 155 (232 0.01 1.6 -8 -37 (-39 175 (219 13.4 (17.2 0.1 -0.01 -0.5 -0.01 -0.02 -0.00
0.9 ' I .O)-hi 6.3 6.9)-hi 10.7 0.02 6 6)-hi 37 38)-hi 33 34)-hi 0.08 1.3 20 19 23) 34 38)-hi 2.2 2.4)-hi 0.5 0.01 1.0 0.03 0.02 0.01
.06 (
.
ORIGINAL RESEARC~'
B,
,
-i*u '"B
b
a
be.
.L
*.*A,**
i
s
*.
*. .
i
i
*.
varied according t d a ~ females ~ , evidencing significantly h &ITmales-f@Mtamins,C: ^E,:coppef?m&gnesium, and alurhi being higher i n males. It is?soncluded-that 7 to 8 month
ivitamin/mineral supplementation increased the blood nutritiona ~me~yitamins but did not affect any blood mineral levels,,and th niithtional indicators may p a y according+o sex. I,
- i6
3 t.P B, i s . . r~~ ~ e l f ?bki+ith o ~ the D*., of Physiolwgy m d ~#@8'~&w%$dral1;n f&te of Sport, Box* 176, ~eloonned,ACT 1616 A d ~ d i a .C&Whpole,i s giritH the b e p t of MathemaHcs, ~ & v e r s i t ~ r ~ ' o l lI3il'iy. e ~ e , of NewSouth walm, Austrilia. Dealtin hawith the Ikpt. of A p p H d S ~ i m'Uni~.af"C~14bkrrk.WcLeayis wflh ClinicayAssay$Pty. Ltd, SydRJt,Wank is %ffi th~~~hool*&~&6rmatio#~echnolo~~, Univ. of Southern ~ u e e n s l a n z
124
/ Telford, Catchpole, Deakin, McLeay, and Plank
to the literatufe by extending the period of vitamin/mineral supplementation from 1 and 3 months to 7 to 8 months and by involving females in the study. The purposes of the current investigation therefore were to (a) provide data on the vitamidmineral status of athletesfollowing intense training, (b) investigate the effects of vitamin/mineral supplementation on this nutritional status, and (c) investigate the nutritional status of the athletes with regard,toigender and type of sport.
thods
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
Subjects and Groups
Eighty-six athletes training in senior squads at the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) were studied. There were 50 males and 36 females: 24 basketball players (11 males, 13 females), 25 gymnasts (14 males, 11 females), 14 rowers (8 males, 6 females), and 23 swimmers (17 males, 6 females). Mean heights and weights at the completion of the experiment are presented in Table 1. All the athletes had completed a strenuous training and competition program lasting approximately 7 to 8 months. In addition, all had been training and competing for at least 5 years before coming to the Australian Institute of Sport. Table 1 Means and Standard Deviatlons at the Time of Blood Sampling Following the Training Season Age (yr) Suppl. Placebo
Basketball Male ( N = 5, 6) Female ( N= 7 , 6 ) Gymnastics Male (N= 7,7) Female (N=5,6) Swimmers Male ( N = 8 , 9) Female (N = 3 , 3 ) Rowers Male (N=4,4) Female (N= 3,3)
Height (cm) Suppl. Placebo
Weight (kg) Suppl. Placebo
17.3 21.4 17.3 k1.1
18.0 rtr0.6 18,2 k1.5
198.8 lt7.3 178.8 k7.3
193.5 k5.5 179.2 M.3
87.5 B.3 73.8 s.9
87.4 lt7.8 72.3 k7.7
17.3 k3.3 13.7 321.2
18.9 lt4.0 15.5 32.0
162.8 k9.8 f 55.9 k5.0
169.0 k5.7 155.0 36.4
53.2 58.7 46.0 f3.9
61 .O k8.9 46.8 k7.4
18.6 51.7 19.7 k1.3
14.3 32.6 19.5 M.5
184.0 k6.9 178.7 e.0
182.5
78.4 k7.2 71.5 k3.9
76.3 k8.6 64.1 k3.2
20.1 k0.9 20.2 M.6
20.4 M.9 20.8 lt1.3
186.6 52.7 175.5 rt4.2
188.3
84.8 k1.3 78.8 k3.9
87.8 s.1 75.0 e.3
1
Note. N refers to numbers of atkletes ik the supplement and placebo groups, respectively.
VitarninlMineral Supplementation / 125
The blood assessments of various nutrients were made from a blood sample taken at the beginning and at the end of a 7- to 8-month training period in which athletes had take11 multiviZ8min;lmifieral supplemnrs of*)lacebos. The athletes in the supplement group were matched with athletes in the placebo group for their sport, position of play or specific training, and place of residence (inside o r outside the AIS). As indicated in Table 1, the supplement groups were reasonably well matched with the placebo groups in age, height, and weight.
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
Athletes' Diet and Supplementation
A 3-day survey of dietary intake was conducted early in tM experimental period and this demonstrated the general nutritional adequacy of each" 8thlete:s diet. Through conventionalt methodology (25, 26), the'diets of both the supplement and control groups, on average, were shown to satisfy the current Australian recommended daily intakes of vitamins and minerals (18). Personal and-group dietary counseling was provided for each athlete throughout the study to ensure that athletes continued to consume a well-balanced diet. In accordance with the requirements of a corresponding study (24) on the effects of supplementation on athletic performance, the recognized problems associated with iron Status in athletes (5) required that any athlete with low plasma ferritin values ( ~ 3 nglfhl) 0 be treated with iron sulphate supplementation. Checks for low ferritin values were camed out every 8 weeks. Table 2 lists the constituents of the supplements. The athletes'compliance to taking the tablets was assessed by a dietitian at least every 60 days. During the consultation, the athlete was asked to bring hisher bottles of tablets so that the dietitian could directly assess the amount taken. This information, together with the athlete's responses to a short questionnaire helped place the athlete in a compliance category. Compliance Level 4 included athletes who had taken 70-100% of the tablets; Level 3 represented 40-70%, Level 2 represented 20-40%, and Level 1 represented 10-20%. Laboratory Methods
With the athlete in the fasting State, forearm venous blood samples were tdken in the morning before any training had taken plaoe. The laboratory methods for assessing the nutritional stat'us of the athletes are as follows: Thiarhine status was assessed by red cell transketolase activity (2); riboflavin by red cell glutathione reductase activity (19); pyridoxine by rod cell glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase activity and pyridolral phosphate effect (22); plasma ascorbic acid by 2,4-dinitrophenfrl hydrazine couplfiig (21); &no1 and total carotenoids using extraction by light petroleum (29); a-tocopherol and retinol using simultaneous determination in plasma by high performance liquid chromatography (8, 9); folate and B,, by radioimmunoassay in serum (Coming Magic No Boil Kit, 14). The concentrations of minerals were assayed using standard methods with SMI Spectraspan I11 B, D C Argon plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, and matched multimineral calibrator (BDH Seronorm Trace Metal Controls, two levels). The units of measu-rement for vitamins B,, B2, and*B6require some explanation. These,assays involve themeasurement of specific enzyme activities which require one of the above vitamins as a coenzyme. Thtee valuesare
126
1 ///I
/ Tefford, Catchpole, Deabin, Mcfeay,
and Plank
Table 2 Combined Constituents of the two Su
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
Vitamin A (retinyl) Acetate f4,500 i.u.) Vitamin B, Thiamine HCI
Calcium amino a Manganese amino a Zinc amino acid chel Calcium phosphate
Potassium aspartate Potassium chloride Ferrous fumarate PABA 75 mg, choline bitartrate 75 mg, inositol75 mg, lemon bioflavonoid complex 25 mg, hesperidin complex 25 mg, glutamic acid 25 mg, betaine 25rng, kelp 250 mg, lecithin 100 mg. "Vitaglow Sports S, Vitaglow Pty. Ltd., 6 Hayes St., Balgowlah NSW 2093, Australia.
'
presented for ,!itamin B1 (thiamine): B1-1, Bl-2, B1-3. Each provides information on the B, status. Bl-2is the erythrocyte transketolase activity @TKA), this activity being dependent on vitamin Bl derivative, coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). B1-3(ETKA + TPP)is the activity after the haemolysate has been saturated with added TPP. The difference is a measure of the enzyme which is inactive due to the unavailability of the coenzyme (i.e., vitamin Bl). This difference is expressed as a percentage (called the TPP effect), and is represented by B1-1in the tables. The lower the TPP effect., the greater the indicated vitamin level. TPP effect = The B2 (riboflavin) asshy is similar but uses the e n k m e erythrocyte glutathione reductase which requires the coenzyme fltivin adenifie dinucleotide (FAD), a derivative of ~iboflavin.The enzyme ta@ivity is measured With and without added coenzyme and the petcent feacf4vtltion is calculated as follows:
FdAD >effect*= e?;QS " a"1.@pB
&*
1
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
The vittf"ifi%iP&cmiI"&iRf acetate ~ B Y i i f i t k e :(EGOT) e n ~ y J~ ~ >tern l ~ ~and phosphate (P5P). Tfik enzyme
,measure, ,an analysis ~ f , ~ v a r i t mwas: ~e~ For each, blood vitamin an software package regression routine) to performed (using the Gens evaluate the effects due to (a) ,the vitm4nlmineral t+upplementationaM+(b)thes e of~the athlete. The dependent variable used was the final blood value (FBV), measured following the 7- to 8-m&th tgining progfam, The init%?'Mobdvalue8 wab4 (IBV) were used as'covariates,%lfice Wr some o"f tlle Hood measure~-"IaV a sig4i'ificant pr6dictor of FEW. IBV was used as a cdvadate in;g"refireflck to" taking'the (before-after) diffeknces in blood values as the dependent ;ariable, This was done bdcause"of the lack 6f control of the subje&s9diets and sdpfilemt%~ tation before the treatment period began, The covariate allows forgny differences, between the,treatmentand placebo groups in IBV values. Estimates for th ntation and their significance al10w~forsu~h~~differences. analyses are based on the model, FBV = Treatment + Gender repeated for a subset&f the,data consistin s with
Results tothjdiand "a ndffientStatus
I
I'
bh'
J
TI% numbers ;bf atfifes at ede6 of %he ecomplfance rbdels were as fdTIB%%$ supplement grbup and placebo g-odp, ~spectivelx:,~eve 4[(highest eompIia"iice), 15 and 19: Level 3,c 11 and 10; Level 2, 5 and 9:Fevdl 1 (lowest compliance). 11 and 6. Table 3 gives estimated'm'e'ins and ,standard deviations of thd supplementation. Several vitamins were found to va& with the treatment, namely
128
/ Telford, Catchpole, Deakin, McLeay, and Plank
Table 3
Downloaded by York Univ Libraries on 09/16/16, Volume 2, Article Number 2
ard Errors Estimated Mean Final Blood Nbtrient Levels a for the Placebo pp and Supplementation ps Groups, the Corresponding Treatment Effect (change in supplementatio less the change in placebo) and its Significance Level
Nutrient measures
Placebo M SE
Supplement M SE
B1-l* (TPP% effect)
7.2
0.7
5.5
0.7
B,a (ETKA)
230
5
235
5
B,3 (ETKA+TPP) B2* (FAD eff) B *r, (P5P% eff)
253 0.80 72
8 0.01 4
247 0.81 37
8 0-01 4
B6a (EGOTA)
348
27
562
26
B63 (EGOTA+P
584
25
743
24
C rngldl E rngll A-1 pgll A-2 pgll
0.98 14.8 236 249
0.06 0.9 15 14
0.99 16.9 228 212
0.05 0.9 14 14
B1 prnolll
304
26
479
25
Folate nmolll
10.9
1.7
24.4
1.6
Cu pmolll Mg mmolll Zn prnol/l Ca mmolll PO, mrnolll Al pglrnl
16.9 0.94 17.8 2.50 1.11 0.25
0.4 0.01 0.7 0.02 0.01 0.01
17.1 0.93 17.1 2.49 1.10 0.24
0.4 0.01 0.7 0.02 0.01 0.01
Treatment effect
-1.7 (-2.9 +4.3 (14.8 -6.1 0.01 -36 (-46 204 (296 155 (232 0.01 1.6 -8 -37 (-39 175 (219 13.4 (17.2 0.1 -0.01 -0.5 -0.01 -0.02 -0.00
0.9 ' I .O)-hi 6.3 6.9)-hi 10.7 0.02 6 6)-hi 37 38)-hi 33 34)-hi 0.08 1.3 20 19 23) 34 38)-hi 2.2 2.4)-hi 0.5 0.01 1.0 0.03 0.02 0.01
.06 (
