Perceptual andMotor Skilk, 1991, 72, 1125-1126.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1991
METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION I N COLOR RESEARCH ' LYNN DUNWOODY University of Ulster Summary.-Color can influence physical and emotional variables, but the evidence is equivocal. Replications are often hampered by inadequate specification of colored stimuli. It is proposed that a standardized method for reporting colored stimuli should be employed to facilitate empirical testing of the effects of color, namely, the CIE chromaticity coordinates x and y or MunseU values, for both aUow translation from one to the ocher.
Color can influence physical and emotional variables (Gerard, 1958; Wilson, 1966), but the research findings are contradictory and inconsistent. Kaiser concluded that "it is difficult to find a great deal of empirical research in t h s field" (1984, p. 30). Emphasis is on attempting to replicate previous work to show that color does indeed have an "effect," but this has resulted in a major problem, which does seem to be overlooked by many authors. This problem concerns methodological issues. Why should there be very little empirical evidence either to support or refute the effects of color? Kaiser (1984) in a review article, cites 15 studies in which information regarding descriptions of the experimental stimuli is inadequate for replication. A brief examination of the methodology of most research shows descriptions are not reported in a scientific manner. Many experimenters do not specify the stimuli used beyond saying that they were Red, Blue, or Green. Some use radiated light (i.e., bright light beamed onto the subject after it has passed through colored filters), such as in the work by Hasson, Williams, Gadberry, and Hentich (1989) or O'Connell, Harper, and McAndrew (1985), while others make use of walls painted with emulsion (Green, Hasson, Mohammed, Phillips, Richards, Smith, & White, 1982) or show their subjects colored cards (Pelligrini & Schauss, 1780). I t is obvious that there is a difference in the quality and the quantity of the light and color being received by the subject. The 'inconsistent' results may be due, in part, to different stimuli and exposure times being used by researchers. To replicate a study one must endeavor to simulate as closely as possible the experimental stimuli and environment of the original study, thereby allowing replication and ultimately empirical testing of the effects of color. With this in mind, researchers seem to be "selling themselves short," that is, they are not specifying methodology which can be replicated. 'Address correspondence to L nn Dunwoody, Department of Psychology, University of Ulster, 7 Jordanstown, Northern 1 r e l a n J ~ ~ 3OQB.
1126
L. DUNWOODY
Nevertheless, the fact that so many authors obtain 'positive' results, despite the shortcomings in their methodologies, requires giving credence to the effects of color. Apparently under a wide range of certain 'stringent' conditions color affects people. This is good news for those doing research with color, but in reality it is time to use the standardized method of reporting color stimuli to satisfy the scientific community. I t is proposed that the standard method for reporting colored stimuli should be based on the C I E (1971) chromaticity coordinates x and y, with luminance being- specified in lux. I n addition, it is recommended that the color temperature of the light source be reported and, where possible, full-spectrum lighting should be used to render good color. In describing reflected light, it is possible to use CIE chromaticity coordinates, or alternatively Munsell values (Munsell, 1929) which can be converted to the CIE system (Osborne, 1980). The amount of reflectance and the absorption rate should also be stipulated. Fulfillment of these criteria would go some way in making research with color more scientific and thereby would facilitate replication. -
REFERENCES CIE. (1971) International Commission on Illrimination Colormetry: official recommendations of the International Committee on Illumination. Paris: Bureau Central de la C.I.E. publication C.I.E. 15 (E-l)] GERARD,R. (1958) Differential effects of colored light on psychophysical functions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of California, Los Angeles. S. K., PHILLIPS, C. L.,~ C H A K DP.SE., , SMITH, GREEN,W. K., HASSON,S. M., MOHAMMED, M. E., JR., & WHITE, A. (1982) The effecr of viewing selected colors on the performance of gross and fine rnoror tasks. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 778. HASSON,S. M., WILLIAMS,J. H., GADBERRY, W., & HENKICH, T. (1989) Viewing low and h g h wavelength light: effect on E.M.G. activity and force production during maximal voluntary handgrip contracrion. Physiotherapy Canada, 41, 32-35. KAISER,P. K. (1984) Physiological response to color: a critical review. Color Research and Application, 9, 19-36. MUNSELL, A. H. (1927) Munsell book of color. Baltimore, MD: Munsell Color Co. O'CONNELL, B. J., HARPER,R. S., & MCANDREW, F. T. (1985) Grip strength as a function of exposure to red or green visual stimulation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 1157-1158. OSBORNE, R. (1980) Lights and pigments. London: Murray. PELLIGRINI, R., & SCHAUSS, A. (1980) Muscle strength as a function of exposure to hue difterences in visual stimuli: an experimental test of the kinesoid hypothesis. Journal of Orthomolectilnr Psychology, 9, 144-147. WILSON,G. D. (1966) Arousal properties of red versus green surroundings. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 23, 947-947.
Accepted May 28, 1991.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1991
METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION I N COLOR RESEARCH ' LYNN DUNWOODY University of Ulster Summary.-Color can influence physical and emotional variables, but the evidence is equivocal. Replications are often hampered by inadequate specification of colored stimuli. It is proposed that a standardized method for reporting colored stimuli should be employed to facilitate empirical testing of the effects of color, namely, the CIE chromaticity coordinates x and y or MunseU values, for both aUow translation from one to the ocher.
Color can influence physical and emotional variables (Gerard, 1958; Wilson, 1966), but the research findings are contradictory and inconsistent. Kaiser concluded that "it is difficult to find a great deal of empirical research in t h s field" (1984, p. 30). Emphasis is on attempting to replicate previous work to show that color does indeed have an "effect," but this has resulted in a major problem, which does seem to be overlooked by many authors. This problem concerns methodological issues. Why should there be very little empirical evidence either to support or refute the effects of color? Kaiser (1984) in a review article, cites 15 studies in which information regarding descriptions of the experimental stimuli is inadequate for replication. A brief examination of the methodology of most research shows descriptions are not reported in a scientific manner. Many experimenters do not specify the stimuli used beyond saying that they were Red, Blue, or Green. Some use radiated light (i.e., bright light beamed onto the subject after it has passed through colored filters), such as in the work by Hasson, Williams, Gadberry, and Hentich (1989) or O'Connell, Harper, and McAndrew (1985), while others make use of walls painted with emulsion (Green, Hasson, Mohammed, Phillips, Richards, Smith, & White, 1982) or show their subjects colored cards (Pelligrini & Schauss, 1780). I t is obvious that there is a difference in the quality and the quantity of the light and color being received by the subject. The 'inconsistent' results may be due, in part, to different stimuli and exposure times being used by researchers. To replicate a study one must endeavor to simulate as closely as possible the experimental stimuli and environment of the original study, thereby allowing replication and ultimately empirical testing of the effects of color. With this in mind, researchers seem to be "selling themselves short," that is, they are not specifying methodology which can be replicated. 'Address correspondence to L nn Dunwoody, Department of Psychology, University of Ulster, 7 Jordanstown, Northern 1 r e l a n J ~ ~ 3OQB.
1126
L. DUNWOODY
Nevertheless, the fact that so many authors obtain 'positive' results, despite the shortcomings in their methodologies, requires giving credence to the effects of color. Apparently under a wide range of certain 'stringent' conditions color affects people. This is good news for those doing research with color, but in reality it is time to use the standardized method of reporting color stimuli to satisfy the scientific community. I t is proposed that the standard method for reporting colored stimuli should be based on the C I E (1971) chromaticity coordinates x and y, with luminance being- specified in lux. I n addition, it is recommended that the color temperature of the light source be reported and, where possible, full-spectrum lighting should be used to render good color. In describing reflected light, it is possible to use CIE chromaticity coordinates, or alternatively Munsell values (Munsell, 1929) which can be converted to the CIE system (Osborne, 1980). The amount of reflectance and the absorption rate should also be stipulated. Fulfillment of these criteria would go some way in making research with color more scientific and thereby would facilitate replication. -
REFERENCES CIE. (1971) International Commission on Illrimination Colormetry: official recommendations of the International Committee on Illumination. Paris: Bureau Central de la C.I.E. publication C.I.E. 15 (E-l)] GERARD,R. (1958) Differential effects of colored light on psychophysical functions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of California, Los Angeles. S. K., PHILLIPS, C. L.,~ C H A K DP.SE., , SMITH, GREEN,W. K., HASSON,S. M., MOHAMMED, M. E., JR., & WHITE, A. (1982) The effecr of viewing selected colors on the performance of gross and fine rnoror tasks. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 778. HASSON,S. M., WILLIAMS,J. H., GADBERRY, W., & HENKICH, T. (1989) Viewing low and h g h wavelength light: effect on E.M.G. activity and force production during maximal voluntary handgrip contracrion. Physiotherapy Canada, 41, 32-35. KAISER,P. K. (1984) Physiological response to color: a critical review. Color Research and Application, 9, 19-36. MUNSELL, A. H. (1927) Munsell book of color. Baltimore, MD: Munsell Color Co. O'CONNELL, B. J., HARPER,R. S., & MCANDREW, F. T. (1985) Grip strength as a function of exposure to red or green visual stimulation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 1157-1158. OSBORNE, R. (1980) Lights and pigments. London: Murray. PELLIGRINI, R., & SCHAUSS, A. (1980) Muscle strength as a function of exposure to hue difterences in visual stimuli: an experimental test of the kinesoid hypothesis. Journal of Orthomolectilnr Psychology, 9, 144-147. WILSON,G. D. (1966) Arousal properties of red versus green surroundings. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 23, 947-947.
Accepted May 28, 1991.
