Psychological Reports, 1977, 41, 581-582.
@ Psychological Reports 1977
LOCUS OF CONTROL AND DEPRESSION AMONG NONINSTITUTIONALIZED ELDERLY PERSONS1 CAROLYN R. HANES Central Michigan University
AND
BRADFORD S. WILD Abt Associates
Summary.-Depression was associated with external locus of control orientation among a sample of 48 noninstitutionalized elderly persons. The over-all results supported Seligman's hypothesis that depressives perceive themselves to lack personal control. However, a trend in the direction of higher correlations between externality and depression for males than females suggests the possibility that perceived lack of control may be more depressing when it conflicts with expectations concerning self-reliance and mastery associated with traditional male sex roles.
.
Seligman (6) posits that depression is caused by a belief that one's actions are futile. Investigations of locus of control oricntation and depression have shown positive associations between external locus of control and self-reported depression among college students (1, 2, 3) and agoraphobics ( 3 ) empirically supporting Seligman's contention that depressives perceive themselves to lack control over events which affect them. There is some suggestion that this relationship may vary by sex. Calhoun, et al. ( 2 ) found higher correlations between external locus of control and depression for male than for female college students. The present study examines whether or not the relationship between external locus of control orientation and depression holds for noninstitutionalized elderly persons and investigates possible sex differences in this relationship. As part of a larger study of stress, mediating factors and depression ( 4 ) , the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale2 ( 5 ) and Zung's Self-rating Depression Scale ( 7 ) were administered to 48 noninstitutionalized elderly persons (age range of 60 to 80 yr.) referred by various agencies working with elderly persons. These respondents were classified as depressed ( n = 23) or nondepressed ( n = 2 5 ) on the basis of agency nominations and index scores on the Self-rating Depression Scale. Those elderly persons who were singled out by agency representatives as displaying depressive symptoms and also scored .50 and above on the depression scale were considered depressed. In line with these previous findings, it was hypothesized that the depressed elderly subjects would obtain significantly higher locus of control scores (indicating externality) than the nondepressed comparison group. This hypothesis was confirmed. Mean I-E scores were 9.28 (SD = 4.95) for the nondepressed 'Research providing the data i n this report was supported by a dissertation research grant from the Administration on Aging. %em 8, response b, on the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale was modified to read: "There is a direct connection between how hard a person studies and the grades he or she
582
C. R. HANES
&
B. S. WILD
elderly subjects and 11.26 (SD = 3.22) for the depressed ones. The onetailed t test yielded a significant difference in the predicted direction between the two groups ( t = 1.75, df = 46, p < .05). Similarly Pearson's productmoment correlation of .28 ( p < .05) was indicative of a low but significant positive association between external locus of control orientation and depression. Despite the fact that males and females did not differ in their degree of externality (mean I-E scores were 10.00, SD z 4.0 for males and 10.32, SD = 4.16 for females with two-tailed t = .25, df = 46, p > .05), separate intercorrelations between depression scores and locus of control scores for males and females yielded a higher correlation between these scores for males ( r = .46, $ < ,05) than for females ( r = .22, p > .05). Although the difference between these correlations was statistically nonsignificant ( z = .77, p > .05), this was probably due to the small sample size and was indicative of a trend in the same direction found in previous research 0 ( 2 ) . The findings of this study were supportive of previous research linking external locus of control to depression. Sex differences in the relationship between externality and depression suggest thac perceived helplessness or lack of control alone may not cause depression. Rather it may be that the meaning that perceived lack of control has for individuals operates as an important etiologic factor. It is suggested that perceived lack of concrol is more depressing for those to whom being in control is salient and may consequently be associated with traditional sex roles. However, due to the cross-sectional, correlational nature of this study, it is possible that depression results in an external locus of control orientation. Further research is necessary to establish the direction of the relationship between these variables and to examine the possible effects of sex roles on the relationship between locus of control and depression. REFERENCES
1. ABRAMOWITZ, S. I. LOCUS of control and depression among college students. Psycho-
logical Reporrs, 1969, 25, 149-150. 2. CALHOUN, L. G.,CHBNBY, T., & DAWES,A. S. Locus of control, self-reported depression, and perceived causes of depression. Jotrrnal of Consulting azd Clinicd Psychology, 1974, 42. 736. 3. EMMELKAMP,P. M. G., & COHEN-KEXTXNIS, P. T. Relationship of locus of contcol to phobic anxiety and depression. Psychological Reports, 1975, 36, 390. 4. HANES,C. R. The aged and stress: a study of mediating factors and adjustive re-
sponses. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of New Hampshire, Durham, 1976. 5. ROTTER, J. B. Generalized expectancies for ir.terna1 versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80, No. 1 (Whole No. 609). M. E. Helplessness: on depression, development and death. San Fran6. SBLIGMAN, cisco: W. H. Freeman, 1975. 7. ZUNG,W. K. K A self-rating depression scale. Archives of General Psychidtry, 1965, 12, 63-70.
Accepted August 12, 1977.
@ Psychological Reports 1977
LOCUS OF CONTROL AND DEPRESSION AMONG NONINSTITUTIONALIZED ELDERLY PERSONS1 CAROLYN R. HANES Central Michigan University
AND
BRADFORD S. WILD Abt Associates
Summary.-Depression was associated with external locus of control orientation among a sample of 48 noninstitutionalized elderly persons. The over-all results supported Seligman's hypothesis that depressives perceive themselves to lack personal control. However, a trend in the direction of higher correlations between externality and depression for males than females suggests the possibility that perceived lack of control may be more depressing when it conflicts with expectations concerning self-reliance and mastery associated with traditional male sex roles.
.
Seligman (6) posits that depression is caused by a belief that one's actions are futile. Investigations of locus of control oricntation and depression have shown positive associations between external locus of control and self-reported depression among college students (1, 2, 3) and agoraphobics ( 3 ) empirically supporting Seligman's contention that depressives perceive themselves to lack control over events which affect them. There is some suggestion that this relationship may vary by sex. Calhoun, et al. ( 2 ) found higher correlations between external locus of control and depression for male than for female college students. The present study examines whether or not the relationship between external locus of control orientation and depression holds for noninstitutionalized elderly persons and investigates possible sex differences in this relationship. As part of a larger study of stress, mediating factors and depression ( 4 ) , the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale2 ( 5 ) and Zung's Self-rating Depression Scale ( 7 ) were administered to 48 noninstitutionalized elderly persons (age range of 60 to 80 yr.) referred by various agencies working with elderly persons. These respondents were classified as depressed ( n = 23) or nondepressed ( n = 2 5 ) on the basis of agency nominations and index scores on the Self-rating Depression Scale. Those elderly persons who were singled out by agency representatives as displaying depressive symptoms and also scored .50 and above on the depression scale were considered depressed. In line with these previous findings, it was hypothesized that the depressed elderly subjects would obtain significantly higher locus of control scores (indicating externality) than the nondepressed comparison group. This hypothesis was confirmed. Mean I-E scores were 9.28 (SD = 4.95) for the nondepressed 'Research providing the data i n this report was supported by a dissertation research grant from the Administration on Aging. %em 8, response b, on the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale was modified to read: "There is a direct connection between how hard a person studies and the grades he or she
582
C. R. HANES
&
B. S. WILD
elderly subjects and 11.26 (SD = 3.22) for the depressed ones. The onetailed t test yielded a significant difference in the predicted direction between the two groups ( t = 1.75, df = 46, p < .05). Similarly Pearson's productmoment correlation of .28 ( p < .05) was indicative of a low but significant positive association between external locus of control orientation and depression. Despite the fact that males and females did not differ in their degree of externality (mean I-E scores were 10.00, SD z 4.0 for males and 10.32, SD = 4.16 for females with two-tailed t = .25, df = 46, p > .05), separate intercorrelations between depression scores and locus of control scores for males and females yielded a higher correlation between these scores for males ( r = .46, $ < ,05) than for females ( r = .22, p > .05). Although the difference between these correlations was statistically nonsignificant ( z = .77, p > .05), this was probably due to the small sample size and was indicative of a trend in the same direction found in previous research 0 ( 2 ) . The findings of this study were supportive of previous research linking external locus of control to depression. Sex differences in the relationship between externality and depression suggest thac perceived helplessness or lack of control alone may not cause depression. Rather it may be that the meaning that perceived lack of control has for individuals operates as an important etiologic factor. It is suggested that perceived lack of concrol is more depressing for those to whom being in control is salient and may consequently be associated with traditional sex roles. However, due to the cross-sectional, correlational nature of this study, it is possible that depression results in an external locus of control orientation. Further research is necessary to establish the direction of the relationship between these variables and to examine the possible effects of sex roles on the relationship between locus of control and depression. REFERENCES
1. ABRAMOWITZ, S. I. LOCUS of control and depression among college students. Psycho-
logical Reporrs, 1969, 25, 149-150. 2. CALHOUN, L. G.,CHBNBY, T., & DAWES,A. S. Locus of control, self-reported depression, and perceived causes of depression. Jotrrnal of Consulting azd Clinicd Psychology, 1974, 42. 736. 3. EMMELKAMP,P. M. G., & COHEN-KEXTXNIS, P. T. Relationship of locus of contcol to phobic anxiety and depression. Psychological Reports, 1975, 36, 390. 4. HANES,C. R. The aged and stress: a study of mediating factors and adjustive re-
sponses. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of New Hampshire, Durham, 1976. 5. ROTTER, J. B. Generalized expectancies for ir.terna1 versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80, No. 1 (Whole No. 609). M. E. Helplessness: on depression, development and death. San Fran6. SBLIGMAN, cisco: W. H. Freeman, 1975. 7. ZUNG,W. K. K A self-rating depression scale. Archives of General Psychidtry, 1965, 12, 63-70.
Accepted August 12, 1977.
