Lithium in the Treatment of Other Psychiatric and Nonpsychiatric Disorders Mogens Schou, MD

addition to its well-studied use in affective disorders, lithium has been evaluated in a wide variety of other psychiatric and nonpsychiatric conditions. There are over 150 published reports of lithium trials in approximately 30 different conditions. Placebo-controlled studies have failed to confirm claims of lithium effect in premenstrual tensionl-6 and have given negative results in obsessive-compulsive neurosis.7-"3 Anecdotal observations have indicated positive effects in anorexia nervosa, affective psychosis in organic brain syndrome, psychoses precipitated by drugs, pathological However, placebohypersexuality, and transvestism.' controlled studies are lacking. There have been 24 reports on the effects of lithium treatment on alcohol consumption in animals and man.26i-' Of special interest here are the two recent double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, one American" and one British.' The American patients suffered from "chronic alcoholism associated with nonpsychotic depression." Of the alcoholics finishing the trial, those given lithium had significantly fewer drinking bouts than those given placebo. In the British study, alcoholics without depression responded no better to lithium than to placebo, whereas in alcoholics with a Beck depression score of 15 or higher, lithium was significantly superior to placebo in reducing the total number of days that patients were incapacitated by drinking. In interpreting the results of lithium in the treatment of alcoholism the high attrition rate must be taken into consideration, since some of the differences between placebo and lithium disappear if dropouts are included. Also, there is the possibility that patients assigned to lithium had a better prognosis than those given placebo. Administration of lithium has been suggested for aversive treatIn

From the Psychopharmacology Research Unit, Institute of Psychiatry, Aarhus University, Risskov, Denmark.

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ment of alcoholism and for the treatment of alcohol withdrawal symptoms, but these applications seem dubious and possibly dangerous. A number of animal and clinical studies have dealt with lithium treatment of a variety of aggressive states.5-7 The most systematic studies, from Yale University, involve animal work56.3s 5' as well as single-blind5' and double-

blind60 trials performed on prison inmates with a history of chronic assaultive behavior or chronic impulsive antisocial behavior. All trials indicate a beneficial effect of lithium, significantly better than the effect of placebo and probably due to a specific action of the drug. Studies of mentally defective persons with disruptive behavior and temper outbursts76-78 indicate lithium effects on both selfmutilation and aggressiveness towards others. Among movement disorders"'"'" Huntington's chorea has been treated with positive results in nine non-blind studies8"-"0 and with negative results in five controlled studies.90-" Anecdotal reports indicate positive treatment results in neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia,8O'9 spasmodic torticollis,"4 levodopa-induced hyperkinesia,l-'" and Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome.""'0"" Occasionally cogwheel rigidity occurs as a side effect of lithium treatment.

Lithium has been found no better than placebo in Meniere's disease.,"5l"7 Three cases of periodic hypersomnia showed positive response.' 18- 120

Lithium clearly counteracts hyperthyroidism,21-112 but its place in relation to other treatments is uncertain due to its side effects and the risk of gradual accumulation of iodine in the gland. Lithium itself has occasionally

produced hyperthyroidism,3''-14' although hypothyroidism is more frequent as a side effect. The main action of lithium on the thyroid is inhibition of hormone release. When given in conjunction with radioactive iodine to patients with metabolizing thyroid cancer,' 14'2 lithium

prolongs the

presence

of radioactivity in the gland and

Lithium in Nonpsychiatric Disorders-Schou

hence increases the ratio of gland irradiation to body irradiation. Granulocytosis produced by lithium has been utilized in the treatment of granulocytopenic states, lAe61 including Felty's syndrome, aplastic anemia, acute leukemia, and granulocytopenia induced by cancer therapy. Clinical utility in long-term treatment is unclear. The effectiveness of lithium with migraine and cluster headache has been studied by a number of investigators in uncontrolled trials.'6'62- I 6 In general, the results have been encouraging but not conclusive. Lithium might be most promising with chronic cluster headache, but more systematic investigation is required. Because lithium-induced polyuria results, in part, from inhibition of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)-sensitive renal adenyl cyclase, it has been hypothesized that lithium might be an effective treatment for inappropriate secretion of ADH. Use of lithium for this indication has provided mixed results.'467' 2 Some investigators recommend lithium treatment for patients who cannot comply with fluid restriction. ' 7 Others feel that findings are not sufficiently conclusive to warrant the risk of using lithium in a condition characterized by fluid and electrolyte imbalance, particularly since safer treatments are available.I62 -7I0 The effectiveness of lithium has been evaluated in a number of other disorders. There are single case reports of beneficial lithium treatment of cyclical vomiting,"7' asthma,'7I'T4'and ulcerative colitis in patients with affective disorder.'76 There are also reports of lithium benefiting various types of pain and paresthesias.'6.'77 Two single case reports suggest that lithium is not a suitable treatment for periodic hypokalemic paralysis.' 78179 Among the other psychiatric uses of lithium, the treatment of alcoholism and aggressive behavior disorders are of particular interest to the practicing psychiatrist. Dr Schou has outlined some of the issues involved in interpreting the results of the alcohol studies. During the discussion that followed the reports presented by Dr Kline,," and Dr Merry,'"' it became apparent that only a minority of the lithium experts at the meeting would undertake therapeutic trials in individual alcoholic patients. The evidence for the therapeutic value of lithium in some aggressive behavior disorders is more convincing'82 and may represent a specific action of the drug. Because of the evidence that lithium can attenuate the

psychological "high" produced by some drugs ofabuse, its potential utility in the treatment of drug addiction has been considered; however, so far no controlled trials have been completed.',8"-ED. References 1. Sletten IW, Gershon S: The premenstrual syndrome: A discussion of its pathophysiology and treatment with lithium ion. Compr Psychiatry 7:197206, 1966. 2. Fries H: Experience with lithium carbonate treatment at a psychiatric department in the period 1964-1967. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 207:41-43, 1969. 3. Rosman C, cited in Giacobini E: The effect of lithium on the nerve cell. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 207:85-89, 1969. 4. Mattsson B, von Schoultz B: Lithium vid premenstruell spanning. Nord Psykiatr T 27:406-407, 1973. 5. Mattsson B, von Schoultz B: A comparison between lithium, placebo and a diuretic in premenstrual tension. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 255:75-84, 1974. 6. Singer H, Cheng R, Schou M: A controlled evaluation of lithium in the premenstrual tension syndrome. Br J Psychiatry 124:50-51, 1974. 7. Baastrup PC: Practical clinical viewpoints regarding treatment with lithium. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 207:12-16, 1969. 8. Forssman H, Walinder J: Lithium treatment on atypical indication. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 207:34-40, 1969.

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9. Putten T van, Sanders DG: Lithium in treatment failure. J Nerv Ment Dis 161:255-264, 1975. 10. Gottfries CG: The effects of lithium salts on various kinds of psychiatric disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 203:157-167, 1968. 11. Geisler A, Schou M: Lithium ved tvangsneuroser: En dobbelt-blind terapeutisk undersogelse. Nord Psykiatr T 23:493-495, 1970. 12. Geisler A, Schou M: Lithium treatment of obsessive-compulsive neurosis: A double-blind therapeutic trial with negative result. Foreign Psychiatry 2:90-94, 1973. 13. Hesso R, Thorell L-H: Litiumbehandling vid tvangsneuroser: En liten klinisk-terapeutisk pilotundersokning av dubbel-blind cross-over typ. Nord Psykiatr T 23:496-499, 1970. 14. Barcai A: Lithium in anorexia nervosa: A pilot report on two patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 55:97-101, 1977. 15. Reilly PP: Anorexia nervosa: Lithium administration has contributed to the management of anorexia nervosa. RI Med J 60:419-422, 455-456, 1977. 16. Young LD, Taylor I, Holmstrom V: Lithium treatment of patients with affective illness associated with organic brain symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 134:1405-1407, 1977. 17. Rosenbaum AH, Barry MJ: Positive therapeutic response to lithium in hypomania secondary to organic brain damage. Am J Psychiatry 132:10721073, 1975. 18. Mehta DB: Lithium and affective disorders associated with organic brain impairment. Am J Psychiatry 133:236, 1976. 19. Kemp K, Lion JR, Magram G: Lithium in the treatment of a manic patient with multiple sclerosis: A case report. Dis Nerv Syst 38:210-211, 1977. 20. Horowitz HA: The use of lithium in the treatment of the drug-induced psychotic reaction. Dis Nerv Syst 36:159-163, 1975. 21. Woert MH van, Ambani LM, Weintraub MI: Manic behaviour and levodopa. N Engl J Med 285:1326, 1971. 22. Ryback RS, Schwab RS: Manic response to levodopa therapy: Report of a case. N Engl J Med 825:788-789, 1971. 23. Braden W: Response to lithium in a case of L-dopa-induced psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 134:808-809, 1977. 24. Sheard MH: The effect of lithium on behavior. Comm Contemp Psychiatry 1:1-6, 1971. 25. Ward NG: Successful lithium treatment of transvestism associated with manic-depression. J Nerv Ment Dis 161:204-206,1975. 26. Ziegler-Driscoll G, Sobel BS: Lithium use in the treatment of affective disorders in an abstinent therapeutic community, in Seixas FA (ed): Currents in Alcoholism. New York, Grune & Stratton Inc, 1977, vol 2, pp 19-34. 27. Sinclair JD: Lithium-induced suppression of alcohol drinking by rats. Med Biol 52:133-136, 1974. 28. Sinclair JD: The effects of lithium on voluntary alcohol consumption by rats. Finnish Fouind for Alcohol Studies 24:119-142, 1975. 29. Ho AKS, Kissin B: Drug induced alterations on alcohol preference and withdrawal, in Ford DH, Clouet CH (eds): Tissue Responses to Addictive Drugs. New York, Spectrum, 1976, pp 447-459. 30. Ho AKS, Tsai C-S: Effects of lithium on alcohol preference and withdrawal. Ann NY Acad Sci 273:371-377, 1976. 31. Truitt EB, Vaughen CM: Effects of lithium on chronic ethanol consumption and behavior. Fed Proc 35:814, 1976. 32. McCaughran JA, Corcoran ME: Lithium reduces preference for ethanol induced by hypothalamic stimulation. J Pharm Pharmacol 29:120122, 1977. 33. Zakusov VV, Lyubimov BI, Yavorskii AN, et al: Effect of lithium chloride on ethanol consumption by rats. Bull Exp Biol Med 83:823-826, 1977. 34. Kline NS, Wren JC, Cooper TB, et al: Evaluation of lithium therapy in chronic and periodic alcoholism. Am J Med Sci 268:15-22, 1974. 35. Wren JC, Kline NS, Cooper TB, et al: Evaluation of lithium therapy in chronic alcoholism. Clin Med 81:33-36, 1974. 36. Kline NS, Cooper TB: Evaluation of lithium therapy in alcoholism. Finnish Found for Aleohol Studies 24:143-153, 1975. 37. Merry J, Reynolds CM, Bailey J, et al: Prophylactic treatment of alcoholism by lithium carbonate: A controlled study. Lancet 2:481-482, 1976. 38. Reynolds CM, Merry J, Coppen A: Prophylactic treatment of alcohol-

ism by lithium carbonate: An initial report. Alcoholism: Clin Exp Res 1:109-111, 1977. 39. Reynolds CM, Merry J, Bailey J, et al: A double-blind trial of lithium carbonate in alcoholism, in Johnson FN, Johnson S (eds): Lithium in Medical Practice. Baltimore, University Park Press, 1978, pp 53-60. 40. Young LD, Keeler MH: Sobering data on lithium in alcoholism. Lancet 1:144, 1977. 41. Bolotova ZM, Plotnikov AG, Baru AM: The use of lithium in the treatment of alcoholic patients. Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr 77:1235-1237, 1977. 42. Ivaneths NM, Rudenko GM, Igonin AT, et al: The use of lithium salts in the treatment of chronic alcoholism. Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr 77:12371241, 1977.

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43. Revusky S, Gorry T: Flavor aversions produced by contingent drug injection: relative effectiveness of apomorphine, emetine, and lithium. Behav Res Ther 11:403-409, 1973. 44. Revusky S: Some laboratory paradigms for chemical aversion treatment of alcoholism. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 4:15-17, 1973. 45. Revusky S, Taukulis H: Effects of alcohol and lithium habituation on the development of alcohol aversions through contingent lithium injection. Behav Res Ther 13:163-166, 1975. 46. Revusky S, Parker LA, Coombes J, et al: Rat data which suggest alcoholic beverages should be swallowed during chemical aversion therapy, not just tasted. Behav Res Ther 14:189-194, 1976. 47. Sellers EM, Cooper SD, MacLeod SM, et al: Lithium and propranolol treatment of alcoholic withdrawal. Int J Clin Pharmacol 10:155, 1974. 48. Sellers EM, Cooper SD, Sen AK, et al: Lithium treatment of alcoholic withdrawal. Clin Pharmacol Ther 15:218-219, 1974. 49. Sellers EM, Cooper SD, Zilm DH, et al: Lithium treatment during alcohol withdrawal. Clin Pharmacol Ther 20:199-206, 1976. 50. Sheard MH: Lithium in the treatment of aggression. J Nerv Ment Dis 160:108-118, 1975. 51. Sheard MH: Animal models of aggressive behavior, in Hanin I, Usdin E (eds): Animal Models in Psychiatry and Neurology. Oxford, England, Pergamon Press, 1977, pp 247-257. 52. Tupin JP, Smith DB, Clanon TL, et al: The long-term use of lithium in aggressive prisoners. Compr Psychiatry 14:311-317, 1973. 53. Morrison SD, Erwin CW, Gianturco DT, et al: The effect of lithium on combative behavior in humans. Dis Nerv Syst 34:186-189, 1973. 54. Miller DH: Affective disorders in adolescents: Mood disorder and a differential diagnosis of violent behavior, in Ayd FJ (ed): Mood Disorders: The World's Major Public Health Problem. Baltimore, Ayd Medical Communications Inc, 1978, pp 67-85. 55. Martorano JT: Target symptoms in lithium carbonate therapy. Compr Psychiatry 13:533-537, 1972. 56. Sheard MH: Effect of lithium on foot shock aggression in rats. Nature 228:284-285, 1970. 57. Sheard MH: Effect of lithium on human aggression. Nature 230:113114, 1971. 58. Sheard MH: Aggressive behavior: Modification by amphetamine, p-chlorophenylalanine and lithium in rats. Agressologie 14:327-330, 1973. 59. Sheard MH: Hypothalamically elicited attack behavior in cats: Effects of raphe stimulation. J Psychiatr Res 10:151, 1974. 60. Sheard MH, Marini JL, Bridges CI, et al: The effect of lithium on impulsive aggressive behavior in man. Am J Psychiatry 133:1409-1413, 1976. 61. Marini JL, Sheard MH: Antiaggressive effect of lithium ion in man. Acta Psychiatr Scand 55:269-286, 1977. 62. Sheard MH: The effect of lithium and other ions on aggressive

behavior. Mod Probl Pharmacopsychiatry 13:52-67,1977. 63. Sheard MH, Marini JL: Treatment of human aggressive behavior: Four case studies of the effect of lithium. Compr Psychiatry 19:37-45,

1978. 64. Kerr WC: Lithium salts in the management of a child batterer. Med J Aust 2:414-415, 1976. 65. Panter BM: Lithium in the treatment of a child abuser. Am J Psychiatry 134:1436-1437, 1977. 66. Liebowitz JH, Rudy V, Gershon ES, et al: A pharmacogenetic case report: Lithium-responsive postpsychotic antisocial behavior. Compr Psychiatry 17:655-660, 1976. 67. Putten T van, Alban J: Lithium carbonate in personality disorders: A case of hysteria. J Nerv .Ment Dis 164:218-222, 1977. 68. Shader RI, Jackson AH, Dodes LM: The antiaggressive effects of lithium in man. Psychopharmacologia 40:17-24, 1974. 69. Altschuler KZ, Abdullah S, Rainer JD: Lithium and aggressive behavior in patients with early total deafness. Dis Nerv Syst 38:521-524, 1977. 70. Naylor GJ, Donald JM, le Poidevin D, et al: A double-blind trial of long-term lithium therapy in mental defectives. Br J Psychiatry 124:52-57, 1974. 71. Heaton-Ward A: Psychosis in mental handicap. Br J Psychiatry 130:525-533, 1977. 72. Tupin J: Lithium use in nonmanic depressive conditions. Compr Psychiatry 13:209-214, 1972. 73. Cooper AF, Fowlie HC: Control of gross self-mutilation with lithium carbonate. Br J Psychiatry 122:370-371, 1973. 74. Lion JR, Hill J, Madden DJ: Lithium carbonate and aggression: A case report. Dis Nerv Syst 36:97-98, 1975. 75. Goetzl U, Gruenberg F, Berkowit B: Lithium carbonate in management of hyperactive aggressive behavior of mentally retarded. Compr Psychiatry 18:599-606, 1977. 76. Worrall EP, Moody JP, Naylor GJ: Lithium in non-manic-depressives: Antiaggressive effect and red blood cell lithium values, in Klein DF, Gittelman-Klein R (eds): Progress in Psychiatric Drug Treatment, New York, Brunner/Mazel Inc, 1976, vol 2, pp 196-203. 77. Dostal T, Zvolsky P: Antiaggressive effect of lithium salts in severe mentally retarded adolescents. Int Pharmacopsychiatry 5:203-207, 1970.

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78. Dostal T: Antiaggressive effect of lithium salts in mentally retarded adolescents, in Annell A-L (ed): Depressive States in Childhood and Adolescence. Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell, 1972, pp 491-498. 79. Baekeland F: Evaluation of treatment methods in chronic alcoholism, in Kissin B, Begleiter H (eds): The Biology of Alcoholism. New York, Plenum Press Inc, 1977, vol 5, pp 385-440. 80. Dalen P: Lithium therapy in Huntington's chorea and tardive dyskinesia. Lancet 1:107-108, 1973. 81. Manyam NVB, Bravo-Fernandez E: Lithium carbonate in Huntington's chorea. Lancet 1:1010, 1973. 82. Mattson B: Huntington's chorea and lithium therapy. Lancet 1:718719, 1973. 83. Mattsson B, Persson S-A: Huntington's chorea, lithium, and G.A.B.A. Lancet 2:684, 1973. 84. Schenk G, Leijnse-Ybema HJ: Huntington's chorea and levodopa. Lancet 1:364, 1974. 85. Rorbaek-Jacobsen I: En klinisk vurdering af lithium-behandling ved Chorea Huntington. Nord Psykiatr T 29:109-113, 1975.

86. Vestergaard P: Lithiumbehandling af Chorea Huntington. Nord Psykiatr T 29:41-46, 1975. 87. Foerster K, Regli F: Therapieversuche mit Lithium bei extrapyramidal-motorischen Storungen. Nervenarzt 48:228-232, 1977. 88. Tridon P, Arnould G, Barroche M: Interet des sels de lithium dans le traitement des chorees chroniques. Nouv Presse Med 6:2523-2524, 1977. 89. Aminoff MJ, Marshall J: Treatment of Huntingeon's chorea with lithium carbonate: A double-blind trial. Lancet 1:107-109, 1974. 90. Carman JS, Shoulson I, Chase TN: Huntington's chorea treated with lithium carbonate. Lancet 1:811, 1974. 91. Leonard DP, Kidson MA, Shannon PJ, et al: Double-blind trial of lithium carbonate and haloperidol in Huntington's chorea. Lancet 2:12081209, 1974. 92. Leonard DP, Kidson MA, Brown JGE, et al: A double-blind trial of lithium carbonate and haloperidol in Huntington's chorea. Aust NZ J

Psychiatry 9:115-118, 1975. 93. Vestergaard P, Baastrup PC, Petersson H: Lithium treatment of Huntington's chorea. A placebo-controlled clinical trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand 56:183-188, 1977. 94. Anden N-E, Dalen P, Johansson B: Baclofen and lithium in Huntington's chorea. Lancet 2:93, 1973. 95. Klawans HL, Hitri A, Nausieda PA, et al: Animal models of dyskinesia, in Hanin I, Usdin E (eds): Animal Models in Psychiatry and Neurology. Oxford, England, Pergamon Press, 1977, pp 351-363. 96. Klawans HL, Weiner WJ, Nausieda PA: The effect of lithium on an animal model of tardive dyskinesia. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol 1:53-60, 1977.

Simpson GM: Tardive dyskinesia. Br J Psychiatry 122:618, 1973. 98. Reda FA, Escobar JI, Scanlan JM: Lithium carbonate in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 132:560-562, 1975. 99. Prange AJ, Wilson IC, Morris CE, et al: Preliminary experience with tryptophan and lithium in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacol Bull 9:36-37, 1973. 100. Gerlach J, Thorsen K, Munkvad I: Effect of lithium on neurolepticinduced tardive dyskinesia compared with placebo in a double-blind crossover trial. Pharmakopsychiatry 8:51-56, 1975. 101. Simpson GM, Branchey MH, Lee JH, et al: Lithium in tardive 97.

dyskinesia. Pharmakopsychiatry 9:76-80,1976. 102. Jus A, Villeneuve A, Gautier J, et al: Deanol, lithium and placebo in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. A double-blind crossover study. Neuropsychobiology 4:140-149, 1978. 103. Crews EL, Carpenter AE: Lithium-induced aggravation of tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 134:933-935, 1977. 104. Couper-Smartt J: Lithium in spasmodic torticollis. Lancet 2:741-742, 1973. 105. McCaul JA, Stern GM: Lithium and

haloperidol in movement

disorders. Lancet 1:1058, 1974. 106. Dal6n P, Steg G: Lithium and levodopa in parkinsonism. Lancet 1:936-937, 1973.

107. Woert MH Van, Ambani LM: Lithium and levodopa in parkinsonism. Lancet 2:1390-1391, 1973. 108. McCaul JA, Stern GM: Lithium in Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1:1117, 1974. 109. Messiha FS, Erickson HM, Goggin JE: Lithium carbonate in Gilles de la Tourette's disease. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 15:609-612, 1976. 110. Erickson HM, Goggin JE, Messiha FS: Comparison of lithium and haloperidol therapy in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Adv Exp Med Biol 90:197-205, 1977. 111. Shopsin B, Gershon S: Cogwheel rigidity related to lithium maintenance. Am J Psychiatry 132:536-538, 1975. 112. Branchey MH, Charles J, Simpson GM: Extrapyramidal side effects in lithium maintenance therapy. Am J Psychiatry 133:444-445, 1976. 113. Bien RD: Cogwheel rigidity early in lithium therapy. Am J Psychiatry 133:1093-1094, 1976. 114. Johnels B, Wallin L, Walinder J: Extrapyramidal side effects of

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Nonpsychiatric Disorders-Schou

lithium treatment. Br Med J 3:642, 1976. 115. Thomsen J, Bech P, Geisler A, et al: Meniere's disease: Preliminary report of lithium treatment. Acta Otolaryngol 78:59-64, 1974. 116. Lutz EG: Lithium carbonate for Meniere's disease. J Med Soc NJ 71:502, 1974. 117. Thomsen J, Bech P, Geisler A, et al: Lithium treatment of Meniere's disease. Acta Otolaryngol 82:294-296, 1976. 118. Jeffries JJ, Lefebvre A: Depression and mania associated with Kleine-Levin-Critchley syndrome. Can Psychiatr Assoc J 18:439-444, 1973. 119. Ogura C, Okuma T, Nakazawa K, et al: Treatment of periodic somnolence with lithium carbonate. Arch Neurol 33:143, 1976. 120. Abe K: Lithium prophylaxis of periodic hypersomnia. Br J Psychiatry 130:312-316, 1977. 121. Spaulding SW, Burrow GN, Bermudez F, et al: The inhibitory effect of lithium on thyroid hormone release in both euthyroid and thyrotoxic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 35:905-911, 1972. 122. Temple R, Berman M, Robbins J, et al: The use of lithium in the treatment of thyrotoxicosis. J Clin Invest 51:2746-2756, 1972. 123. Gerdes H, Littmann K-P, Joseph K, et al: Die Behandlung der Thyrotoxikose mit Lithium: Klinische Erfabrungen und Ergebnisse mit einem neuen therapeutischen Prinzip. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 98:1551-1554, 1973. 124. Lazarus JH, Richards AR, Addison GM, et al: Treatment of thyrotoxicosis with lithium carbonate. Lancet 2:1160-1163, 1974. 125. Bell RL: Lithium and the thyroid gland. J Tenn Med Assoc 69:31-33, 1976. 126. Kristensen 0, Andersen AH, Pallisgaard G: Lithium carbonate in the treatment of thyrotoxicosis: A controlled trial. Lancet 1:603-605, 1976. 127. Turner JG, Brownlie BEW, Sadler WA, et al: An evaluation of lithium as an adjunct to carbimazole treatment in acute thyrotoxicosis. Acta Endocrinol 83:86-92, 1976. 128. Turner JG, Brownlie BEW, Rogers TGH: Lithium as an adjunct to radioiodine therapy for thyrotoxicosis. Lancet 1:614-615, 1976. 129. Turner JG, Brownlie BEW: Lithium and thyrotoxicosis. Lancet 2:904, 1976.

130. Eulry F, Orgiazzi J, Mornex R: Les sels de lithium ont-ils leur place dans le traitement des hyperthyroides graves? Nouv Presse Med 6:2955-2958, 1977. 131. Hermann J, Rudorff KH, Gockenjan G, et al: Charcoal haemoperfusion in thyroid storm. Lancet 1:248, 1977. 132. Schlienger J-L, Laharpe F de, Reville P, et al: Place du lithium dans le traitement des hyperthyroides graves. Nouv Presse Med 7:206-207, 1978.

133. Bafaqeeh HH, Myers DH: Lithium and thyrotoxicosis. Lancet 1:1409, 1976. 134. Brownlie BEW, Chambers ST, Sadler WA, et al: Lithium-associated thyroid disease: A report of 14 cases of hypothyroidism and 4 cases of thyrotoxicosis. Aust NZ J Med 6:223-229, 1976. 135. Cubitt T: Lithium and thyrotoxicosis. Lancet 1:1247-1248, 1976. 136. Rosser R: Thyrotoxicosis and lithium. Br J Psychiatry 128:61-66,

1976. 137. Chaudhri MA, Bebbington PE: Lithium therapy and ophthalmic Graves' disease. Br J Psychiatry 130:420, 1977. 138. MacGregor GA: Hyperthyroidism and a parathyroid adenoma complicating lithium treatment. Lancet 2:1129-1130, 1977. 139. Merry J: Lithium and thyrotoxicosis. Br Med J 2:765, 1977. 140. Sterin D, Krivitzky A, Levy-Klotz B, et al: Survenue d'une thyrotoxicose chez un homme trait6 par carbonate de lithium. Nouv Presse Mid 7:2171, 1978. 141. Briere J, Pousset G, Darsy P, et al: Interet de l'association lithium-

iodide 131 dans le traitement des metastases captantes du cancer thyrolidien.

Ann Endocrinol 35:281-282, 1974. 142. Gershengorn MC, Izumi M, Robbins J: Use of lithium as an adjunct to radioiodine therapy of thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab

42:105-11, 1976.

143. Rampon S, Bussiere J-L, Sauvezie B, et al: Traitement du syndrome de Felty par le lithium. Nouv Presse Med 5:1756-1757, 1976. 144. Pointud P, Clerc D, Allard C, et al: Essai de traitement du syndrome de Felty par le lithium. Sem Hop Paris 52:1719-1720, 1976. 145. Alcalay M, Pechmajou C, le Gall G, et al: Traitement du syndrome de Felty par le carbonate du lithium: A propos de 4 cas. Sem. H6p Pa ris 53:165-168, 1977. 146. Kurnick JE, Gupta RC, Robinson WA: The effect of lithium carbonate on granulopoiesis in Felty's syndrome. Clin Res A 23:486, 1975. 147. Gupta RC, Robinson WA, Smyth CJ: Efficacy of lithium in rheumatoid arthritis with granulocytopenia (Felty's syndrome). Arthritis Rheum 18:179-184, 1975. 148. Gupta RC, Robinson WA, Kurnick JE: Felty's syndrome. Effect of lithium on granulopoiesis. Am J Med 61:29-32,1976. 149. Kaplan RA: Lithium in Felty's syndrome. Ann Intern Med 84:342, 1976. 150. Schapira DV, Gordon PA, Herbert FA: Reduction of infections in Felty's syndrome through use of lithium. Arthritis Rheum 20:1556-1558, 1977.

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151. Barrett AJ, Longhurst PA, Newton KA, et al: Treatment of a patient with aplastic anemia with lithium carbonate. Exp Hematol 4(suppl):42, 1976. 152. Barrett AJ: Lithium therapy in aplastic anaemia. Lancet 1:202, 1977. 153. Tiefenbach A, Konja J, Potkonjak-Sekso M, et al: Djelovanje litijeva karbonata (Li,C03) na leukopeniju kod dje0jih hemoblastoza izazvanu citostaticima. Lijec Vjesn 99:163-166, 1977. 154. Tisman G, Safire G, Wu G: Lithium carbonate protection against cancer chemotherapy induced leukopenia. Clin Res A 23:115, 1975.

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Lithium in Nonpsychiatric Disorders-Schou

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Lithium in the treatment of other psychiatric and nonpsychiatric disorders.

Lithium in the Treatment of Other Psychiatric and Nonpsychiatric Disorders Mogens Schou, MD addition to its well-studied use in affective disorders,...
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