This article was downloaded by: [Ryerson University] On: 03 December 2014, At: 04:58 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Ecology of Food and Nutrition Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gefn20
Length of Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese University Students Living in London, United Kingdom ab
ab
a
b
Sofia Vilela , Susana Santos , Patrícia Padrão & Martin Caraher a
Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal b
Center for Food Policy, City University London, London, United Kingdom Published online: 02 Jun 2014.
To cite this article: Sofia Vilela, Susana Santos, Patrícia Padrão & Martin Caraher (2014) Length of Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese University Students Living in London, United Kingdom, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 53:4, 419-435, DOI: 10.1080/03670244.2013.834818 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03670244.2013.834818
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions
Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 53:419–435, 2014 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0367-0244 print/1543-5237 online DOI: 10.1080/03670244.2013.834818
Length of Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese University Students Living in London, United Kingdom SOFIA VILELA and SUSANA SANTOS Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal, and Center for Food Policy, City University London, London, United Kingdom
PATRÍCIA PADRÃO Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
MARTIN CARAHER Center for Food Policy, City University London, London, United Kingdom
Several studies have pointed adverse effects of long term migration on eating habits. Research is needed to understand if this effect occurs also with a short length of migration, as is the case of international students. Our aim was to evaluate the effect of short and long term migration on eating habits of Portuguese university students. Participants were 46 English and 55 Portuguese students from universities in London, United Kingdom. The findings from this study highlight the difficulties that Portuguese students faced in maintaining a traditional Mediterranean diet after moving to a Northern European environment. KEYWORDS acculturation, eating habits, Mediterranean diet, migration, university students The Mediterranean diet, characterized by a food pattern high in monounsaturated fat, fibre and complex carbohydrates and a low consumption of saturated fat (Cruz 2000; Trichopoulou et al. 1995) has been associated with a great reduction in overall mortality and cardiovascular diseases, as well as with a great reduction in incidence and mortality from neoplastic and neurodegenerative diseases (Martinez-Gonzalez et al. 2011; Sofi et al. 2010; Address correspondence to Sofia Vilela, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences at University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal. E-mail: anaavilela@ gmail.com 419
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
420
S. Vilela et al.
Tyrovolas and Panagiotakos 2010). However, it may be possible that adherence to this pattern could be influenced by the impact of salt and salty food intake that are common in this pattern (e.g., bread, processed cereals, fish, etc.), as well as by the ways of foods’ preparation (Magriplis et al. 2011). As high salt intake is associated with a significant increased risk of stroke and total cardiovascular disease (Strazzullo et al. 2009), an interactive effect of adherence to the Mediterranean diet and salt intake on cardiovascular disease should not be neglected (Kastorini et al. 2012). Portugal appears to be a good example of Mediterranean food practices, since it is associated with a diet rich in fish, fruit, vegetables and olive oil (Nestle 1995). Nevertheless, it seems that Portugal has been decreasing its adherence to Mediterranean food patterns towards a more industrialized diet, relatively faster than other Mediterranean countries (Chen and Marques-Vidal 2007). On the other hand, a low consumption of fruit and vegetables below the recommendation was described among British population, being particularly low for young adults. Oily fish is also consumed below the recommendation by adults (SACN 2008). However the evidence shows a fall in the intake of fat and saturated fat, a decrease in the consumption of red meat, processed meat and meat-based dishes in last decade in British population (Henderson et al. 2006; Gregory et al. 1990). Migration has been studied as an important determinant of dietary changes. The process by which a minority group adopts the dietary practices of the host country is called dietary acculturation and can be multidimensional, dynamic and complex (Satia Abouta et al. 2002). Dietary acculturation might be detrimental for health when it is associated with changes, such as a less healthy diet (Lassetter and Callister 2009). Ayala and colleagues (2008) performed a systematic review evaluating the relationship between acculturation and diet among Latinos in the United States. The main results highlighted that a greater acculturation in the U.S. culture was associated with a higher intake of fast food, snacks and added fat and with a lower intake of fruit and vegetables. A study conducted among African-Caribbean in United Kingdom, reported an intake of percentage energy from total and saturated fat significantly higher in the second generation, compared to African-Caribbean born (Sharma et al. 1999). A study conducted among Korean-American, also reported a higher intake of percentage energy from total fat among the high acculturated group compared to the low acculturated group (Kim and Chan 2004). The majority of studies focused on the effects of long term migration and only a few had investigated the effect of a short term migration. Mobile populations, which include international students, can move from their country to another country or migrate within a country. International students constitute a specific group of talented people that move temporarily from their country to pursue higher education. They need to develop specific strategies, including food procurement and purchasing strategies, to handle with
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese Students in London
421
a short and a long term migration (Constantine et al. 2005). Food choices can also be influenced by living arrangements (Brunt and Rhee 2008), costs and economic limitations (Pan et al. 1999). Greek students at Glasgow Universities, who had lived in Glasgow for less than 1 year, reported a decrease of consumption of fruit, vegetables, fish and legumes and an increase of foods like biscuits, snacks and soft drinks (Papadaki and Scott 2002). A study of international students in England comprising Asian and European students, with a mean length of stay in United Kingdom of 9.7 months, reported small changes and perception of their own diet as being less healthy since they had arrived (Edwards, Hartwell, and Brown 2010). International students in Belgium representing 60 different countries, with a mean stay of 10.8 months, similarly reported dietary changes since their arrival in Belgium (Perez-Cueto et al. 2009). Satia Abouta and colleagues (2002) described that highly educated immigrants and those with similar cultural or physical characteristics comparing to the host country are more likely to acculturate with considerable facility, which might result in adopting some unhealthy practices. It has also been described that younger immigrants tend to change their food habits more quickly than older immigrants (Lee, Sobal, and Frongillo 1999). It is important to understand dietary changes made by international students with different length of migration. The use of a sample of students who share the same nationality, and hence a similar dietary pattern, allows to make comparison of effect of migration with different periods of time. Portuguese students in London are a good group to study these questions, as they came from a country characterized by a Mediterranean diet and are living in a more industrialised environment. The study’s aims are: (1) to investigate differences in eating habits before and after migration to London, United Kingdom among Portuguese students; and (2) to explore the differences in eating habits between English students and their Portuguese migrant counterparts.
METHODS Participants Portuguese and English students enrolled at universities in London, United Kingdom, were invited to participate in this study, through contact with Portuguese and London universities in London, United Kingdom. Using the software SPSS version 18.0, the researchers obtained a random sample of 12 universities from a list of 46 universities, colleges, and schools in London, representing a wide spectrum of study areas. Then, with the cooperation of Portuguese universities and the University of London Students’ Union, a sample of Portuguese and a sample of English students was recruited. Eligibility criteria were, for Portuguese students, to be a university student in
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
422
S. Vilela et al.
London and have been living in London for at least one month but no more than ten years. English students were required to be university students in London and had born in England, United Kingdom. All the Portuguese students enrolled in the universities chosen, who fulfilled the eligibility criteria and with a useful contact, were invited to participate through email. The students interested in participating in the study were invited to a face-to-face interview. Of Portuguese students, 55 were successfully interviewed from 75 students contacted. A similar number of English students as Portuguese students were recruited in each selected university through the Portuguese student’s contacts and Students union’s lists. Of English students, 46 were successfully interviewed. All participants gave informed consent prior to their participation in the study. Data were collected anonymously and stored in a non-identifiable format. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Porto, Portugal, and it was carried out between April and May, 2009. All interviews were conducted in the respective universities of the interviewees and had a mean length of one hour.
Data Collection A paper form questionnaire administered by trained interviewers was used to obtain data on socio-demographic characteristics, frequency of consumption of selected food items and food preparation and purchasing behaviours. Socio-demographic questions included age, sex, living arrangement in London (all students) and in Portugal (Portuguese students), field of study and any conditions that require a special diet.
DIETARY
ASSESSMENT
Dietary habits were assessed using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) adapted from a previously validated one used locally to assess the eating habits of Portuguese adults (Lopes 2000; Lopes et al. 2007). The questionnaire was modified from an 86-item semi-quantitative FFQ to a 68-item qualitative FFQ. Some food items were joined in the same item (e.g., beef, pork, mutton, and kid goat, representing the fatty meat group) and it was also added some typical English food, such as, porridge, fish fingers, flavored milk and tea with milk, based on the report by Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN 2008). In the present sample the internal consistency of the FFQ was acceptable, as indicated by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.622 (DeVellis 1991). Subjects were asked for the frequency of consumption of specific food items in the last year and the responses were on a nine-point scale, “never or less than once a month,” “1–3 per month,” “1 per week,” “2–4 per week,” “5–6 per week,” “1 per day,” “2–3 per day,” “4–5 per day” and “6+ per day”. The questionnaire included an open-ended section where
Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese Students in London
423
the subjects could report the consumption of any food item not included in the FFQ and whose frequency was at least once a week. The frequency of consumption of seasonal foods was also reported by the participants. All students were asked to report the frequency of consumption of selected food items in the last year living in London or since they were in London. Moreover, Portuguese students were asked to report the frequency of consumption in the last year living in Portugal.
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
FOOD
PREPARATION , PURCHASING BEHAVIORS AND FOOD AVAILABILITY
A set of question were used to assess a wide range of behaviors regarding the use of ready prepared meals/fast food, food preparation and purchasing. These questions were developed based on the work of Papadaki and Scott (2002), Larson and colleagues (2006), and Pettinger and colleagues (2006). In the present sample, the internal consistency of all of these questions was poor (Cronbach’s α = 0.493; DeVellis 1991). Participants were asked how often they perform some behavior, such as using ready prepared meals and eat fast food/take away, on a typical month in London (all students) and in Portugal (Portuguese students). Participants had to choice one of five frequency categories, ranging from “never” to “every day”. Portuguese participants were also asked about their opinion concerning the availability of food in London, compared to Portugal. The last question enquired about perception of cooking skills, resources and factors that influence the food preparation and purchasing behaviors. The degree of perceived adequacy was evaluated with the response options “adequate” and “inadequate”. Portuguese students had to answer regarding their situation in Portugal and in London. The internal consistency of all of this questions, in the present sample, was low (α = 0.390).
Statistical Analysis Analyses were performed using SPSS 18.0 software (SPSS INC. 2010, Chicago, IL). Daily and monthly frequencies were transformed into weekly frequencies. Based on work of Papadaki and Scott (2002), weekly consumption frequencies were calculated, “6+ per day” became 6 times per day; “4–5 times per day” became 4.5 times per day; “2–3 times per day” became 2.5 times per day, “1 per day” became 1 times per day, “5–6 per week” became 0.785714 times per day,” “2–4 per week” became 0.428571, “1 per week” became 0.142857 and “1–3 per month” became 0.066667. Daily grouped frequency values were multiplied by seven (days/week) and monthly grouped frequency values were divided by four (weeks/month) to calculate weekly frequencies. The frequency value “never or less than once
424
S. Vilela et al.
per month” was considered 0 times per week. The consumption frequency of seasonal foods (appointed by the participants) was also multiplied by seasonal variation factor (0.25). Mann-Whitney test and Wilcoxon matched-pair signed rank test were used to assess differences in eating habits between groups and before and after migration. Chi-square tests were applied in the case of categorical variables. Cronbach’s α coefficients were computed to measure the internal consistency of the scales. A level of p < .05 was considered statistically significant.
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
RESULTS In this study, there were 55 Portuguese students and 46 English students who were identified in London universities and had a complete questionnaire. The Portuguese students were divided into two groups, the “short term group” which includes the students living in London less than one year (inclusive) and the “long term group,” which includes those students living in London for more than one year. Table 1 summarizes participant characteristics. The majority of the students were female and no statistically gender differences were found between groups. The short term group and the English group were significantly younger than the long term group. Most of the students lived with family in Portugal and were living with friends in London. TABLE 1 Participant Characteristics Portuguese Short term (n=27) Gender (female), % Age (years), mean (SD) Length of migration (months), median (25th –75th percentile) Living (PT/UK), % With family With friends Alone Student residence
55.6 23.3 (3.2) 3.0 (2.0–8.0) 59.3/0.0 18.5/51.9 22.2/11.0 0.0/37.0
Long termł (n=28)
English Pvalue∗
Whole (n=46)
50.0 0.680 67.4 25.4 (4.0) 0.025 22.7 (3.0) 44.0
Ecology of Food and Nutrition Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gefn20
Length of Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese University Students Living in London, United Kingdom ab
ab
a
b
Sofia Vilela , Susana Santos , Patrícia Padrão & Martin Caraher a
Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal b
Center for Food Policy, City University London, London, United Kingdom Published online: 02 Jun 2014.
To cite this article: Sofia Vilela, Susana Santos, Patrícia Padrão & Martin Caraher (2014) Length of Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese University Students Living in London, United Kingdom, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 53:4, 419-435, DOI: 10.1080/03670244.2013.834818 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03670244.2013.834818
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions
Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 53:419–435, 2014 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0367-0244 print/1543-5237 online DOI: 10.1080/03670244.2013.834818
Length of Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese University Students Living in London, United Kingdom SOFIA VILELA and SUSANA SANTOS Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal, and Center for Food Policy, City University London, London, United Kingdom
PATRÍCIA PADRÃO Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
MARTIN CARAHER Center for Food Policy, City University London, London, United Kingdom
Several studies have pointed adverse effects of long term migration on eating habits. Research is needed to understand if this effect occurs also with a short length of migration, as is the case of international students. Our aim was to evaluate the effect of short and long term migration on eating habits of Portuguese university students. Participants were 46 English and 55 Portuguese students from universities in London, United Kingdom. The findings from this study highlight the difficulties that Portuguese students faced in maintaining a traditional Mediterranean diet after moving to a Northern European environment. KEYWORDS acculturation, eating habits, Mediterranean diet, migration, university students The Mediterranean diet, characterized by a food pattern high in monounsaturated fat, fibre and complex carbohydrates and a low consumption of saturated fat (Cruz 2000; Trichopoulou et al. 1995) has been associated with a great reduction in overall mortality and cardiovascular diseases, as well as with a great reduction in incidence and mortality from neoplastic and neurodegenerative diseases (Martinez-Gonzalez et al. 2011; Sofi et al. 2010; Address correspondence to Sofia Vilela, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences at University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal. E-mail: anaavilela@ gmail.com 419
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
420
S. Vilela et al.
Tyrovolas and Panagiotakos 2010). However, it may be possible that adherence to this pattern could be influenced by the impact of salt and salty food intake that are common in this pattern (e.g., bread, processed cereals, fish, etc.), as well as by the ways of foods’ preparation (Magriplis et al. 2011). As high salt intake is associated with a significant increased risk of stroke and total cardiovascular disease (Strazzullo et al. 2009), an interactive effect of adherence to the Mediterranean diet and salt intake on cardiovascular disease should not be neglected (Kastorini et al. 2012). Portugal appears to be a good example of Mediterranean food practices, since it is associated with a diet rich in fish, fruit, vegetables and olive oil (Nestle 1995). Nevertheless, it seems that Portugal has been decreasing its adherence to Mediterranean food patterns towards a more industrialized diet, relatively faster than other Mediterranean countries (Chen and Marques-Vidal 2007). On the other hand, a low consumption of fruit and vegetables below the recommendation was described among British population, being particularly low for young adults. Oily fish is also consumed below the recommendation by adults (SACN 2008). However the evidence shows a fall in the intake of fat and saturated fat, a decrease in the consumption of red meat, processed meat and meat-based dishes in last decade in British population (Henderson et al. 2006; Gregory et al. 1990). Migration has been studied as an important determinant of dietary changes. The process by which a minority group adopts the dietary practices of the host country is called dietary acculturation and can be multidimensional, dynamic and complex (Satia Abouta et al. 2002). Dietary acculturation might be detrimental for health when it is associated with changes, such as a less healthy diet (Lassetter and Callister 2009). Ayala and colleagues (2008) performed a systematic review evaluating the relationship between acculturation and diet among Latinos in the United States. The main results highlighted that a greater acculturation in the U.S. culture was associated with a higher intake of fast food, snacks and added fat and with a lower intake of fruit and vegetables. A study conducted among African-Caribbean in United Kingdom, reported an intake of percentage energy from total and saturated fat significantly higher in the second generation, compared to African-Caribbean born (Sharma et al. 1999). A study conducted among Korean-American, also reported a higher intake of percentage energy from total fat among the high acculturated group compared to the low acculturated group (Kim and Chan 2004). The majority of studies focused on the effects of long term migration and only a few had investigated the effect of a short term migration. Mobile populations, which include international students, can move from their country to another country or migrate within a country. International students constitute a specific group of talented people that move temporarily from their country to pursue higher education. They need to develop specific strategies, including food procurement and purchasing strategies, to handle with
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese Students in London
421
a short and a long term migration (Constantine et al. 2005). Food choices can also be influenced by living arrangements (Brunt and Rhee 2008), costs and economic limitations (Pan et al. 1999). Greek students at Glasgow Universities, who had lived in Glasgow for less than 1 year, reported a decrease of consumption of fruit, vegetables, fish and legumes and an increase of foods like biscuits, snacks and soft drinks (Papadaki and Scott 2002). A study of international students in England comprising Asian and European students, with a mean length of stay in United Kingdom of 9.7 months, reported small changes and perception of their own diet as being less healthy since they had arrived (Edwards, Hartwell, and Brown 2010). International students in Belgium representing 60 different countries, with a mean stay of 10.8 months, similarly reported dietary changes since their arrival in Belgium (Perez-Cueto et al. 2009). Satia Abouta and colleagues (2002) described that highly educated immigrants and those with similar cultural or physical characteristics comparing to the host country are more likely to acculturate with considerable facility, which might result in adopting some unhealthy practices. It has also been described that younger immigrants tend to change their food habits more quickly than older immigrants (Lee, Sobal, and Frongillo 1999). It is important to understand dietary changes made by international students with different length of migration. The use of a sample of students who share the same nationality, and hence a similar dietary pattern, allows to make comparison of effect of migration with different periods of time. Portuguese students in London are a good group to study these questions, as they came from a country characterized by a Mediterranean diet and are living in a more industrialised environment. The study’s aims are: (1) to investigate differences in eating habits before and after migration to London, United Kingdom among Portuguese students; and (2) to explore the differences in eating habits between English students and their Portuguese migrant counterparts.
METHODS Participants Portuguese and English students enrolled at universities in London, United Kingdom, were invited to participate in this study, through contact with Portuguese and London universities in London, United Kingdom. Using the software SPSS version 18.0, the researchers obtained a random sample of 12 universities from a list of 46 universities, colleges, and schools in London, representing a wide spectrum of study areas. Then, with the cooperation of Portuguese universities and the University of London Students’ Union, a sample of Portuguese and a sample of English students was recruited. Eligibility criteria were, for Portuguese students, to be a university student in
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
422
S. Vilela et al.
London and have been living in London for at least one month but no more than ten years. English students were required to be university students in London and had born in England, United Kingdom. All the Portuguese students enrolled in the universities chosen, who fulfilled the eligibility criteria and with a useful contact, were invited to participate through email. The students interested in participating in the study were invited to a face-to-face interview. Of Portuguese students, 55 were successfully interviewed from 75 students contacted. A similar number of English students as Portuguese students were recruited in each selected university through the Portuguese student’s contacts and Students union’s lists. Of English students, 46 were successfully interviewed. All participants gave informed consent prior to their participation in the study. Data were collected anonymously and stored in a non-identifiable format. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Porto, Portugal, and it was carried out between April and May, 2009. All interviews were conducted in the respective universities of the interviewees and had a mean length of one hour.
Data Collection A paper form questionnaire administered by trained interviewers was used to obtain data on socio-demographic characteristics, frequency of consumption of selected food items and food preparation and purchasing behaviours. Socio-demographic questions included age, sex, living arrangement in London (all students) and in Portugal (Portuguese students), field of study and any conditions that require a special diet.
DIETARY
ASSESSMENT
Dietary habits were assessed using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) adapted from a previously validated one used locally to assess the eating habits of Portuguese adults (Lopes 2000; Lopes et al. 2007). The questionnaire was modified from an 86-item semi-quantitative FFQ to a 68-item qualitative FFQ. Some food items were joined in the same item (e.g., beef, pork, mutton, and kid goat, representing the fatty meat group) and it was also added some typical English food, such as, porridge, fish fingers, flavored milk and tea with milk, based on the report by Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN 2008). In the present sample the internal consistency of the FFQ was acceptable, as indicated by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.622 (DeVellis 1991). Subjects were asked for the frequency of consumption of specific food items in the last year and the responses were on a nine-point scale, “never or less than once a month,” “1–3 per month,” “1 per week,” “2–4 per week,” “5–6 per week,” “1 per day,” “2–3 per day,” “4–5 per day” and “6+ per day”. The questionnaire included an open-ended section where
Migration and Eating Habits of Portuguese Students in London
423
the subjects could report the consumption of any food item not included in the FFQ and whose frequency was at least once a week. The frequency of consumption of seasonal foods was also reported by the participants. All students were asked to report the frequency of consumption of selected food items in the last year living in London or since they were in London. Moreover, Portuguese students were asked to report the frequency of consumption in the last year living in Portugal.
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
FOOD
PREPARATION , PURCHASING BEHAVIORS AND FOOD AVAILABILITY
A set of question were used to assess a wide range of behaviors regarding the use of ready prepared meals/fast food, food preparation and purchasing. These questions were developed based on the work of Papadaki and Scott (2002), Larson and colleagues (2006), and Pettinger and colleagues (2006). In the present sample, the internal consistency of all of these questions was poor (Cronbach’s α = 0.493; DeVellis 1991). Participants were asked how often they perform some behavior, such as using ready prepared meals and eat fast food/take away, on a typical month in London (all students) and in Portugal (Portuguese students). Participants had to choice one of five frequency categories, ranging from “never” to “every day”. Portuguese participants were also asked about their opinion concerning the availability of food in London, compared to Portugal. The last question enquired about perception of cooking skills, resources and factors that influence the food preparation and purchasing behaviors. The degree of perceived adequacy was evaluated with the response options “adequate” and “inadequate”. Portuguese students had to answer regarding their situation in Portugal and in London. The internal consistency of all of this questions, in the present sample, was low (α = 0.390).
Statistical Analysis Analyses were performed using SPSS 18.0 software (SPSS INC. 2010, Chicago, IL). Daily and monthly frequencies were transformed into weekly frequencies. Based on work of Papadaki and Scott (2002), weekly consumption frequencies were calculated, “6+ per day” became 6 times per day; “4–5 times per day” became 4.5 times per day; “2–3 times per day” became 2.5 times per day, “1 per day” became 1 times per day, “5–6 per week” became 0.785714 times per day,” “2–4 per week” became 0.428571, “1 per week” became 0.142857 and “1–3 per month” became 0.066667. Daily grouped frequency values were multiplied by seven (days/week) and monthly grouped frequency values were divided by four (weeks/month) to calculate weekly frequencies. The frequency value “never or less than once
424
S. Vilela et al.
per month” was considered 0 times per week. The consumption frequency of seasonal foods (appointed by the participants) was also multiplied by seasonal variation factor (0.25). Mann-Whitney test and Wilcoxon matched-pair signed rank test were used to assess differences in eating habits between groups and before and after migration. Chi-square tests were applied in the case of categorical variables. Cronbach’s α coefficients were computed to measure the internal consistency of the scales. A level of p < .05 was considered statistically significant.
Downloaded by [Ryerson University] at 04:58 03 December 2014
RESULTS In this study, there were 55 Portuguese students and 46 English students who were identified in London universities and had a complete questionnaire. The Portuguese students were divided into two groups, the “short term group” which includes the students living in London less than one year (inclusive) and the “long term group,” which includes those students living in London for more than one year. Table 1 summarizes participant characteristics. The majority of the students were female and no statistically gender differences were found between groups. The short term group and the English group were significantly younger than the long term group. Most of the students lived with family in Portugal and were living with friends in London. TABLE 1 Participant Characteristics Portuguese Short term (n=27) Gender (female), % Age (years), mean (SD) Length of migration (months), median (25th –75th percentile) Living (PT/UK), % With family With friends Alone Student residence
55.6 23.3 (3.2) 3.0 (2.0–8.0) 59.3/0.0 18.5/51.9 22.2/11.0 0.0/37.0
Long termł (n=28)
English Pvalue∗
Whole (n=46)
50.0 0.680 67.4 25.4 (4.0) 0.025 22.7 (3.0) 44.0
![[Eating habits and attitudes towards change in Spanish university students and workers].](/assets/img/hold.png)
