J.
12 September
Med. Entomol. Vol. 16, no. 1: 76-79 ©
1979 by
1979
the Bishup Museum
.;
ISOLATION OF VIRUSES FROM FIELD POPULATIONS OF CULICOIDES (DIPTERA: CERATOPOGONIDAE) IN NIGERIA I By V. H. Lee2 tured almost exclusively by means of a modified Toshiba Circline light trap. The fluorescent tube was replaced by three 15-W incandescent lamps, and the collecting bag was made of nylon organdy fine enough to retain the smallest insects. The trap was located under the roof of a shed in which calves of the University dairy herd were housed and was usually operated throughout the night. At the end of the collection period, the captured insects were taken alive to the laboratory and released into a cage. Living gnats were then aspirated from the cage into a flask by the use of a mechanical pump. In this way the majority of Culicoides Until about the beginning of the last decade, the was concentrated relatively free of other small insects captured by the trap. known importance of flies of the genus Culicoides The immobilized specimens were refrigerated as vectors of animal-infecting viruses was essenwhenever actual sorting was not being done, in tially limited to their role in the transmission of order to prevent drying of the gnats or possible bluetongue and African horse sickness. Subsequently, workers in California (Reeves et al. 1970), inactivation of any virus in dead specimens by adDuring sorting, specimens Australia (Doherty et al. 1972), and South Africa verse temperature. were placed on filter paper in a petri dish resting (SAl MR 1971) isolated other viruses from these on a frozen container; this kept the specimens cool gnats, and the vectorial capacity of Culicoides came and, meanwhile, condensation on the petri dish under renewed scrutiny. kept the filter paper moist. In Nigeria, from November 1967 through DeThe gnats were processed for viral assay by stancember 1970, the Virus Research Laboratory of dard techniques, which involved intracerebral inthe University of Ibadan isolated 16 different viral oculation of infant mice. When possible, processentities from Culicoides in the course of viral suring was carried out on the day of capture; veillance at the University farm. The presence of otherwise, specimens were grouped and stored at a number of these agents had 'not been suspected from studies (clinical and serological) carried out -60°C as quickly as possible for later processing. In standard-size groups of 100 gnats, 0.5 ml of on the farm animals. diluent was used to keep the dilution factor to a The techniques used in collecting and processminimum. The earliest work, however, did involve ing Culicoides for viral assay and the results oblarger groups of up to 250 specimens per pool, tained are the subject of this paper. triturated in 1.0 ml of diluent. When the procedure had been standardized and it became apparMATERIALS AND METHODS ent that viruses were being isolated, species or The study area has been described elsewhere species-groups were pooled as unfed or blood-fed (Lee et al. 1974). Culicoides specimens were cap- speCImens. In cases of very large collections, time did not permit sorting of all the gnats by species or species'The substance of this paper was read at the XIV International Congress of Entomology, Canberra, Australia, August group, and only a portion of the collection was 1972. thus sorted to arrive at the species composition of 2Formerly, Rockefeller Foundation staff merr,ber, assigned the particular trap-night. The remaining specito the Virus Research Laboratory, University of Ibadan, Nimens were processed as mixed species, with bloodgeria. Present address: NAMRU-2, Jakarta Detachment, APO San Francisco 96356, USA. fed individuals pooled separately.
Downloaded from http://jme.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on June 10, 2016
Abstract. From November 1967 through December 1970, nearly 270,000 specimens of Culicoides were processed for viral assay at the Virus Research Laboratory, Ibadan, Nigeria. Seventy isolates of 16 different viruses were obtained. Thirteen of the viruses belong to recognized serogroups: Simbu group (Sabo, Sango, Sathuperi, Shamonda, Shuni), Palyam group (Abadina), rabies group (kotonkan), bluetongue group (bluetongue, 3 agents related to the virus of epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer), Ganjam group (Dugbe), and Congo group (Congo). The other 3 are ungrouped: Rift Valley fever and 2 agents still under study. Some of these viruses were previously associated only with mosquitoes and ticks. In addition, several of them that cause economically important diseases had never before been detected in southern Nigeria. The techniques used and the value of sampling Culicoides populations for monitoring the presence of viral agents are discussed.
Lee: Virus isolation from Culicoides in Nigeria
1979
77
TABLE 1. Viruses isolated from Culicodes spp., lbadan, Nigeria, 1967-1970. SEROGROUP
VIRUS
Palyam
Abadina
Bluetongue
Bluetongue EHD-related: IbAr 22619 IbAr 23853 IbAr 49630
No. ISOLATES 45 5**
Culicoides SOURCE*
OTHER NIGERIANHOSTS
C. schultzei (V); spp. (F, V)
Aedes Jow/eri (I isolate)
Spp. (I F, 4V)
Crocidura
Spp. (F, U) Spp. (F, U) C. schu/tzei (V)
None known None known None known
Spp. (F, U)
(I isolate)
Rabies
Kotonkan
Simbu
Sabo Sango Sathuperi Shamonda Shuni
2 I 2 2
C. pallidiPennis Spp. (F, V) Spp. (F) C. pallidipennis Spp. (V)
Ganjam
Dugbe
3
Spp. (2F, 1U)
Cattle, man, Cricetomys, ticks, Aedes aegypti
Congo
Congo
Spp. (F, V)
Cattle, goat, Atelerix, ticks
Vngrouped
RVF IbAr 39621 IbAr 39626
I
* Spp. = mixed pool of known species; F = ** Representing 3 types of bluetongue virus.
(V); spp. (V)
Spp. (IF, IV) Spp. (V) Spp. (V) blood-fed; U
Viral isolates were identified in complement-fixation tests using a battery of reference immune mouse ascitic fluids (IMAF). Viruses that could not be identified with available IMAF's or antisera were presumed new and sent to the Yale Arbovirus Research Unit for confirmation of findings. The bluetongue virus strains were sent to the World Bluetongue Reference Center at Onderstepoort, South Africa, for typing. Antisera to Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus were obtained from the Veterinary Research Institute, Onderstepoort, and the East African Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda.
=
Cattle, goats Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle, sheep, man
Culex antemuztus
(I isolate)
Birds Birds
unfed.
virus (Lee et al. ]974), 5 members of the Simbu serogroup (Causey et al. ]972), Dugbe virus (Causey et al. 1971), Congo virus (Causey et al. 1970), and RVF virus (Lee & Moore, in prep.). Only 4 isolates came from pools of single Culicoides species: 1 each of Abadina and EHD-related IbAr 49630 from C. schultzei, and ] each of Sabo and Shamonda from C. pallidiPennis. All other recoveries were made from mixed pools containing as many as 14 species. TABLE2 lists the Culicoides species known from light trap collections at the University farm during the study period. DISCUSSION
RESULTS
The 269,580 Culicoides processed for viral assay during the 3-year period yielded 70 isolates of 16 different agents. TABLE ], which lists the 16 by serogroup, gives isolation details as well as information about other Nigerian hosts. Fifty-one of the isolates represented viruses previously unknown: Abadina (Lee et al. 1974), 3 agents related to epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer (EHD) virus (Lee et al. 1974), kotonkan (Kemp et al. ] 973), and 2 agents still under study, IbAr 3962] and IbAr 39626. The remaining 19 isolates were identified as 3 types of bluetongue
It is not suggested that the mere isolation of these viruses from Culicoides involves the gnats in an essential vector role in the virus-mammalian host cycle. For some of the viruses listed, however, there is evidence pointing in that direction, In the case of Abadina, the record of 45 recoveries from Culicoides and only ] from a mosquito certainly seems to indicate close involvement of the gnats in transmission, although other members of the Palyam group have been isolated from mosquitoes in India (Dandawate et al. 1969). With the EHDrelated and Simbu group viruses, the few but repeated isolations from Culicoides raise the distinct
Downloaded from http://jme.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on June 10, 2016
2 I I
None known (V); spp. (V)
J.
78
Med. Entomol.
TABLE:2. Culicoides spp. obtained in light-trap collections at University of Ibadan dairy unit, 1967-1970. C. africanus (= C. vitshumbiensis) C. austeni* C. dekeyseri C. distinctiPennis C. expectator C. fulvithorax C. I5rahamii C. krameri* C. moreli C. neavei C. pallidiPennis* (= C. imicola) C. quinquelineatus C. schultzei* C. similis
*
Most abundant
species.
ing human disease, the notable exceptions being Congo, Dugbe, and RVF viruses. Nevertheless, several of the Culicoides species listed in TABLE 2 do feed on man, and the potential for virus transmission to man thus does exist. In the Ibadan area, however, the predominant Culicoides species are believed to have preference for large animals. As already mentioned, there had been no previous evidence in the farm animal herds of infection caused by bluetongue, RVF, Abadina, kotonkan, or the EHD-related viruses, and none of these were isolated from routine, periodic blood samples taken from farm animals either before or during the present studies. The explanation of this situation may lie in 1 or more of the following factors. First, blood samples were not obtained frequently enough. Second, transient low-level viremias were not detectable by the procedures used. Third, in routine blood sampling only sera were commonly used for attempted virus isolation, and thus infective virus, which is sometimes bound up in certain cell fractions, went undetected. Culicoides and other arthropods retain imbibed cell fractions from which infection may be initiated. In time, Culicoides will certainly be found to play a major role in the natural cycle of more of the "animal-infecting" viruses. However, a great deal of biological, ecological, and experimental work remains to be done in this area. Acknowledgments. These studies were conducted under the auspices of the University of Ibadan with support from The Rockefeller Foundation. I wish to thank all members of the staff of the Virus Research Laboratory who assisted in this work. especially Dr Dorothy Moore who was responsible for most of the identification of viruses isolated, and Mr Z. O. Babarinde who helped with the handling and processing of arthropod specimens.
LITERATURE CITED Causey, O. R., G. E. Kemp,J. Casals, R. W. Williams & M. H. Madbouly. 1971. Dugbe virus, a new arbovirus from Nigeria. Niger.}. Sci. 5: 4] -43. Causey, O. R., G. E. Kemp, C. E. Causey & V. H. Lee. 1972. Isolations of Simbu-group viruses in Ibadan, Nigeria 196469, including the new types Sango, Shamonda, Sabo and Shuni. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 66: 357-62. Causey, O. R., G. E. Kemp, M. H. Madbouly & T. S. DavidWest. ] 970. Congo virus from domestic livestock, African hedgehog, and arthropods in Nigeria. Am.}. Trop. Med. Hyg. 19: 846-50. Dandawate, C. N., P. J. Rajagopalan, K. M. Pavri & T. H. Work. 1969. Virus isolations from mosquitoes collected in North Arcot District, Tamil Nadu State and Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, between November 1955 and October 1957. Indian}. Med. Res. 57: 1420-26. Doherty, R. L.,J. G. Carley, H. A. Standfast, A. L. Dyce & W. A. Snowdon. ]972. Virus strains isolated from arthropods
Downloaded from http://jme.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on June 10, 2016
possibility of a vector relationship; and the isolations of RVF virus suggest that this agent may be transmitted by Culicoides as well as mosquitoes. In the case of bluetongue virus, of course, Culicoides gnats are probably the only natural vectors. Congo and Dugbe, on the other hand, are considered to be tick-borne both in Nigeria and elsewhere. With the other viruses, the evidence is not sufficient to warrant any conclusions. These studies demonstrate the usefulness of processing Culicoides as a means of monitoring the activity of viruses whose occurrence presents hazards to the health of domestic and wild animals, as well as of man. Thus, RVF virus had not previously been isolated from an arthropod in Nigeria, or from Culicoides anywhere; the EHD-related agents were previously unknown from any source; and while bluetongue had been diagnosed clinically and serologically in Nigeria, the virus itself had never before been recovered there. Little is known about the economic importance of the other viruses in Nigeria. That domestic animal infections with some of these viruses had occurred was subsequently shown by serologic testing of various animals in the general area where Culicoides was collected. Moore & Kemp (1974) reported on serologic studies with bluetongue and EHD-related viruses; Causey et al. (1972) on serologic conversions to Simbu group agents; Fagbami et al. (1973) on a survey for RVF antibodies; and Kemp et al. (1973) and Tomori et al. (1975) on the results of testing University farm animals for antibodies to kotonkan vIrus. The majority of the agents recovered in these studies are not considered to be important in caus-
Vol. 16, no. I
Lee: Virus isolation from Culicoides in Nigeria
1979
during an epizootic of bovine ephemeral fever in Queensland. Aust. Vet. J. 48: 81-86. Fagbami, A. H., O. Tomori Be G. E. Kemp. 1973. A survey of Nigerian domestic and wild animals for serum neutralizing antibody to indigenous Rift Valley fever virus. Niger. Vet. J. 2: 45-48. Kemp, G. E., V. H. Lee, D. L. Moore, R. E. Shope, O. R. Causey Be F. A. Murphy. 1973. Kotonkan, a new rhabdovirus related to Mokola virus of the rabies serogroup. Am. j. EPidemiol. 98: 43-49. Lee, V. H., O. R. Causey Be D. L. Moore. 1974. Bluetongue and related viruses in Ibadan, Nigeria: Isolation and preliminary identification of viruses. Am. j. Vet. Res. 35: 1105-
79
Moore, D. L. Be G. E. Kemp. 1974. Bluetongue and related viruses in Ibadan, Nigeria: Serological studies of domesticated and wild animals. Am. J. Vet. Res. 35: 1115-20. Reeves, W. G., R. P. Scrivani, J. L. Hardy, D. R. Roberts Be R. L. Nelson. 1970. Buttonwillow virus, a new arbovirus isolated from mammals and Culicoides midges in Kern County, California. Am. j. Trop. Med. Hyg. 19: 544-51. SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg). ]971. p. 196. Annual Report, 1971. Tomori, 0., A. Fagbami Be A. Fabiyi. ]975. Serum antibodies to two rhabdoviruses (bovine ephemeral fever and kotonkan) in calves on the University of lbadan Agricultural Farm. Bull. Anim. Health Prod. Afr. 23: 39-41.
08.
WAU ECOLOGY INSTITUTE HANDBOOK NO.1 HANDBOOK
OF COMMON NEW GUINEA FROGS By
J.
I. Menzies
This is a semipopular introduction to the frogs of the island of New Guinea. Over 50 species are discussed in some detail and illustrated in color. The species treated are selected on the basis of being widespread or representing a particular group of related species. Under each species there is a discussion of body structure, color, habitat, call, eggs, life cycle, distribution and abundance, with any other special points of interest. In addition to this main treatment, there is a general discussion of frog
biology, special notes on the colors and their characteristics, a treatment of the fauna as to its composition and origin, a list of references, a guide to the identification of species, notes on preserving frogs, a glossary and a list of frogs recorded from New Guinea. The book is indexed and thel'e is a map plus some diagrams to assist in identification, and 12 color plates with 5 or 6 species per plate.
Forward by Sir Maori Kiki 75 pages of text plus 12 color plates Hardcover Price: US $4.50 Available from Bishop Museum Press, P.O. Box 19000-A, Honolulu, viii
+
Hawaii 96819, USA
Downloaded from http://jme.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on June 10, 2016
PUBLICATION ANNOUNCEMENT
12 September
Med. Entomol. Vol. 16, no. 1: 76-79 ©
1979 by
1979
the Bishup Museum
.;
ISOLATION OF VIRUSES FROM FIELD POPULATIONS OF CULICOIDES (DIPTERA: CERATOPOGONIDAE) IN NIGERIA I By V. H. Lee2 tured almost exclusively by means of a modified Toshiba Circline light trap. The fluorescent tube was replaced by three 15-W incandescent lamps, and the collecting bag was made of nylon organdy fine enough to retain the smallest insects. The trap was located under the roof of a shed in which calves of the University dairy herd were housed and was usually operated throughout the night. At the end of the collection period, the captured insects were taken alive to the laboratory and released into a cage. Living gnats were then aspirated from the cage into a flask by the use of a mechanical pump. In this way the majority of Culicoides Until about the beginning of the last decade, the was concentrated relatively free of other small insects captured by the trap. known importance of flies of the genus Culicoides The immobilized specimens were refrigerated as vectors of animal-infecting viruses was essenwhenever actual sorting was not being done, in tially limited to their role in the transmission of order to prevent drying of the gnats or possible bluetongue and African horse sickness. Subsequently, workers in California (Reeves et al. 1970), inactivation of any virus in dead specimens by adDuring sorting, specimens Australia (Doherty et al. 1972), and South Africa verse temperature. were placed on filter paper in a petri dish resting (SAl MR 1971) isolated other viruses from these on a frozen container; this kept the specimens cool gnats, and the vectorial capacity of Culicoides came and, meanwhile, condensation on the petri dish under renewed scrutiny. kept the filter paper moist. In Nigeria, from November 1967 through DeThe gnats were processed for viral assay by stancember 1970, the Virus Research Laboratory of dard techniques, which involved intracerebral inthe University of Ibadan isolated 16 different viral oculation of infant mice. When possible, processentities from Culicoides in the course of viral suring was carried out on the day of capture; veillance at the University farm. The presence of otherwise, specimens were grouped and stored at a number of these agents had 'not been suspected from studies (clinical and serological) carried out -60°C as quickly as possible for later processing. In standard-size groups of 100 gnats, 0.5 ml of on the farm animals. diluent was used to keep the dilution factor to a The techniques used in collecting and processminimum. The earliest work, however, did involve ing Culicoides for viral assay and the results oblarger groups of up to 250 specimens per pool, tained are the subject of this paper. triturated in 1.0 ml of diluent. When the procedure had been standardized and it became apparMATERIALS AND METHODS ent that viruses were being isolated, species or The study area has been described elsewhere species-groups were pooled as unfed or blood-fed (Lee et al. 1974). Culicoides specimens were cap- speCImens. In cases of very large collections, time did not permit sorting of all the gnats by species or species'The substance of this paper was read at the XIV International Congress of Entomology, Canberra, Australia, August group, and only a portion of the collection was 1972. thus sorted to arrive at the species composition of 2Formerly, Rockefeller Foundation staff merr,ber, assigned the particular trap-night. The remaining specito the Virus Research Laboratory, University of Ibadan, Nimens were processed as mixed species, with bloodgeria. Present address: NAMRU-2, Jakarta Detachment, APO San Francisco 96356, USA. fed individuals pooled separately.
Downloaded from http://jme.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on June 10, 2016
Abstract. From November 1967 through December 1970, nearly 270,000 specimens of Culicoides were processed for viral assay at the Virus Research Laboratory, Ibadan, Nigeria. Seventy isolates of 16 different viruses were obtained. Thirteen of the viruses belong to recognized serogroups: Simbu group (Sabo, Sango, Sathuperi, Shamonda, Shuni), Palyam group (Abadina), rabies group (kotonkan), bluetongue group (bluetongue, 3 agents related to the virus of epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer), Ganjam group (Dugbe), and Congo group (Congo). The other 3 are ungrouped: Rift Valley fever and 2 agents still under study. Some of these viruses were previously associated only with mosquitoes and ticks. In addition, several of them that cause economically important diseases had never before been detected in southern Nigeria. The techniques used and the value of sampling Culicoides populations for monitoring the presence of viral agents are discussed.
Lee: Virus isolation from Culicoides in Nigeria
1979
77
TABLE 1. Viruses isolated from Culicodes spp., lbadan, Nigeria, 1967-1970. SEROGROUP
VIRUS
Palyam
Abadina
Bluetongue
Bluetongue EHD-related: IbAr 22619 IbAr 23853 IbAr 49630
No. ISOLATES 45 5**
Culicoides SOURCE*
OTHER NIGERIANHOSTS
C. schultzei (V); spp. (F, V)
Aedes Jow/eri (I isolate)
Spp. (I F, 4V)
Crocidura
Spp. (F, U) Spp. (F, U) C. schu/tzei (V)
None known None known None known
Spp. (F, U)
(I isolate)
Rabies
Kotonkan
Simbu
Sabo Sango Sathuperi Shamonda Shuni
2 I 2 2
C. pallidiPennis Spp. (F, V) Spp. (F) C. pallidipennis Spp. (V)
Ganjam
Dugbe
3
Spp. (2F, 1U)
Cattle, man, Cricetomys, ticks, Aedes aegypti
Congo
Congo
Spp. (F, V)
Cattle, goat, Atelerix, ticks
Vngrouped
RVF IbAr 39621 IbAr 39626
I
* Spp. = mixed pool of known species; F = ** Representing 3 types of bluetongue virus.
(V); spp. (V)
Spp. (IF, IV) Spp. (V) Spp. (V) blood-fed; U
Viral isolates were identified in complement-fixation tests using a battery of reference immune mouse ascitic fluids (IMAF). Viruses that could not be identified with available IMAF's or antisera were presumed new and sent to the Yale Arbovirus Research Unit for confirmation of findings. The bluetongue virus strains were sent to the World Bluetongue Reference Center at Onderstepoort, South Africa, for typing. Antisera to Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus were obtained from the Veterinary Research Institute, Onderstepoort, and the East African Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda.
=
Cattle, goats Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle, sheep, man
Culex antemuztus
(I isolate)
Birds Birds
unfed.
virus (Lee et al. ]974), 5 members of the Simbu serogroup (Causey et al. ]972), Dugbe virus (Causey et al. 1971), Congo virus (Causey et al. 1970), and RVF virus (Lee & Moore, in prep.). Only 4 isolates came from pools of single Culicoides species: 1 each of Abadina and EHD-related IbAr 49630 from C. schultzei, and ] each of Sabo and Shamonda from C. pallidiPennis. All other recoveries were made from mixed pools containing as many as 14 species. TABLE2 lists the Culicoides species known from light trap collections at the University farm during the study period. DISCUSSION
RESULTS
The 269,580 Culicoides processed for viral assay during the 3-year period yielded 70 isolates of 16 different agents. TABLE ], which lists the 16 by serogroup, gives isolation details as well as information about other Nigerian hosts. Fifty-one of the isolates represented viruses previously unknown: Abadina (Lee et al. 1974), 3 agents related to epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer (EHD) virus (Lee et al. 1974), kotonkan (Kemp et al. ] 973), and 2 agents still under study, IbAr 3962] and IbAr 39626. The remaining 19 isolates were identified as 3 types of bluetongue
It is not suggested that the mere isolation of these viruses from Culicoides involves the gnats in an essential vector role in the virus-mammalian host cycle. For some of the viruses listed, however, there is evidence pointing in that direction, In the case of Abadina, the record of 45 recoveries from Culicoides and only ] from a mosquito certainly seems to indicate close involvement of the gnats in transmission, although other members of the Palyam group have been isolated from mosquitoes in India (Dandawate et al. 1969). With the EHDrelated and Simbu group viruses, the few but repeated isolations from Culicoides raise the distinct
Downloaded from http://jme.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on June 10, 2016
2 I I
None known (V); spp. (V)
J.
78
Med. Entomol.
TABLE:2. Culicoides spp. obtained in light-trap collections at University of Ibadan dairy unit, 1967-1970. C. africanus (= C. vitshumbiensis) C. austeni* C. dekeyseri C. distinctiPennis C. expectator C. fulvithorax C. I5rahamii C. krameri* C. moreli C. neavei C. pallidiPennis* (= C. imicola) C. quinquelineatus C. schultzei* C. similis
*
Most abundant
species.
ing human disease, the notable exceptions being Congo, Dugbe, and RVF viruses. Nevertheless, several of the Culicoides species listed in TABLE 2 do feed on man, and the potential for virus transmission to man thus does exist. In the Ibadan area, however, the predominant Culicoides species are believed to have preference for large animals. As already mentioned, there had been no previous evidence in the farm animal herds of infection caused by bluetongue, RVF, Abadina, kotonkan, or the EHD-related viruses, and none of these were isolated from routine, periodic blood samples taken from farm animals either before or during the present studies. The explanation of this situation may lie in 1 or more of the following factors. First, blood samples were not obtained frequently enough. Second, transient low-level viremias were not detectable by the procedures used. Third, in routine blood sampling only sera were commonly used for attempted virus isolation, and thus infective virus, which is sometimes bound up in certain cell fractions, went undetected. Culicoides and other arthropods retain imbibed cell fractions from which infection may be initiated. In time, Culicoides will certainly be found to play a major role in the natural cycle of more of the "animal-infecting" viruses. However, a great deal of biological, ecological, and experimental work remains to be done in this area. Acknowledgments. These studies were conducted under the auspices of the University of Ibadan with support from The Rockefeller Foundation. I wish to thank all members of the staff of the Virus Research Laboratory who assisted in this work. especially Dr Dorothy Moore who was responsible for most of the identification of viruses isolated, and Mr Z. O. Babarinde who helped with the handling and processing of arthropod specimens.
LITERATURE CITED Causey, O. R., G. E. Kemp,J. Casals, R. W. Williams & M. H. Madbouly. 1971. Dugbe virus, a new arbovirus from Nigeria. Niger.}. Sci. 5: 4] -43. Causey, O. R., G. E. Kemp, C. E. Causey & V. H. Lee. 1972. Isolations of Simbu-group viruses in Ibadan, Nigeria 196469, including the new types Sango, Shamonda, Sabo and Shuni. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 66: 357-62. Causey, O. R., G. E. Kemp, M. H. Madbouly & T. S. DavidWest. ] 970. Congo virus from domestic livestock, African hedgehog, and arthropods in Nigeria. Am.}. Trop. Med. Hyg. 19: 846-50. Dandawate, C. N., P. J. Rajagopalan, K. M. Pavri & T. H. Work. 1969. Virus isolations from mosquitoes collected in North Arcot District, Tamil Nadu State and Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, between November 1955 and October 1957. Indian}. Med. Res. 57: 1420-26. Doherty, R. L.,J. G. Carley, H. A. Standfast, A. L. Dyce & W. A. Snowdon. ]972. Virus strains isolated from arthropods
Downloaded from http://jme.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on June 10, 2016
possibility of a vector relationship; and the isolations of RVF virus suggest that this agent may be transmitted by Culicoides as well as mosquitoes. In the case of bluetongue virus, of course, Culicoides gnats are probably the only natural vectors. Congo and Dugbe, on the other hand, are considered to be tick-borne both in Nigeria and elsewhere. With the other viruses, the evidence is not sufficient to warrant any conclusions. These studies demonstrate the usefulness of processing Culicoides as a means of monitoring the activity of viruses whose occurrence presents hazards to the health of domestic and wild animals, as well as of man. Thus, RVF virus had not previously been isolated from an arthropod in Nigeria, or from Culicoides anywhere; the EHD-related agents were previously unknown from any source; and while bluetongue had been diagnosed clinically and serologically in Nigeria, the virus itself had never before been recovered there. Little is known about the economic importance of the other viruses in Nigeria. That domestic animal infections with some of these viruses had occurred was subsequently shown by serologic testing of various animals in the general area where Culicoides was collected. Moore & Kemp (1974) reported on serologic studies with bluetongue and EHD-related viruses; Causey et al. (1972) on serologic conversions to Simbu group agents; Fagbami et al. (1973) on a survey for RVF antibodies; and Kemp et al. (1973) and Tomori et al. (1975) on the results of testing University farm animals for antibodies to kotonkan vIrus. The majority of the agents recovered in these studies are not considered to be important in caus-
Vol. 16, no. I
Lee: Virus isolation from Culicoides in Nigeria
1979
during an epizootic of bovine ephemeral fever in Queensland. Aust. Vet. J. 48: 81-86. Fagbami, A. H., O. Tomori Be G. E. Kemp. 1973. A survey of Nigerian domestic and wild animals for serum neutralizing antibody to indigenous Rift Valley fever virus. Niger. Vet. J. 2: 45-48. Kemp, G. E., V. H. Lee, D. L. Moore, R. E. Shope, O. R. Causey Be F. A. Murphy. 1973. Kotonkan, a new rhabdovirus related to Mokola virus of the rabies serogroup. Am. j. EPidemiol. 98: 43-49. Lee, V. H., O. R. Causey Be D. L. Moore. 1974. Bluetongue and related viruses in Ibadan, Nigeria: Isolation and preliminary identification of viruses. Am. j. Vet. Res. 35: 1105-
79
Moore, D. L. Be G. E. Kemp. 1974. Bluetongue and related viruses in Ibadan, Nigeria: Serological studies of domesticated and wild animals. Am. J. Vet. Res. 35: 1115-20. Reeves, W. G., R. P. Scrivani, J. L. Hardy, D. R. Roberts Be R. L. Nelson. 1970. Buttonwillow virus, a new arbovirus isolated from mammals and Culicoides midges in Kern County, California. Am. j. Trop. Med. Hyg. 19: 544-51. SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg). ]971. p. 196. Annual Report, 1971. Tomori, 0., A. Fagbami Be A. Fabiyi. ]975. Serum antibodies to two rhabdoviruses (bovine ephemeral fever and kotonkan) in calves on the University of lbadan Agricultural Farm. Bull. Anim. Health Prod. Afr. 23: 39-41.
08.
WAU ECOLOGY INSTITUTE HANDBOOK NO.1 HANDBOOK
OF COMMON NEW GUINEA FROGS By
J.
I. Menzies
This is a semipopular introduction to the frogs of the island of New Guinea. Over 50 species are discussed in some detail and illustrated in color. The species treated are selected on the basis of being widespread or representing a particular group of related species. Under each species there is a discussion of body structure, color, habitat, call, eggs, life cycle, distribution and abundance, with any other special points of interest. In addition to this main treatment, there is a general discussion of frog
biology, special notes on the colors and their characteristics, a treatment of the fauna as to its composition and origin, a list of references, a guide to the identification of species, notes on preserving frogs, a glossary and a list of frogs recorded from New Guinea. The book is indexed and thel'e is a map plus some diagrams to assist in identification, and 12 color plates with 5 or 6 species per plate.
Forward by Sir Maori Kiki 75 pages of text plus 12 color plates Hardcover Price: US $4.50 Available from Bishop Museum Press, P.O. Box 19000-A, Honolulu, viii
+
Hawaii 96819, USA
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