PsychologicalReports, 1990, 67, 731-737
O Psychological Reports 1990
INTERPERSONAL TRUST, SELF-DISCLOSURE A N D CONTROL I N ADULT CHILDREN O F ALCOHOLICS ' L. G. BRADLEY AND H. G. SCHNEIDER Appalachian State University Summary.-Personality differences between 39 adult children of alcoholics and 28 control subjects were evaluated using measurcs of self-disclosure, trust, and control. The former group had higher need for interpersonal control, but no differences between groups were found on trust or self-disclosure. Sex of the alcoholic parent was related to personality functioning. Subjects with alcoholic fathers had higher scores on the control measure, while subjects with alcoholic mothers had lower trust scores. For adult children of alcoholics small but significant correlations were found between distress associated with parental alcoholism and trust (lower) and reported involvement with alcohol (higher). These results provide some support for the hypothesis that the effects of parental alcoholism persist into early adulthood. The differences documented were modest and did not suggest dysfunction in the sample of adult children of alcoholics.
There is much speculation about the effects of growing up in an alcoholic home, but the empirical studies have not always yielded differences as a function of parental alcoholism. Parental alcoholism has been associated with adjustment problems and psychopathology of their children. The number of alcoholic parents has been related to significant elevations on the Pd, Pt, Sc, and Ma scales of the MMPI (McKenna & Pickens, 1983). West and Prinz (1987) reported that parental alcoholism was associated with increased b u t noted that most children of alcoholics did not incidence of experience significant disability. Higher incidence was found for disorders such as hyperactivity, substance abuse, social inadequacy, somatic problems, and anxiety. Clair and Genest (1987) found that children of alcoholics described their families as more dysfunctional and reported receiving less guidance from parents than controls. Difficulties associated with being raised in an alcoholic home are predicted to affect the individuals' functioning even when they are adults and out of the home. Woititz (1983) has speculated that these adults experience difficulties with self-evaluation and interpersonal relations. I n selected studies, factors relevant to interpersonal relations have been evaluated. Parker and Harford (1988) found that adult children of alcoholics were more at risk for divorce or separation, had more problems with dependent drinking, and were more likely to report symptoms of depression. Stevens (1976) found greater distrust ascribed to members of the alcoholic home. Plescia-Pikus, 'Address correspondence to H. G. Schneider, Department of Psychology, ASU, Boone, NC 28607.
732
L. G. BRADLEY & H.G. SCHNEIDER
Long-Suter, and Wilson (1988) reported lower trust in such adults than in control subjects. Black (1983) reported that 62% of a group of adult children of alcoholics viewed intimacy (self-disclosure) as a major problem in their lives. Cermak and Brown (1982) found that in group therapy they focused on issues of control, responsibility, trust, and personal needs. I n contrast, Berkowitz and Perkins (1988) reported that young adult children of alcoholics were similar to peers on several measures of personality but were more likely to report greater self-deprecation than children from nonalcoholic homes. Cermak and Rosenfeld (1987) suggested that adult children of alcoholics report symptoms similar to those by individuals with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder or histories of abuse. Rather than being unique, adult children of alcoholics may be s i d a r to children from other types of dysfunctional families. Differences as a function of the sex of the alcoholic parent have not been frequently studied. Steinhausen, Gobel, and Nester (1984) noted that emotional problems were related to maternal alcoholism while conduct disorders were related to paternal alcoholism. Subjects with alcoholic fathers have been more prone to depression and more likely to use avoidant coping behaviors than those from nonalcoholic homes (Clair & Genest, 1987). I n a school setting, Bell and Cohen (1981) found that children from homes with alcoholic mothers were rated as more over-reactive than control group children. McKenna and Pickens (1983) noted that the sex of the alcoholic parent was not related to differences on the MMPI. Much of the literature is characterized by inadequacies in method and measurement. PersonaLty characteristics and family relationships have often been based on individual interviews or case histories, and some researchers have not included appropriate control groups (Cork, 1969). Subtle differences in functioning are not likely to be evident when comparisons are made with seriously disturbed populations (Chafetz, Blane, & H d , 1971; Fine, Yudin, Holmes, & Heinemann, 1975). The notion of codependence suggests that a system of behaviors and strategies is developed within a family to handle the alcoholic family member and maintain the family's stability. Individual family members may acquire atypical characteristics that are functional within this system but conflict with traditional expectations outside the family. The prediction of personality differences for adult children of alcoholics is based on the assumption that parental alcoholism will lead to a disturbance of the parent-child relationship and that this disturbance will generalize to other relationships. The present study used measures that assess aspects of interpersonal relationships. Measures of trust, self-disclosure, and need for control were evaluated as a function of parental alcoholism. Subjects from alcoholic f a d e s were predicted to score lower on trust and self-disclosure and h g h e r on need for
PERSONALITY: CHILDREN OF ALCOHOLICS
733
control than subjects from nonalcoholic backgrounds. The relationship between the sex of the alcoholic parent, the distress experienced as a function of the parents' alcoholism, and personality functioning was also evaluated.
Subjects The subjects were 67 student volunteers from a southern comprehensive university. The average age was 19.8 yr. and 64.7% were classified as freshmen. There were 47 women and 20 men. Subjects signed an informed consent contract prior to completing the test packet and later received feedback on the findings of the study. Subjects were volunteers obtained from two different sources. Seventeen of the subjects were volunteers from support groups for adult children of alcoholics at the university counseling center, and the rest were psychology students receiving extra credit. Fifteen subjects volunteered for a study on adult children of alcoholics, and 35 volunteered for a study on personality. From the latter group seven subjects were adult children of alcoholics, based on their report of parental alcoholism or scores above 6 on the Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST). Six subjects met both criteria, and one was included in the group of adult children of alcoholics on the basis of a high CAST score. The 28 subjects from nonalcoholic homes formed the control group. The control subjects were younger (18.5 yr., 78.6% freshmen) than the adult children of alcoholics (20.6 yr., 55.0% freshmen). Measures The Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST) (Jones, 1982) was used to confirm the reports of parental alcoholism. The test contains 30 " yes" or "no" items about adult children's attitudes, feelings, perceptions, and experiences related to their parents' drinking behavior. Validation studies indicate that the screening test accurately identifies adult children of alcoholics although there may be problems with false positives. The Children of Alcoholics Life-events Schedule (Roosa, Sandler, Gehring, Beds, & Cappo, 1988) is a 39-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure the stressful experiences of subjects who lived in homes with an alcoholic parent. The schedule has shown satisfactory test-retest reliabhty for both items and scale and has good internal consistency. Interpersonal trust was measured on the Interpersonal Trust Scale (Rotter, 1967). This scale is a Likert scale of 25 items, designed to measure a person's generalized expectancy that the promises of other individuals or groups can be relied upon. Rotter's work has provided evidence supporting the construct validity of the scale (Rotter, 1967; Katz & Rotter, 1969). Self-disclosure was measured on the Jourard Self-disclosure Questionnaire (Jourard & Lasakow, 1958). A modified rating scale (6-point Likert)
734
L. G. BRADLEY & H. G. SCHNEIDER
was used because it has been shown to increase reliability (Panyard, 1971). Three of the six subscales (attitudes, personality, body) were included in this study. Control was measured with the Control Subscale from the MMPI (Cuadra, 1953). It contains 50 true-false items measuring the need for interpersonal control. A set of nine questions on the subject's drinking pattern was also included. These items addressed the frequency of drinlung, reasons for drinking (feel better, reduce stress, improve self-confidence), and negative effects (guilt, interference with functioning at school). High scores would reflect greater involvement with alcohol.
RESULTS The subjects who were adult children of alcoholics were compared to the control subjects, using one-way analyses of variance on mean scores from the personality measures, the screening test, and the life-events schedule as dependent variables. Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, and F ratios. SCALEMEANSAS Measures
Screening Test (CAST) Codes Self-disclosure Control Scale Trust
A
TABLE 1 FUNCTION OF TYPEOF SUEJECT
Adult Children of Alcoholics (n = 39)
Controls (n = 28)
M
SD
M
SD
19.07 81.02 115.15 27.56 64.17
7.3 13.0 23.1 2.9 7.0
0.18 54.32 121.46 25.70 66.53
0.5 7.5 21.1 4.5 8.9
P
< ,001 < ,001 0.19 0.04 0.18
The large difference on the screening test confirms the validity of this test for identification of children of alcoholics. Only one subject was assigned to the group of adult children of alcoholics on the basis of the screening test score. When parental alcoholism was reported, the scores on this screening test were always elevated above the suggested cut-off score of 6. The difference on the life events scores indicates that the adult children of alcoholics reported more stress related to parental alcoholism than the control subjects. The correlation between the screening test scores and lifeevents schedule was high ( r = 0.88, pLAUSEN, H . C., GOBEL,D., & NESTER,V. (1984) Psychopathology in the offspring of 4coholic parents. Journal ofthe Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 465-467. STEVENS, D. M. (1976) Some adjustment characteristics of adolescent children of alcoholic parents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of Washington. WEST, M. O., & PRNZ, R. J. (1987) Parental alcoholism and childhood psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 204-218. WorTITz, J. G. (1383) Adult children of alcoholics. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications.
d,
Accepted October 1, 1990.
O Psychological Reports 1990
INTERPERSONAL TRUST, SELF-DISCLOSURE A N D CONTROL I N ADULT CHILDREN O F ALCOHOLICS ' L. G. BRADLEY AND H. G. SCHNEIDER Appalachian State University Summary.-Personality differences between 39 adult children of alcoholics and 28 control subjects were evaluated using measurcs of self-disclosure, trust, and control. The former group had higher need for interpersonal control, but no differences between groups were found on trust or self-disclosure. Sex of the alcoholic parent was related to personality functioning. Subjects with alcoholic fathers had higher scores on the control measure, while subjects with alcoholic mothers had lower trust scores. For adult children of alcoholics small but significant correlations were found between distress associated with parental alcoholism and trust (lower) and reported involvement with alcohol (higher). These results provide some support for the hypothesis that the effects of parental alcoholism persist into early adulthood. The differences documented were modest and did not suggest dysfunction in the sample of adult children of alcoholics.
There is much speculation about the effects of growing up in an alcoholic home, but the empirical studies have not always yielded differences as a function of parental alcoholism. Parental alcoholism has been associated with adjustment problems and psychopathology of their children. The number of alcoholic parents has been related to significant elevations on the Pd, Pt, Sc, and Ma scales of the MMPI (McKenna & Pickens, 1983). West and Prinz (1987) reported that parental alcoholism was associated with increased b u t noted that most children of alcoholics did not incidence of experience significant disability. Higher incidence was found for disorders such as hyperactivity, substance abuse, social inadequacy, somatic problems, and anxiety. Clair and Genest (1987) found that children of alcoholics described their families as more dysfunctional and reported receiving less guidance from parents than controls. Difficulties associated with being raised in an alcoholic home are predicted to affect the individuals' functioning even when they are adults and out of the home. Woititz (1983) has speculated that these adults experience difficulties with self-evaluation and interpersonal relations. I n selected studies, factors relevant to interpersonal relations have been evaluated. Parker and Harford (1988) found that adult children of alcoholics were more at risk for divorce or separation, had more problems with dependent drinking, and were more likely to report symptoms of depression. Stevens (1976) found greater distrust ascribed to members of the alcoholic home. Plescia-Pikus, 'Address correspondence to H. G. Schneider, Department of Psychology, ASU, Boone, NC 28607.
732
L. G. BRADLEY & H.G. SCHNEIDER
Long-Suter, and Wilson (1988) reported lower trust in such adults than in control subjects. Black (1983) reported that 62% of a group of adult children of alcoholics viewed intimacy (self-disclosure) as a major problem in their lives. Cermak and Brown (1982) found that in group therapy they focused on issues of control, responsibility, trust, and personal needs. I n contrast, Berkowitz and Perkins (1988) reported that young adult children of alcoholics were similar to peers on several measures of personality but were more likely to report greater self-deprecation than children from nonalcoholic homes. Cermak and Rosenfeld (1987) suggested that adult children of alcoholics report symptoms similar to those by individuals with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder or histories of abuse. Rather than being unique, adult children of alcoholics may be s i d a r to children from other types of dysfunctional families. Differences as a function of the sex of the alcoholic parent have not been frequently studied. Steinhausen, Gobel, and Nester (1984) noted that emotional problems were related to maternal alcoholism while conduct disorders were related to paternal alcoholism. Subjects with alcoholic fathers have been more prone to depression and more likely to use avoidant coping behaviors than those from nonalcoholic homes (Clair & Genest, 1987). I n a school setting, Bell and Cohen (1981) found that children from homes with alcoholic mothers were rated as more over-reactive than control group children. McKenna and Pickens (1983) noted that the sex of the alcoholic parent was not related to differences on the MMPI. Much of the literature is characterized by inadequacies in method and measurement. PersonaLty characteristics and family relationships have often been based on individual interviews or case histories, and some researchers have not included appropriate control groups (Cork, 1969). Subtle differences in functioning are not likely to be evident when comparisons are made with seriously disturbed populations (Chafetz, Blane, & H d , 1971; Fine, Yudin, Holmes, & Heinemann, 1975). The notion of codependence suggests that a system of behaviors and strategies is developed within a family to handle the alcoholic family member and maintain the family's stability. Individual family members may acquire atypical characteristics that are functional within this system but conflict with traditional expectations outside the family. The prediction of personality differences for adult children of alcoholics is based on the assumption that parental alcoholism will lead to a disturbance of the parent-child relationship and that this disturbance will generalize to other relationships. The present study used measures that assess aspects of interpersonal relationships. Measures of trust, self-disclosure, and need for control were evaluated as a function of parental alcoholism. Subjects from alcoholic f a d e s were predicted to score lower on trust and self-disclosure and h g h e r on need for
PERSONALITY: CHILDREN OF ALCOHOLICS
733
control than subjects from nonalcoholic backgrounds. The relationship between the sex of the alcoholic parent, the distress experienced as a function of the parents' alcoholism, and personality functioning was also evaluated.
Subjects The subjects were 67 student volunteers from a southern comprehensive university. The average age was 19.8 yr. and 64.7% were classified as freshmen. There were 47 women and 20 men. Subjects signed an informed consent contract prior to completing the test packet and later received feedback on the findings of the study. Subjects were volunteers obtained from two different sources. Seventeen of the subjects were volunteers from support groups for adult children of alcoholics at the university counseling center, and the rest were psychology students receiving extra credit. Fifteen subjects volunteered for a study on adult children of alcoholics, and 35 volunteered for a study on personality. From the latter group seven subjects were adult children of alcoholics, based on their report of parental alcoholism or scores above 6 on the Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST). Six subjects met both criteria, and one was included in the group of adult children of alcoholics on the basis of a high CAST score. The 28 subjects from nonalcoholic homes formed the control group. The control subjects were younger (18.5 yr., 78.6% freshmen) than the adult children of alcoholics (20.6 yr., 55.0% freshmen). Measures The Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST) (Jones, 1982) was used to confirm the reports of parental alcoholism. The test contains 30 " yes" or "no" items about adult children's attitudes, feelings, perceptions, and experiences related to their parents' drinking behavior. Validation studies indicate that the screening test accurately identifies adult children of alcoholics although there may be problems with false positives. The Children of Alcoholics Life-events Schedule (Roosa, Sandler, Gehring, Beds, & Cappo, 1988) is a 39-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure the stressful experiences of subjects who lived in homes with an alcoholic parent. The schedule has shown satisfactory test-retest reliabhty for both items and scale and has good internal consistency. Interpersonal trust was measured on the Interpersonal Trust Scale (Rotter, 1967). This scale is a Likert scale of 25 items, designed to measure a person's generalized expectancy that the promises of other individuals or groups can be relied upon. Rotter's work has provided evidence supporting the construct validity of the scale (Rotter, 1967; Katz & Rotter, 1969). Self-disclosure was measured on the Jourard Self-disclosure Questionnaire (Jourard & Lasakow, 1958). A modified rating scale (6-point Likert)
734
L. G. BRADLEY & H. G. SCHNEIDER
was used because it has been shown to increase reliability (Panyard, 1971). Three of the six subscales (attitudes, personality, body) were included in this study. Control was measured with the Control Subscale from the MMPI (Cuadra, 1953). It contains 50 true-false items measuring the need for interpersonal control. A set of nine questions on the subject's drinking pattern was also included. These items addressed the frequency of drinlung, reasons for drinking (feel better, reduce stress, improve self-confidence), and negative effects (guilt, interference with functioning at school). High scores would reflect greater involvement with alcohol.
RESULTS The subjects who were adult children of alcoholics were compared to the control subjects, using one-way analyses of variance on mean scores from the personality measures, the screening test, and the life-events schedule as dependent variables. Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, and F ratios. SCALEMEANSAS Measures
Screening Test (CAST) Codes Self-disclosure Control Scale Trust
A
TABLE 1 FUNCTION OF TYPEOF SUEJECT
Adult Children of Alcoholics (n = 39)
Controls (n = 28)
M
SD
M
SD
19.07 81.02 115.15 27.56 64.17
7.3 13.0 23.1 2.9 7.0
0.18 54.32 121.46 25.70 66.53
0.5 7.5 21.1 4.5 8.9
P
< ,001 < ,001 0.19 0.04 0.18
The large difference on the screening test confirms the validity of this test for identification of children of alcoholics. Only one subject was assigned to the group of adult children of alcoholics on the basis of the screening test score. When parental alcoholism was reported, the scores on this screening test were always elevated above the suggested cut-off score of 6. The difference on the life events scores indicates that the adult children of alcoholics reported more stress related to parental alcoholism than the control subjects. The correlation between the screening test scores and lifeevents schedule was high ( r = 0.88, pLAUSEN, H . C., GOBEL,D., & NESTER,V. (1984) Psychopathology in the offspring of 4coholic parents. Journal ofthe Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 465-467. STEVENS, D. M. (1976) Some adjustment characteristics of adolescent children of alcoholic parents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of Washington. WEST, M. O., & PRNZ, R. J. (1987) Parental alcoholism and childhood psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 204-218. WorTITz, J. G. (1383) Adult children of alcoholics. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications.
d,
Accepted October 1, 1990.
