Journal of Adolescence 36 (2013) 1115–1119
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Adolescence journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado
International note: Temperament and character’s relationship to subjective well-being in Salvadorian adolescents and young adults Danilo Garcia a, b, c, *, Ali A. Nima c, d, Trevor Archer c, d, e a
Center for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden c Network for Empowerment and Well-Being, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden d Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden e School of Education, Psychology and Sport Science, Linneaus University, Kalmar, Sweden b
a b s t r a c t Keywords: Adolescents Character Subjective well-being TCI-R Temperament
The present study investigated the relationship between personality and Subjective WellBeing in a sample of 135 Salvadorian adolescents and young adults (age mean ¼ 21.88 sd. ¼ 4.70). Personality was assessed through self-reports using the Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised. Subjective Well-Being was also self-reported using the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule and the Satisfaction With Life Scale. Structural equation modeling was used to determine relationships between personality and Subjective Well-Being. Regarding temperament dimensions, Harm Avoidance was positively associated to negative affect and negatively associated to positive affect, while Persistence was positively associated to positive affect. Regarding character dimensions, only Selfdirectedness was related to Subjective Well-Being: positively related to life satisfaction and positive affect. The results presented here mirror findings using the temperament and character model of personality among European and North American adolescents. Ó 2013 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Research among European and North American adolescents suggests that personality is a major determinant of their Subjective Well-Being (e.g., Fogle, Huebner, & Laughlin, 2002; Huebner, 1991; Huebner, Suldo, Smith, & McKnight, 2004). Personality can be defined as dynamic psychobiological internal system, composed of temperament and character dimensions, by which the individual shapes and adapts to internal and external changes or situations (Cloninger, 2004). Temperament appears to be a key element because it is related to reactivity to emotional stimuli, individual differences in intensity to responses to emotional events, and to the duration of emotional reactions (Kim-Prieto, Diener, Tamir, Scollon, & Diener, 2005). On the other hand, character is the individual’s ability to accept the self, behave accordingly to her or his goals, show empathy, help others, and sense of self-efficacy, autonomy, and responsibility (for a detailed definition of temperament and character dimensions see Table S1 in the Supplemental Material online). In short, character can be defined as what individuals make of themselves intentionally or metacognitive strategies to guide one’s behavior (Cloninger, 2004; Garcia, Anckarsäter & Lundström, 2013). Using the Temperament and Character Inventory (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck, 1993) researchers have constantly found that Subjective Well-Being is related to two temperament dimensions (i.e., Harm Avoidance and Persistence) and to one * Corresponding author. CELAM, University of Gothenburg, Wallinsgatan 8, SE 431 41 Mölndal, Sweden. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (D. Garcia). 0140-1971/$ – see front matter Ó 2013 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.018
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D. Garcia et al. / Journal of Adolescence 36 (2013) 1115–1119
Table 1 Correlations and reliability (Cronbach’s a in bold type in diagonal) coefficients, means and standard deviations for all variables in the study for the whole sample (N ¼ 135). 1 Positive affect (1) Negative affect (2) Life satisfaction (3) Novelty seeking (4) Harm avoidance (5) Reward dependence (6) Persistence (7) Self-directedness (8) Cooperativeness (9) Self-transcendence (10) Mean Sd. Note: *p < .05.
**p
2
3
.73
.02 .82
34.39 5.72
22.94 6.57
.22* .29** .78
25.17 5.67
4
5 .02 .15 .20* .71
102.10 13.84
.43** .32** .31** .34** .83
92.11 16.56
6
7 .12 .06 .19* .23** .20* .81
106.99 15.09
8 .51** .13 .38** .18* .40** .14 .83
116.75 16.19
9 .26** .47** .59** .29** .39** .19* .40** .84
140.27 18.95
10 .12 .22* .36** .11 .29** .52** .23** .48** .73
138.50 13.48
.36** .07 .26** .00 .40** .31** .49** .10 .33** .81 85.35 14.42
< .01.
character dimension, namely Self-directedness (e.g., Cloninger, 2004, 2006; Cloninger, Zohar, Hirschmann, & Dahan, 2012; Garcia, 2011, 2012; Garcia, Kerekes, Andersson-Arntén, & Archer, 2012; Garcia, Kerekes, & Archer, 2012; Garcia & Moradi, 2012; Garcia, Lundström et al., 2013; Nima, Archer, & Garcia, 2012; Schütz, Archer, & Garcia, 2013). The current knowledge regarding these three personality dimensions suggests that being high in Persistence (i.e., being persevering, ambitious, perfectionistic) increases both positive and negative emotions. However, being high in Persistence reduces negative emotions and increases positive emotions if the individual is low in Harm Avoidance (i.e., low neurotic behavior) and Self-directedness (Cloninger et al., 2012). Self-directedness is a character dimension based on the concept of the self as an autonomous individual, which allows the individual to engage in purposeful actions because the individual has a “sense of following a meaningful direction in one’s life” (Cloninger, 2004, p. 120). Accordingly, being high in Self-directedness increases the sense of being satisfied with life (Garcia, 2011; Schütz et al., 2013). The present study analyzed the relationship between temperament and character to Subjective Well-Being in a sample of Salvadorian adolescents and young adults. With regard to Subjective Well-Being, Latin America is clearly an understudied part of the world (for a recent review showing that the majority of previous research in this area involves American participants see Proctor, Linley, & Maltby, 2009). Nevertheless, research shows that cultures that are geographically near to each other tend to exhibit similarities in personality traits (Allik & McCrae, 2004) and their desirability of life satisfaction and view of positive and negative emotions (Diener & Suh, 2000). For example, as for North Americans and compared to Asians, Latin Americans seem to desire life satisfaction more and tend to put more importance to emotions such as pride. Suggesting that the sample used here might show similar relationships among variables to those found en earlier studies among Europeans and North Americans. Method Participants and procedure The present study was based upon a sample of 135 participants (44 males, 91 females). The mean age for the males was 21.88 (sd. ¼ 4.70), and 19.37 years (SD ¼ 3.19) for the females (no other demographic information was collected). The participants were recruited from one University in San Salvador, El Salvador. All participants were informed that their participation was anonymous and voluntary. Measures Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality The Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised comprises 240 items with a Likert scale (1 ¼ definitely false, 5 ¼ definitely true). The four temperament dimensions are: Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence, and Persistence. The three Character dimensions: Self-Directedness, Cooperativeness, and Self-Transcendence. Subjective well-being Life satisfaction was measured by the Satisfaction With Life Scale (5 items with a 7-point Likert scale: 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree; Pavot & Diener, 1993). Positive and negative affect were measured by the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule comprising 10 items in each scale with a 5-point Likert scale: 1 ¼ very slightly to 5 ¼ extremely (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Analysis and data preparation See the Supplemental Material online describing how the missing data and data imputation was handled. Structural equation modeling was used to determine relationships between exogenous and endogenous variables, using the AMOS
D. Garcia et al. / Journal of Adolescence 36 (2013) 1115–1119
1117
software (version 19). Endogenous variables in the model were the 7 personality dimensions, while the three well-being measures were the exogenous variables. Structural equation modeling was also used in order to control error measurement and any possible effects of the multicollinearity among the personality variables. The normalized estimate of multivariate kurtosis for the 10 variables in the present structural equation model was 2.95, thus within the expected range. Results and discussion The correlation coefficients, mean values and standard deviations, as well as Cronbach’s a for the variables in the study appear in Table 1. The gender analysis, replicating earlier findings, is presented in the Supplemental Material online. The path model in Fig. 1 yielded a good fit, as indicated by the non-significant (p ¼ .08) Chi-square value of 6.90 with 3 degrees of freedom, comparative fit index ¼ .99, incremental fit index ¼ .99 and normed fit index ¼ .99. Root mean square error of
Fig. 1. Structural equation model of personality and Subjective Well-Being. All correlations (between different personality constructs) and all paths (from personality constructs to Subjective Well-Being) and their standardized parameter estimates. Chi-square ¼ 6.90; DF ¼ 3; comparative fit index ¼ .99; incremental fit index ¼ .99; normed fit index ¼ .99 and root mean square error of approximation ¼ .098. e ¼ error. N ¼ 135.
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D. Garcia et al. / Journal of Adolescence 36 (2013) 1115–1119
Table 2 Standardized and unstandardized coefficients for the structural equation model in Fig. 1 (significant effects in bold type). Predictor
Outcome
Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence Persistence Self-directedness Cooperativeness Self-transcendence R2 Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence Persistence Self-directedness Cooperativeness Self-transcendence R2 Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence Persistence Self-directedness Cooperativeness Self-transcendence R2
Life satisfaction
.40 Positive affect
.33 Negative affect
b
B
Se
P
.06 .03 .04 .08 .50 .02 .14
.03 .01 .02 .03 .15 .01 .05
.04 .03 .03 .03 .03 .04 .04
.48 .73 .62 .35
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Adolescence journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado
International note: Temperament and character’s relationship to subjective well-being in Salvadorian adolescents and young adults Danilo Garcia a, b, c, *, Ali A. Nima c, d, Trevor Archer c, d, e a
Center for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden c Network for Empowerment and Well-Being, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden d Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden e School of Education, Psychology and Sport Science, Linneaus University, Kalmar, Sweden b
a b s t r a c t Keywords: Adolescents Character Subjective well-being TCI-R Temperament
The present study investigated the relationship between personality and Subjective WellBeing in a sample of 135 Salvadorian adolescents and young adults (age mean ¼ 21.88 sd. ¼ 4.70). Personality was assessed through self-reports using the Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised. Subjective Well-Being was also self-reported using the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule and the Satisfaction With Life Scale. Structural equation modeling was used to determine relationships between personality and Subjective Well-Being. Regarding temperament dimensions, Harm Avoidance was positively associated to negative affect and negatively associated to positive affect, while Persistence was positively associated to positive affect. Regarding character dimensions, only Selfdirectedness was related to Subjective Well-Being: positively related to life satisfaction and positive affect. The results presented here mirror findings using the temperament and character model of personality among European and North American adolescents. Ó 2013 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Research among European and North American adolescents suggests that personality is a major determinant of their Subjective Well-Being (e.g., Fogle, Huebner, & Laughlin, 2002; Huebner, 1991; Huebner, Suldo, Smith, & McKnight, 2004). Personality can be defined as dynamic psychobiological internal system, composed of temperament and character dimensions, by which the individual shapes and adapts to internal and external changes or situations (Cloninger, 2004). Temperament appears to be a key element because it is related to reactivity to emotional stimuli, individual differences in intensity to responses to emotional events, and to the duration of emotional reactions (Kim-Prieto, Diener, Tamir, Scollon, & Diener, 2005). On the other hand, character is the individual’s ability to accept the self, behave accordingly to her or his goals, show empathy, help others, and sense of self-efficacy, autonomy, and responsibility (for a detailed definition of temperament and character dimensions see Table S1 in the Supplemental Material online). In short, character can be defined as what individuals make of themselves intentionally or metacognitive strategies to guide one’s behavior (Cloninger, 2004; Garcia, Anckarsäter & Lundström, 2013). Using the Temperament and Character Inventory (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck, 1993) researchers have constantly found that Subjective Well-Being is related to two temperament dimensions (i.e., Harm Avoidance and Persistence) and to one * Corresponding author. CELAM, University of Gothenburg, Wallinsgatan 8, SE 431 41 Mölndal, Sweden. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (D. Garcia). 0140-1971/$ – see front matter Ó 2013 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.018
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D. Garcia et al. / Journal of Adolescence 36 (2013) 1115–1119
Table 1 Correlations and reliability (Cronbach’s a in bold type in diagonal) coefficients, means and standard deviations for all variables in the study for the whole sample (N ¼ 135). 1 Positive affect (1) Negative affect (2) Life satisfaction (3) Novelty seeking (4) Harm avoidance (5) Reward dependence (6) Persistence (7) Self-directedness (8) Cooperativeness (9) Self-transcendence (10) Mean Sd. Note: *p < .05.
**p
2
3
.73
.02 .82
34.39 5.72
22.94 6.57
.22* .29** .78
25.17 5.67
4
5 .02 .15 .20* .71
102.10 13.84
.43** .32** .31** .34** .83
92.11 16.56
6
7 .12 .06 .19* .23** .20* .81
106.99 15.09
8 .51** .13 .38** .18* .40** .14 .83
116.75 16.19
9 .26** .47** .59** .29** .39** .19* .40** .84
140.27 18.95
10 .12 .22* .36** .11 .29** .52** .23** .48** .73
138.50 13.48
.36** .07 .26** .00 .40** .31** .49** .10 .33** .81 85.35 14.42
< .01.
character dimension, namely Self-directedness (e.g., Cloninger, 2004, 2006; Cloninger, Zohar, Hirschmann, & Dahan, 2012; Garcia, 2011, 2012; Garcia, Kerekes, Andersson-Arntén, & Archer, 2012; Garcia, Kerekes, & Archer, 2012; Garcia & Moradi, 2012; Garcia, Lundström et al., 2013; Nima, Archer, & Garcia, 2012; Schütz, Archer, & Garcia, 2013). The current knowledge regarding these three personality dimensions suggests that being high in Persistence (i.e., being persevering, ambitious, perfectionistic) increases both positive and negative emotions. However, being high in Persistence reduces negative emotions and increases positive emotions if the individual is low in Harm Avoidance (i.e., low neurotic behavior) and Self-directedness (Cloninger et al., 2012). Self-directedness is a character dimension based on the concept of the self as an autonomous individual, which allows the individual to engage in purposeful actions because the individual has a “sense of following a meaningful direction in one’s life” (Cloninger, 2004, p. 120). Accordingly, being high in Self-directedness increases the sense of being satisfied with life (Garcia, 2011; Schütz et al., 2013). The present study analyzed the relationship between temperament and character to Subjective Well-Being in a sample of Salvadorian adolescents and young adults. With regard to Subjective Well-Being, Latin America is clearly an understudied part of the world (for a recent review showing that the majority of previous research in this area involves American participants see Proctor, Linley, & Maltby, 2009). Nevertheless, research shows that cultures that are geographically near to each other tend to exhibit similarities in personality traits (Allik & McCrae, 2004) and their desirability of life satisfaction and view of positive and negative emotions (Diener & Suh, 2000). For example, as for North Americans and compared to Asians, Latin Americans seem to desire life satisfaction more and tend to put more importance to emotions such as pride. Suggesting that the sample used here might show similar relationships among variables to those found en earlier studies among Europeans and North Americans. Method Participants and procedure The present study was based upon a sample of 135 participants (44 males, 91 females). The mean age for the males was 21.88 (sd. ¼ 4.70), and 19.37 years (SD ¼ 3.19) for the females (no other demographic information was collected). The participants were recruited from one University in San Salvador, El Salvador. All participants were informed that their participation was anonymous and voluntary. Measures Cloninger’s psychobiological model of personality The Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised comprises 240 items with a Likert scale (1 ¼ definitely false, 5 ¼ definitely true). The four temperament dimensions are: Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence, and Persistence. The three Character dimensions: Self-Directedness, Cooperativeness, and Self-Transcendence. Subjective well-being Life satisfaction was measured by the Satisfaction With Life Scale (5 items with a 7-point Likert scale: 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree; Pavot & Diener, 1993). Positive and negative affect were measured by the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule comprising 10 items in each scale with a 5-point Likert scale: 1 ¼ very slightly to 5 ¼ extremely (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Analysis and data preparation See the Supplemental Material online describing how the missing data and data imputation was handled. Structural equation modeling was used to determine relationships between exogenous and endogenous variables, using the AMOS
D. Garcia et al. / Journal of Adolescence 36 (2013) 1115–1119
1117
software (version 19). Endogenous variables in the model were the 7 personality dimensions, while the three well-being measures were the exogenous variables. Structural equation modeling was also used in order to control error measurement and any possible effects of the multicollinearity among the personality variables. The normalized estimate of multivariate kurtosis for the 10 variables in the present structural equation model was 2.95, thus within the expected range. Results and discussion The correlation coefficients, mean values and standard deviations, as well as Cronbach’s a for the variables in the study appear in Table 1. The gender analysis, replicating earlier findings, is presented in the Supplemental Material online. The path model in Fig. 1 yielded a good fit, as indicated by the non-significant (p ¼ .08) Chi-square value of 6.90 with 3 degrees of freedom, comparative fit index ¼ .99, incremental fit index ¼ .99 and normed fit index ¼ .99. Root mean square error of
Fig. 1. Structural equation model of personality and Subjective Well-Being. All correlations (between different personality constructs) and all paths (from personality constructs to Subjective Well-Being) and their standardized parameter estimates. Chi-square ¼ 6.90; DF ¼ 3; comparative fit index ¼ .99; incremental fit index ¼ .99; normed fit index ¼ .99 and root mean square error of approximation ¼ .098. e ¼ error. N ¼ 135.
1118
D. Garcia et al. / Journal of Adolescence 36 (2013) 1115–1119
Table 2 Standardized and unstandardized coefficients for the structural equation model in Fig. 1 (significant effects in bold type). Predictor
Outcome
Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence Persistence Self-directedness Cooperativeness Self-transcendence R2 Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence Persistence Self-directedness Cooperativeness Self-transcendence R2 Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence Persistence Self-directedness Cooperativeness Self-transcendence R2
Life satisfaction
.40 Positive affect
.33 Negative affect
b
B
Se
P
.06 .03 .04 .08 .50 .02 .14
.03 .01 .02 .03 .15 .01 .05
.04 .03 .03 .03 .03 .04 .04
.48 .73 .62 .35
