Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology

ISSN: 1748-3107 (Print) 1748-3115 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/iidt20

Interactive, mobile, AGIle and novel education (IMAGINE): a conceptual framework to support students with mobility challenges in higher education Mary Goldberg, Hassan Karimi & Jonathan L. Pearlman To cite this article: Mary Goldberg, Hassan Karimi & Jonathan L. Pearlman (2014): Interactive, mobile, AGIle and novel education (IMAGINE): a conceptual framework to support students with mobility challenges in higher education, Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/17483107.2014.959074

Published online: 12 Sep 2014.

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http://informahealthcare.com/idt ISSN 1748-3107 print/ISSN 1748-3115 online Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol, Early Online: 1–11 ! 2014 Informa UK Ltd. DOI: 10.3109/17483107.2014.959074

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Interactive, mobile, AGIle and novel education (IMAGINE): a conceptual framework to support students with mobility challenges in higher education Downloaded by [Chinese University of Hong Kong] at 23:09 05 November 2015

Mary Goldberg1, Hassan Karimi2, and Jonathan L. Pearlman3 1

Department of Rehabilitation Science & Technology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2Department of Information Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, and 3Department of Rehabilitation Science and Technology, VA University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Abstract

Keywords

Interactive, mobile, AGIle and novel education (IMAGINE) is a conceptual framework to help students with disabilities (SwD) participate more in the physical space and become more engaged in school. IMAGINE recommends and reminds students, and allows them to make requests of key learning resources (LRs). The goal of IMAGINE is to provide SwD with the location and time for attending a LR that is most optimal with respect to their learning style and preference, learning performance and other activities. IMAGINE will be a means through which SWD will be provided with tailored recommendations with respect to their daily activities to improve learning outcomes. A pilot was conducted with SwD who used IMAGINE’s navigation and wayfinding functionality, and the subjects reported that it aligns well with their needs. Preliminary results suggest that after completing a training and using the tool, SwD reported that they are more likely to use the tool and their participation may increase as a result. In contrast to before the trial, the SwD were also able to better describe the tool’s benefits and how to improve its functionality after using the tool for four weeks.

Assistive technology, disability, higher education, mobile application, mobility, navigation, participation History Received 10 June 2014 Accepted 25 August 2014 Published online 12 September 2014

ä Implications for Rehabilitation   

The IMAGINE tool may be a means through which SwD can be provided with tailored recommendations with respect to their daily activities to improve learning outcomes. PWD should be involved (as research study participants and research study team members) in the design and development of tools like IMAGINE to improve participation. IMAGINE and similar tools may not only encourage better learning outcomes, but also more physical participation in the community, and could be used across education and employment settings.

Introduction We introduce interactive, mobile, AGIle and novel education (IMAGINE) through the following vignettes: (1) Joe is an undergraduate student who lives six miles from the campus, is dependent on public transportation and is a veteran with both cognitive and mobility impairments. Joe is adjusting to newly acquired disabilities he incurred while serving in the military and is in his first semester back to school. Joe was only able to identify accessible and affordable housing off campus and has a longer commute than most students. Several times this semester, Joe has missed his Database Management course due to transportation issues and has opted to participate in online tutorial sessions as a result of his difficulties. Joe has struggled with

Address for correspondence: Dr. Mary Goldberg, Department of Rehabilitation Science & Technology, University of Pittsburgh, 6425 Penn Ave, Suite 400, Pittsburgh 15229, PA, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

attention to and recognition of course material in the online session due to his cognitive impairment and consequently has a low grade that puts him in jeopardy of losing his G.I. Bill education benefits. Joe needs in-person interaction and course management strategies to be successful and ample notice and instructions on which mode of transportation to take, where to access the transportation and its schedule. (2) Jane is a graduate student with a significant visual impairment, who has just moved to a new urban area to pursue her dual Master’s of Science degree in biomedical engineering and business. Jane’s new city and campus are undergoing major construction projects where whole sections of sidewalks have been removed and buildings, including the engineering hall, are undergoing major renovations. The renovations have resulted in temporary entrances, displaced classrooms and restrooms, and blocked pathways. Because Jane is in a dual degree program, she must cross campus daily to go from the engineering to business school. Each school has a library in a separate building, and also a separate lab location for some of her engineering classes due to the

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construction. Indoor and outdoor campus maps with the construction information are available via optical character recognition PDFs, but are difficult to interpret via screen readers. Some of the laboratory work, especially those related to Jane’ research project, can be done at flexible hours. Not all of the laboratory equipment is accessible, so the accessible machines, including some of the high capacity desktops with both screen readers and engineering software, must be reserved in advance. Jane needs to be recommended accessible pathways, notified of when construction starts and ends, provided real-time guidance as to where classrooms and/or bathrooms have been relocated, and to arrange her daily schedule according to weather, when the accessible lab equipment is available, and her class schedule. Today, as evidenced by the vignettes above, students can pursue learning by attending the physical space (campuses), through the virtual space (online) or a combination of both. When both physical and virtual spaces are available, students may choose one over the other based on certain criteria that may not lead to effective learning and may not enhance or encourage other important liferelated activities. For example, some research suggests in-person laboratory and other science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) courses are more effective than virtual classes [1,2]. An environment where students are recommended which method of participation is optimal, especially when opportunities exist within the physical space, may help to optimize learning experiences. This recommendation process may provide a balance between learning performance and other activities including those of a vocational or social nature. This may be particularly true for people who face mobility challenges to perform everyday life activities. Often, Students with Disabilities (SwD) are provided inadequate information about environmental barriers, resulting in a longer commute, inaccessible classrooms, laboratories or meeting locations, and ultimately less participation or engagement. IMAGINE, incorporates, modifies and/or extends several existing methodologies and is based on literature related to SwD, learner engagement theories and collaborative learning principles. Learner engagement in higher education broadly suggests learner involvement in a subset of ‘‘educationally purposive activities’’. This theory suggests that learners learn more the more they are involved in both the academic and social aspects of the collegiate experience and that the quality and quantity of the learner’s involvement will influence the amount of learning and development [3]. Literature has established robust correlations between learner engagement and positive outcomes of learner success and development, including satisfaction, persistence, academic achievement and social engagement [3–7]. Five indicators for learner engagement in college include the level of academic challenge, active and collaborative learning, learner– faculty interaction, enriching education experiences and a supportive learning environment [8]. The most important institutional factors are thought to be the policies and practices adopted by institutions to increase learner engagement [9], rather than the type of college itself (i.e. small liberal arts college versus large university). The approach that IMAGINE promotes may affect learners’ engagement in both the physical and virtual space and ultimately, their success in college. Because resources are not tailored to SwD, they are at a natural disadvantage to being fully engaged. The proliferation of different resources is helpful but without a resource to help them choose, SwD do not know the consequences of selecting one access point to learning or engaging versus another. This type of tool is common across multiple services like kayak.com for price comparisons, compared to visiting individual airline websites. This pooling and surveying of resources saves time, resources and is welcomed by service providers because of the additional access points that it provides.

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Nichols and Quaye suggest SwD face institutional, physical and attitudinal barriers to engagement, a trifecta that can be described through the theories of social constructivism, universal design and identity development [10]. Social constructivism suggests that a learner does not have a disability; rather, it is constructed within a complex web of relationships and norms in the dominant culture [11]. This is also consistent with the International Classification of Function framework, which suggests that disability only impedes activity when the environment is a barrier [12]. Universal design, similarly, maximizes learning and access by learners, not just those with disabilities, through placing emphasis on various factors outside of the individual learner [13]. Identity development, with emphasis on developing competence [5], is fully realized when learners deem themselves competent when they achieve their own aims and the expectations of educators and advisors [14]. Learners with disabilities typically have to overcome challenges to their capabilities within conventional learning environments. Universities can break this pattern by operating from a social constructivist approach to provide optimal levels of support to enable SwD to develop their competencies. Universities could incorporate IMAGINE to address institutional, physical, and even possibly attitudinal barriers to engagement, and assist in the ultimate development of a more universally designed and accessible campus. In addition to engagement concerns, a critical issue in the achievement of SwD in postsecondary education depends on their ability to keep abreast of their peers. Previous literature found that the lack of persistence of college SwD may attribute to challenges in managing their accommodations [15,16] and higher academic standards in college [15]. The differences between the laws governing secondary and post-secondary education necessitate that learners must enter college with the ability to self-advocate [17]. SwD must register each semester with the disability support services and must approach each of their instructors making their accommodations known [17]. In addition, it is often reported that peer and mentor support can help SwD reach their social, academic and career potential [18]. However, constraints imposed by time, distance and disability make such relationships difficult to initiate and sustain. Previous literature suggested using the Internet as a vehicle for developing and supporting positive peer and mentor relationships [18]. An e-mentor program, which is proposed in the IMAGINE framework, could pair undergraduate with graduate learner and faculty mentors (and graduate learners with faculty). IMAGINE may be able to assist in querying the various services available for SwD (e.g. campus services and ementoring program) and recommending the most appropriate intervention. SwD in the STEM fields are even less likely to complete a degree or certificate than are their peers without disabilities [16]. SwD in STEM usually need more accommodations such as access to laboratory facilities and alternative formats for scientific and mathematics publications. According to National Science Foundation, the percentage of SwD in STEM at the undergraduate level is 10.4%, but the percentage of SwD who secure employment at graduation is 6.2% [19]. SwD generally have less exposure to STEM fields [15], face many more challenges in building their capacity [15] and require more extensive support systems than do people without SwD [15]. Individuals with disabilities, although often acknowledged as the ‘‘largest minority’’, are significantly underrepresented in science and engineering. IMAGINE will focus on the STEM population at the beginning, or at minimum, consider including functionality to support STEM classes, laboratories and research that can impact the general population and may further encourage more SwD to pursue STEM. Statistics show that only about 7.8% of employed persons with disabilities are engineers and also the unemployment

IMAGINE conceptual framework

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rate for persons with disabilities is much higher (more than 40%) than for those without disabilities [19,20]. People with disabilities use technology and develop solutions daily to overcome challenges; this may make them prime candidates for careers that require problem-solving skills. In the physical space, learners visit learning resources (LRs) primarily for learning purposes while other objectives, such as physical activity or personal engagement and networking, may also be intended. Example LRs are the library, bookstore, computing laboratory, classroom, office, laboratory and classmates (through collaborative learning activities). Advances in technology have provided students with the option of learning only through the virtual space, but there are currently no applications that consider how to make up for the benefits that the physical space provides including those related to health and physical activity and personal connections [21,22]. These other purposes and benefits have a profound impact on learners who face mobility challenges and while are interested in learning, they would like to live independently, be physically active, participate in meetings with peers and improve their well-being and quality of life [23]. To that end, IMAGINE provides SwD with optimal learning spaces meeting their goals of enriching their learning while balancing their other important needs and preferences. As technology advances, there are virtual and physical access points to LRs, similar to healthcare with the emphasis on telemedicine. However, the experience and learning differs based on social interaction and fidelity of information. The different modality of access does not mean these resources are equal,

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especially with regards to the student’s learning preferences, needs and abilities. IMAGINE aims to acknowledge these differences and match the students’ needs. Using the University of Pittsburgh’s main campus as an example, Table 1 displays the LRs and learning activities in both the physical space and the virtual space along with the purpose for each example LR. Also illustrated in the table is the functionality that is not supported by some of the examples. For example, Joe, the veteran with newly incurred impairments referenced at the beginning of this article, is only able to obtain special permission for certain benefits by visiting Disability Resources and Services and Office of Veterans Services in-person. Joe was also seeking tutoring services via tutorial sessions for his Data Management and Calculus classes, but was struggling with the online delivery methods and only had the option of visiting the Math Assistance Center in-person. Jane, our other case study, finds CourseWeb to still be limiting with screen reader access and finds some online lab exercises and inperson laboratory equipment to be inaccessible. Even in the case of an individual with a visual impairment, some students may find that pre-planned in-person class and laboratory activities are more effective when completed in-person than virtually. As referenced above, students in STEM disciplines may face additional challenges due to the current status of accessible equipment and a maintained emphasis on face-to-face activities in most settings. In addition to engagement and retention referenced above, IMAGINE may also assist in SwD’ transition to employment and for people with disabilities (PWDs) already in the workforce. For example, in the state of Pennsylvania, only 11.8% of working age

Table 1. Example learning resources and activities in both the physical and virtual space.

Physical Bookstore Campus computing laboratories

Virtual www.pittuniversitystore.com/ www.amazon.com Technology.pitt.edu/ service-locations/ computing-labs.html

Purpose Buy/sell books Print; obtain specialized software Send print jobs; download software; check lab availability Attend class; meet with groups

Picking up printed docs only in physical

No online counseling available No online counseling available

Classroom

www.courseweb.pitt.edu

Counseling services

N/A

Disability Resources and Services

www.drs.pitt.edu

Library

Library.pitt.edu mendeley.com

Study strategies; stress management Executive functioning; test analysis; accommodations; disability counseling; self advocacy; scheduling; and forms Checkout/return books; study

N/A

CourseWeb

Download course materials

Laboratory

CourseWeb

Complete class lab activities and/or research

Math Assistance Center

N/A

Tutoring

Miscellaneous office buildings

N/A

Studying; group meeting locations

Office of Veterans’ Services

Functionality lost in modality

Benefits verification; accommodations; counseling

Online classes not widely supported

Some materials are not available online Online laboratories are less prevalent and possibly not as effective; some equipment is inaccessible No online services provided

No online meetings available

Functionality supported by IMAGINE Class schedule linked to store and books identified Student directed to closest lab dependent on open hours and at optimal time Classrooms are easier to get to with personalized route assistance Direct appointment scheduling through IMAGINE Direct appointment scheduling through IMAGINE

Student directed to closest library dependent on open hours and at optimal time IMAGINE linked to CourseWeb for reminders Student directed to closest lab dependent on open hours and at optimal time

Direct appointment scheduling through IMAGINE Buildings & rooms are easier to get to with personalized route assistance Direct appointment scheduling through IMAGINE

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people with disabilities completed a bachelor’s or higher degree compared to 31.1% of individuals of working age without a disability. Employment rates for people with disabilities is only 35.3%, ranking 41st nationally in comparison to 81.2% for those without disabilities [24]. Similar to the benefits offered to the student, IMAGINE may offer the ability for an employee with a disability to recommend, request and be reminded of appointments, meetings, schedules and services outages. Therefore, the goal of IMAGINE is to provide SwD (or those transitioning or already in the workforce) with the location and time for attending a learning (or work) resource that is most optimal with respect to their style and preference, performance and other activities. The reason for the focus on the physical space is that people with mobility limitations, while interested in similar participation as their able-bodied peers, may face challenges, calling for new technologies and services. Our preliminary focus herewith will focus on IMAGINE as a proposed new means through which SwD can be provided with specific recommendations with respect to their daily activities with the prime interest focused on learning. However, it should be emphasized that similar benefits may be offered to those transitioning or already in the workforce. IMAGINE is unique in that: (a) it is a paradigm shift in how learners, in particular those who are mobility challenged, balance daily activities, learning and others, that meet individual needs and preferences; (b) unlike the current approaches, which fall short of addressing the needs and preferences of SwD, it provides a new means for SwD to decide on where and when is most optimal for them to participate in the physical space; and (c) it is designed to recommend SwD with physical space participation, when possible, as a means to improve their daily activities (learning and others). In terms of incorporating, modifying or extending existing methodologies, IMAGINE builds off of our previous work: OnLocEd, an online location-based education system; SoNavNet, a social navigation network system; and LearnNet, a groupforming collaborative learning system. OnLocEd is a new methodology which has three main objectives: to allow learners to request learning resources and peers based on their current location; to recommend learners learning resources and peers that are within an acceptable proximity from the learner’s location; and to remind learners about relevant and important learning resources, and events and their locations [25]. To meet these objectives, the components of an application that supports OnLocEd are: the virtual space for meeting peers and others; location analytic that analyzes locations of the learner and learning resources; interfaces for mobile devices; and wayfinding and navigation guidance to reach identified learning resources. In IMAGINE, OnLocEd’s objectives are modified and extended to address appropriate learning resources in the physical space and wayfinding and navigation guidance to reach them. Karimi et al. proposed the concept of sharing ‘‘navigationexperience’’. To that end, new mobility models were presented and considered for SoNavNet (a social navigation network system designed and developed in the Geoinformatics Laboratory of the University of Pittsburgh) [26]. The principle foundation for these models is that people often are, or become, familiar with certain locations (e.g. home) in various geographic areas (e.g. city) and their knowledge for wayfinding and navigation in these familiar areas is within a proximity from each location. This means that within the proximity of a known location, people are able to find optimal routes and navigate on them with high-level of confidence, whereas outside of the proximity they are less confident in their wayfinding and navigation knowledge and may need assistance of others or systems/services to travel from one location to another. In IMAGINE, SoNavNet can assist SwD to

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share their experiences about traveling to learning resources and activities. Benner et al. developed a model, called LearNet, for forming groups based on locations. The purpose of group forming is to facilitate collaboration among learners. In LearNet, which is a model for OnLocEd, a network of learning resources and learners is represented as a graph [27]. The nodes of the graph represent learning resources and learners and the links represent the relationship between learners and learning resources (e.g. a request by a learner for a particular learning resource) and between different learners (e.g. a learner recommends another learner to assist a third learner). Initially (e.g. at the beginning of each academic term when a learner registers in new courses), the graph will include nodes and links based on the learner’s profile and plan of study (e.g. a Database Management course). The LearNet graph is dynamic in that overtime, as the learner requests for learning resources (e.g. Database Management books in the library associated with the learner’s plan of study for the Database Management course) and peers (e.g. classmates registered in the same Database Management course), information on existing nodes and links may be updated, new nodes and links may be added (based on new identified needs) and some existing nodes and links may be removed (since they may no longer be needed). In IMAGINE, learners, based on their common needs and interests, are recommended to participate in learning resources and activities. It is expected that with IMAGINE, SwD will be more willing and comfortable to attend meetings with classmates and others to participate in learning activities (e.g. group meetings) and to pursue education and participate in learners communities. As IMAGINE overcomes the barriers of mobility, space and time, SwD will be able to pursue learning in a personalized manner anywhere and anytime.

Methodology IMAGINE’s unique methodologies show its viability as a support application for SwD. Through a pilot study, that examines current SwD’ perceptions of the foundational tools that compose IMAGINE, feedback on navigation tools and what additional functionality could be included in the application are determined. First, in terms of foundational methodologies, IMAGINE’s objectives, which are based on OnLocEd, are modified and extended to address appropriate learning resources in the physical space and wayfinding and navigation guidance to reach them. In addition, IMAGINE considers the unique needs of individuals with disabilities and uses unique methodologies to identify appropriate recommendations to address some of their challenges. Figure 1 shows the steps of the IMAGINE framework. The framework starts by receiving a learning resource (LR) or a learning activity (LA) from a learner and acquiring a location, current location (determined through positioning sensors on the mobile device) or other location requested by the learner. With information on location, the framework searches the geographic area centered at the location within a proximity of P for requested LR/LA. Locations of all relevant LR/LA will be stored in a set. Then the location of each LR/LA will be used as a destination to find a route that meets the needs and preferences of the learner. All possible routes will be stored in a set, and one will be recommended to one of LR/LA.

Ontology To better understand the overall challenges that are faced by SwD for participating in the physical space, an ontology is presented in Figure 2. As is shown in this ontology, SwD primarily traverse on sidewalks. However, not all segments of a sidewalk are passable

IMAGINE conceptual framework

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Get LR/LA

Get Current Locaon or Another Locaon

Search GA with P

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L = {l1, l2, ...,ln}

No

L ĮØ

Yes

Find Accessible Route Figure 2. IMAGINE ontology.

Search VR R = {r1, r2, ...,rm}

No

R=Ø

Yes

Recommend LR/LA Opmal Route Figure 1. The steps of IMAGINE.

by learners with disabilities, for example, those who use wheelchairs and those who are blind or visually impaired. In this regard, some sidewalk segments may offer features that are designed for people with disabilities and are compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) standards.

Algorithms The IMAGINE framework encompasses three algorithms: a recommender algorithm, a reminder algorithm and a request algorithm, described below. Recommender algorithm This is a matching algorithm which would utilize the information in Table 1 to find all possible learning resources available in both the physical space and the virtual space that meet a given learning objective and the learner’s needs and preferences. The algorithm proceeds in two phases. In the first phase, based on a given learning objective, the learning resources available in both the physical and virtual spaces would be discovered. Each learning objective will have two components: subject and topic. The subject component would indicate a course theme (e.g. Database Management) and the topic component would indicate a specific topic in a subject (e.g. data schema). An example of learning

objective in a Database Management course is to learn the process of designing data schema. The steps of the algorithm in phase 1 are as follows: (1) Input: learning objective (subject, topic), needs and references. (2) Search all the accessible learning resources in the physical space that match the learning objective, needs and preferences within a geographic area. (3) Search all the learning resources in the virtual space that match the learning objective, needs and preferences within a geographic area. (4) If the lists in 2 and 3 are empty, no recommendation (stop). (5) If the list in 2 is empty and in 3 non-empty, recommend the list in 3. (6) If the list in 2 is non-empty, go to phase 2. The algorithm in phase 2 will utilize the list in 2 from phase 1 (if it is non-empty) and rank order the learning resources based on personalized needs and preferences. A sketch of the algorithm in the second phase is follows: (1) Input: learning resources in the physical space. (2) Given learner’s current location, find walking or riding on wheelchair distance to all the accessible learning resources. (3) Given learner’s needs and preferences, rank order the list in 2. (4) Given time constraints on learning resources, rank order the list in 3 and recommend a suitable route. Reminder algorithm This algorithm would utilize a combination of the following options to remind users about learning resources: (a) learnerspecified activities and (b) schedules based on operations and events. In option (a), the learner simply requests to be reminded about location and time of specific activities. For example, a learner may request to be reminded about location and time of a tutorial session on Database Management on campus. In option (b), a learner will be reminded about the schedules of operations and events. For example, the learner would be reminded about the

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location and time of a scheduled exam in a course in advance (e.g. a week before). Request algorithm Through this algorithm, learners would be able to request specific information that is not recommended or reminded. This algorithm would allow the learner to further personalize the use of and access to learning resources.

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Personalized routes/directions IMAGINE is based on two approaches, compute-centric and experience-centric, for computing personalized routes and directions. The compute-centric approach is based on identified parameters, models, and algorithms and the experience-centric approach is based on experience sharing, both to find optimal routes and directions for SwD. An example of the computecentric approach is the work by Kasemsuppakorn and Karimi where a personalized routing algorithm based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process was developed for wheelchair users [28]. The routing algorithm in this work is focused on sidewalk networks and considers slope, width, steps, surface condition and traffic to find optimal routes on a sidewalk for wheelchair users. An evaluation of this personalized routing algorithm with wheelchair subjects is discussed and analyzed in [38]. An example of the experience-centric approach is through the aforementioned SoNavNet (see Karimi et al., 2009) where learners, abled-body and disabled, can share their experiences on routes and directions with other members of the network [26]. In SoNavNet, learners can recommend points of interest, routes and directions and annotate them with specific information regarding accessibility and experience to be shared with other learners (Figure 3).

Platform IMAGINE’s framework and algorithms will be incorporated into Personalized Accessibility Location Services (PALS) on

cloud (PALS-Cloud), a new cloud application for PWDs [29]. PALS-Cloud’s main components are Personalized Accessibility (PAM), SoNAvNet and a Pedestrian Navigation Service (PNS). PAM is an interactive map for SwD on campus (Figure 4) [30,31]. Special features of PAM include: the sidewalk network database of the University of Pittsburgh’s main campus that is compliant with the ADA standards; accessible entrances to campus buildings; wayfinding based on shortest routes and personalized (wheelchair users) routes; wayfinding based on campus shuttles; landmark-based directions; and accessibility through web browsers on any device (desktop, laptop and mobile). SoNavNet is for wayfinding and navigation experiences exchange among members of the network, and PNS is for real-time guidance using mobile devices (Figure 5) [32]. Kasemsuppakorn and Karimi (2007) constructed an accessible sidewalk network of the University of Pittsburgh’s main campus (Figure 6) [33]. The sidewalk network was constructed based on the ADA standards and serves as a testbed for developing and evaluating new applications and services such as PAM and PNS. Karimi and Kasemsuppakorn have also investigated and developed new approaches and techniques for automatically generating sidewalk networks at different locations [34]. The developed techniques include fusion of high-resolution satellite imagery and laser imagery [35], road network buffering [36], and multiple GPS trajectories through crowdsourcing services [37,38]. Table 2 shows the methodology, model and tools in IMAGINE matched with SWD needs, the tool’s purpose and the tool’s status. As mentioned previously, our vignettes featuring ‘‘Joe’’ and ‘‘Jane’’ suggest needs that can be addressed by IMAGINE. For example, Joe could use the platform to request to be reminded about the location and time of a tutorial session on Database Management on campus. This would provide Joe with the in-person interaction and course management strategies he needs to be successful and ample notice and instructions on which mode of transportation to take, where to access the transportation and its schedule. IMAGINE would inform Jane of what resources are currently available in the business and

Figure 3. Example POIs and routes in SoNavNet.

IMAGINE conceptual framework

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Figure 4. Example routes in PAM.

Pilot study The IMAGINE framework will only be useful if co-designed and vetted by SwD themselves. To gather SwD’ initial perception of the current and future capabilities of IMAGINE, we facilitated a four-week pilot study with two wheelchair users and three blind/ visually impaired individuals. Participants were asked to complete a baseline questionnaire and participate in an introductory training session and focus group in Phase I of the study. The baseline questionnaire inquired about learners’ level of engagement on campus, barriers faced related to wayfinding and navigation and use of technology to address those barriers or challenges. Because IMAGINE is still at the conceptual level, the subjects were asked to focus on and provided access to PALSCloud’s PAM, component only. The focus group addressed the following topics: utility of PALS-Cloud related to success/ involvement on campus, benefits of PALS-Cloud compared to other navigation systems, utility of the social aspect of PALSCloud, utility of real-time guidance on recommended and personalized routes, utility of PALS-Cloud indoors, and a wish list of features and themes derived from participants’ Wufoo questionnaire responses. In Phase II, after using the tool for four weeks, subjects reflected on their experience with PALS-Cloud in a final questionnaire and focus group. In both focus groups, some questions were derived from participants’ responses from the questionnaires.

Results and discussion Figure 5. An example route in PNS.

engineering libraries, what is available online and what resources would need to be converted in to accessible formats to save her the trip across campus and significant online searching which can be laborious for visually impaired learners.

Participants reported using PALS-Cloud from ‘‘3’’ to a ‘‘handful’’ of times. All participants cited that the tool may be more helpful for students who are new to campus or have newly incurred injuries. Table 3 lists the benefits according to participants before and after using the tool. Benefits range from personalization, to specific features like pinpointing accessible routes, to broadly meet the WHO’s recommendation for allowing people with disabilities to achieve community participation [39].

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Figure 6. Accessible sidewalk network. Table 2. IMAGINE’s methodology and current availability. Methodology/model/tool

SWD’ needs

Purpose

OnLocEd (methodology)

Customize the learning experience to optimize participation

LearNet (model)

Increase physical participation and engagement on campus Customized route planning

Facilitate recommendation, request and reminder about learning resources Facilitate collaboration and group forming among learners Facilitate map interactions for finding accessibility of places and routes Facilitate sharing and exchanging navigation experiences, among other information for learning Provide real-time guidance on pedestrian paths

PAM (tool); a component of PALS-Cloud SoNavNet (tool); a component of PALS-Cloud PNS (tool); a component of PALS-Cloud

Real-time information for navigation and learning Real-time information for route planning

Phase I In response to the baseline questionnaire, 25% of SwD’ identified experiencing issues related to wayfinding and navigation, 50% suggested that they would use a tool to assist in such tasks and that physical barriers restrict access to certain campus benefits and 75% wished that campus was more accessible. The focus group used the survey findings to dive more deeply into participants’ perceptions of accessibility on campus. In the focus group and after the training, in contrast to the questionnaire, the subjects all concluded that a wayfinding tool would be helpful in planning and executing navigation around campus. They all currently use technology and associated features (audio, zoom and Apple iOS or Google maps) for wayfinding, city bus tracking and schedules and other applications that depend on crowdsourcing, which supports the hypothesis that learners would adopt this tool. Participants liked that the tool was personalized to university including detailed information about buildings and shuttle markers, liked the idea of being able to find accessible doors and how to get there and also how the system depicts landmarks. In terms of desired features, learners pointed out several items that were mostly related to real-time tracking that also suggested a

Status It will need to be integrated into IMAGINE It will need to be incorporated into OnLocEd A prototype is available A prototype is available A prototype is available

social or crowdsourced approach. Often accessibility issues arise not just from infrastructure that was not universally designed, but from building or outside structures that are not functioning or under construction. The learners suggested that this information is often conveyed via signage or announcements that have been posted too late. Other suggestions included real-time tracking of shuttles and other services. The learners also recommended accessibility features including using different types of interfaces (joystick instead of mouse for individuals with low dexterity, functionality with other computer access equipment) and customization of notifications or cues (opt in for vibrate versus sound or blinking lights versus sound or vibrate). Additional recommendations include the inclusion of a natural or clear sounding voice instead of one that is overly synthesized for both clarity and correct pronunciation of locations. Phase II After piloting PALS-Cloud for four weeks, four of the five participants returned for a second focus group and also completed the questionnaire. As displayed in Figure 7, an interesting trend

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Table 3. PALS’ pre and post-benefits according to participants. Recommendations Benefits

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Personalized to the university Displays building and shuttle markers Locates accessible entrances Depicts landmarks Pinpoints accessible routes Synchronizes shuttle times Helps in inclement weather Combines the features of several programs (Google, pittshuttle.com) Provides participants independence Eliminates scoping out locations in advance Helps meet WHO’s recommendation for community participation Helps for people with autism (in addition to those with mobility or sensory impairments) Helps to determine what assistive technology to use Helps select optimal personal assistance time Serves as tool for blind mobility training

Pre

Post

   

  

Pre Post    

          

             

3.5 3. 2.5 2. 1.5 1. 0.5 0. Rate your level of I have difficulties particiption on with my campus. wayfinding around campus.

I have difficulties with navigating around campus.

Before After

I wish campus was more accessible.

Physical barriers A wayfind tool around campus (e.g. smart phone restrict my access and/or webto some of the based) would help benefits, services me overcome or opportunities these access that Pitt offers. restrictions.

Figure 7. Average perceptions of participation, barriers, and benefits of tool.

emerged within our small sample from the questionnaire data. In contrast to before the trial, the perceived average levels of participation on campus, difficulties with wayfinding and navigating and desires for a more accessible campus increased. Learners also perceived more physical barriers around campus that may restrict access to some of the benefits, services or opportunities that Pitt offers. Before the trial, only half of the participants suggested (rating a 3 versus 1 or 2) that ‘‘a wayfinding tool (e.g. smart phone and/or web-based) would help me overcome these access restrictions’’; after the trial, all participants agreed that the tool may help address these barriers (all rating three of four being very helpful). One conjecture is that these perceptions are a direct result of experiencing the tool that ultimately resulted in an increased awareness of participation barriers. In addition to the trial, in the initial focus group, training was provided to demonstrate the various types of barriers that would be highlighted on the maps, which account for a variety of disabilities. An additional benefit of using the tool may be to change individuals with and without disabilities’ perceptions of what is considered a barrier to participation (e.g. obstacles are often beyond and out of the scope of the current verbiage of the ADA). Increasing awareness

may ultimately promote more advocacy related to identifying, addressing and eliminating barriers for SwD on campus. Participants also cited PALS-Cloud’s benefits and recommended different features after experiencing the tool for four weeks than originally mentioned in the first focus group. After experiencing the tool, the participants suggested that the system was especially effective in inclement weather to avoid spots that would be difficult to traverse like steep hills. Additional beneficial features include the ability to pinpoint an accessible route, traverse a novel route via pre-planning, know accessible entrances in advance, customize to campus and synch shuttle times. Participants suggested that the system would be particularly beneficial for promoting the independence of new students and those with newly incurred injuries. Often, these students will ‘‘scope out’’ each activity (class, group meeting location, advising location and laboratory setup) prior to attending or participating. Providing indoor maps and the other features that PALS-Cloud encompasses may alleviate this extra step. Participants suggested that at times, navigating indoors can be more difficult than outdoors (the older set up of some buildings). Showing doorways and pictures of classrooms or descriptions like ‘‘tiered seating’’ can illustrate these barriers in advance. Indoor

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M. Goldberg et al.

routes are often alternatives to mitigate challenging outdoor navigation, especially during inclement weather. PALS-Cloud might be helpful for people with autism in addition to those with mobility impairments, especially considering the option to be notified about crowded transportation. The participants also suggested that PALS-Cloud could help improve algorithms to make trackers more accurate if it provided information about issues during busier times (e.g. Monday at 5:00 pm is a bad time to travel a particular route). According to participants, PALS-Cloud could also help to determine what AT to use (e.g. power versus manual wheelchair), be appropriate for blind mobility training and assist with selecting personal assistance time. PALS-Cloud could help determine optimal schedule and pre-planning, along with reminders (e.g. ‘‘You should leave now to make the 71C bus.’’). Participants had several recommendations on how to improve PALS-Cloud. Overall, participants want a user-friendly interface that could be further customized to their preferences. For example, certain thresholds could be set for different types of disabilities. What may be a barrier for some individuals does not cause issues for others. There could also be auto-set preferences for what type of notifications users prefer (e.g. vibrate and audio). It would help to have a direct application button for PALS-Cloud, similar to Google Maps. Customization may be improved if endusers are able to log barriers, and having pre-determined options for crowd sourcing like buttons or voice commands to accept notations such as ‘‘not accessible’’ or ‘‘temporarily out of service’’ would increase the likelihood that barriers would be logged frequently and accurately. These data could be sent to the facilities management of the University directly and the system could also auto-notify users about issues on frequently traveled routes or pre-determined schedules. Participants suggested that because maintenance is generally planned in advance, scheduled alerts related to elevators, ramps, etc., could be distributed to all users via PALS-Cloud. Participants want more real-time feedback via GPS to be able to start from any given point (i.e. ‘‘current location’’), and how long it will take to get from point A to point B. This real-time recommendation feature could provide more accessible restaurant and cafe´ options based on the user’s location, in addition to the closest accessible parking location (and how many accessible spaces the lot or garage contains). Crowdsourcing could also be used here to provide rankings related to accessibility and disability type. For example, certain locations may be accessible, but not very conducive to moving about due to a tight space, or have steps in the back of the facility that would prohibit wheelchair users from entering that room.

Summary and future research We plan to leverage our current research findings in the abovementioned preliminary work and explore new algorithms for both compute-centric and experience-centric approaches in wayfinding and navigation by SwD. Considering the mobility challenges faced by people in this population, these algorithms will be primarily designed for learners who use wheelchairs and those who are blind and visually impaired. One other algorithm that we will investigate is an optimization algorithm that analyzes the solutions of both compute-centric and experience-centric approaches along with a number of parameters, such as location of the learner, locations of origin and destination, time of day, day of week, among others, to find the best solution. Future research and development efforts include prototyping IMAGINE, and possibly expanding IMAGINE beyond education to employment settings. For example, ‘‘Sue’’ who uses a power wheelchair and has the option to work remotely, may be reminded

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that she has a 9:00 am meeting and the system automatically recommends due to pre-set user preferences based on public transportation delays, weather and priority of this particular meeting that she participate from home instead. Because Sue was recommended this option via her smartphone, the meeting application automatically loads on her device. Later in the day, Sue can request the best transportation option for getting from one off-site meeting to another, in which the system would scan Access Paratransit, cabs, public transportation and even colleagues and friends based on both real-time geographic location and stock schedules, and again, automatically select and call the best option based on historical use and availability. Private transportation companies like Uber [40] and Lyft [41] are already using on-demand ridesharing and GPS to link passengers and drivers, so the tool may also include these services. The result of the literature review and pilot study suggest that the IMAGINE framework may be an efficient and effective way to remind, recommend and accept requests for various activities that will allow SwD to participate at the level of their able-bodied peers and consequently, be more successful in higher education. Based on focus group recommendations, real-time feedback, indoor maps and customizable thresholds are a few of the features that will be incorporated to maximize the effectiveness IMAGINE. More pilot research will be conducted to test the added functionality to discover what SWD desire in an overall feature list. A tangential benefit of promoting IMAGINE may be to increase awareness of barriers and the participation consequences that follow, and ultimately promote advocacy to identify, address and eliminate issues that restrict people with disabilities’ access to services and activities. In concordance with the literature and World Health Organization recommendations for the rights of people with disabilities [39], IMAGINE may assist in achieving full community participation for all. In particular, IMAGINE may address the institutional, physical, and attitudinal barriers SwD face on campus referenced by the literature, and achieve some of the critical indicators for learner engagement in college including active and collaborative learning, learner– faculty interaction and full participation in enriching education experiences [8,10].

Declaration of interest The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of this article.

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