Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
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Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi district, Pakistan Zafeer Saqib a,n, Adeel Mahmood b, Riffat Naseem Malik c, Aqeel Mahmood d, Jabir Hussian Syed a, Tahira Ahmad e a
Department of Environmental Science, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan Environmental Biology and Ecotoxicology Laboratory, Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, PO 45320, Pakistan c Environmental Biology and Ecotoxicology Laboratory, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, PO 45320, Pakistan d Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan e Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, PO 45320, Pakistan b
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 24 June 2013 Received in revised form 5 November 2013 Accepted 17 November 2013 Available online 25 November 2013
Aim of study: The present study aimed to report the ethnomedicinal information from Kotli Sattian, district Rawalpindi for detailed medicinal uses and to inform the community about conservation of medicinal plant diversity and ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants. Material and methods: Ethnomedicinal data were collected via Rapid Appraisal Approach (RAA) along with interview, group meetings with local people having awareness about medicinal knowledge of plants and individual meetings with local healers. Results and discussions: This study reported eighty seven (87) indigenous medicinal plants, distributed among fifty five (55) families and seventy nine (79) genera. Among these, herbs contributed 43%, trees 28%, shrubs 21% and climbing plants 8%. About 34% of herbal preparations were made from whole plants followed by the leaves (27%), fruits (08%), bark (06%), seeds (05%), root (05%), rhizome (04%), stem, flower, gum, pod and tubers (02%) and milky latex (01%). Justicia adhatoda showed the maximum use value (0.91) while Cuscuta reflexa showed the least use value (0.11). Conclusion: Elder people in the study area still rely on herbal remedies although the modern heath care facilities are present in the study area; thus, the indigenous plants remain important medicines in solving health problems. & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Kotli Sattian Etno-medicines Indigenous knowledge Local healers Rapid appraisal approach
1. Introduction The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about 65–80% of the world's population of developing nations relies on plants for their basic healthcare needs due to the lack of modern health facilities and poverty (Calixto, 2005). Presently, the ethnomedicinal information of indigenous plants has attained significant considerations in scientific sector (Heinrich, 2000). Medicinal plants gained attention because of increasing costs of allopathic medicines for the maintenance of personal health of human wellbeing (Hoareau and DaSilva, 1999). Over all, a number of available drugs were plants derivatives, either in crude extract
n
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ 92 3219808851. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Saqib), [email protected] (A. Mahmood). 0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.034
form or the simplest form of plant part or may be the mixture of various plants parts. About 200 years ago herbal medicines dominated the pharmacopoeia (Ernst, 2005) and even today if you walk into any pharmacy in the West, you will find at least 25% plant derived drugs (Gilani and Rahman, 2005). According to World Health Organization 252 drugs are essential for basic healthcare and out of these 11% are absolutely of plant origin (Rates, 2001). There are number of reports on the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of Pakistan and these reports are increasing (Ahmad and Husain, 2008; Husain et al., 2008; Mahmood et al., 2011, 2013b; Qureshi et al., 2006, 2007, 2009; Shinwari and Khan, 2000). Pakistan has a rich diversity of medicinal plants and much work is required to save the indigenous medicinal knowledge from the Kotli Sattian. The present study aimed to report the ethnomedicinal information from that region for detailed pharmacological studies and to inform the community about conservation of medicinal plant diversity and ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants.
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Table 1 Age and gander characters of local people interviewed at Kotli Sattian. Informants
Local healer Female Male
Fig. 1. The location of study area in Tehsil Kotli Sattian.
This study aimed to analyze the traditional knowledge of most commonly used medicinal plants.
Age group (years) o 50
450
12 29 69
21 38 84
Total interviewed persons
33 67 153
However, two strata can be identified in a village, the landowners and the menials. The landowners serve as the cultivators while the menials include the artisans and the persons attached to different occupations. Women in the study area seem to move freely and there is no strict, traditional ‘Purda’ system. The houses are not properly fenced and villagers seem to visit each other quite freely. The people in general have a conservative outlook on life (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribes_and_clans_of_the_Pothohar_ Plateau). Due to unfavorable conditions for the agriculture most of the people go out in search of a livelihood inland and abroad. This has brought woman in the study area with new roles and expectations. 2.3. Data collection
2. Material and methods 2.1. Description of study area The study area consists of three watersheds placed at northeastern of Kotli Sattian, which is situated at northeastern portion of Rawalpindi district, the northeastern district of the Punjab (Fig. 1). It holds an important position among the ecological regions of Pakistan due to richness of its biodiversity. It consists of green hills, which are the outskirts of Himalayas, the largest mountain system in the world. The study area lies approximately between 73133′ to 73127′ east longitude and 33144′ to 33154′ north latitudes and covers more than 180 km2 of land. It is bounded on the east by the river Jhelum and on the northwest by the Murree tehsil, Kahuta tehsil bounds it on the south. Kotli Sattian touches the Kashmir Territory on the east by bridging the river Jhelum and on the southeast. The highest point in study area is Patriata at 2166 m above sea level (masl) and the lowest point is 450 m a.s.l. near river Jhelum (Satti, 2000). 2.2. Anthropology of study area In Kotli Sattian there are forty villages, out of which twenty-one are included in the study area. A total of forty four thousand individuals populate in these villages according to the 1998 census report populate these villages (Satti, 2000). The important families and tribes living in the study area are Satties, Dhunds, Dhanials, and Kethwals. The villages have a contour layout that has evolved as a result of an elaborate system of terracing developed for agriculture. The direction of terraces, orientation of scattered houses and location of the roads are all arranged to fit the slopes of the land. There are occasional strings of roadside shops that serve as village center. From this place radiate a number of foot tracks in all directions of holdings. The economy of the area is primarily based on agriculture, which is quite insufficient to support the existing population, consequently the subsistence economy prevails. This problem is the result of poor land capabilities, unfavorable climate, soil erosion, land sliding, land fragmentation and heavy pressure of cattle grazing and human population (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribes_and_clans_of_the_Pothohar_ Plateau). Unlike other parts of the Punjab, there are no landlords in the area and there is only a small proportion of tenant cultivators.
The study was conducted during March 2012 to August 2012. A total 33 herbal healers were identified via rapid appraisal approach. Rapid appraisal approach is hard to quantify but offer valued insight into the variety of dimensions, meanings and expertise of local community with indigenous herbal medicines. It arrests that knowledge, which standard plants use methods are possible to miss. Open ended approaches/methods like interviews and group meetings permitted us to highlight various issues and dimensions which are vital for local people. However, the rapid appraisal approach was easy to adopt and permitted genuine participation at local level. A total of 253 interviews were taken including 33 local healers (male), 67 female and 153 male (Table 1). The females interviewed were the young and old housewives while the majority of male interviewed were the farmers. People were asked to provide information about each indigenous medicinal plant, vernacular name, habit, origin, flowering period, uses (particularly medicinal uses), mode of administration and plant part used for therapeutic value. Interviews were made in the local language (Pothohari). Mr. Adeel was familiar with this language and it permitted the actual picture of information collected by community. Medicinal plants reported in this study were verified by at least three local healers to confirm its use. 2.4. Collection and identification of medicinal plants Medicinal plants reported by local community and verified by local healers were collected during the field survey. Plants used in indigenous healthcare system were identified in the field with the help of their vernacular names and a local person (Mr. Mohsin Raza) helped in field to identify and collect the plants. After collection plants were tagged, wrapped in blotting paper and placed in polythene bags. Plants were transported to the Plant Sciences Department, Quaid-IAzam University, Islamabad, Pakistan, where they were pressed, dried mounted and accessed on herbarium sheets. Voucher specimens were identified by matching the plant species with the flora of Pakistan (Ali and Nasir, 1989–1991; Ali and Qaiser, 1993–2011). 2.5. Data analysis The data collected during this research work was descriptive in nature. Data collected via interviews were coded and stored into
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themes. Various botanists have focused different aspects of content analysis, to breed quantitative explanations by analyzing word counts (Silverman, 1993) to its ability to help researchers draw inferences from a text by breaking that text into discrete units of manageable data that can then be meaningfully reorganized (Weber, 1990; Maroyi, 2011). This data was analyzed through the SPSS program after organizing to present the information in the form of proportions and percentages. 2.6. Use value Relative importance of a plant (UVi) for its indigenous use by local population was calculated by the formula of use value described by Phillips and Gentry (1993). Use value for plant species i is UVi ¼ Σ Ui=Ni where, Ui represents the number of use-report(s) cited by each informer for a specific plant species i and Ni represents the total number of informer interviewed for a specific plant species i.
3. Results and discussions 3.1. Diversity of medicinal plants The present study reported eighty seven (87) plants, being used to treat various human ailments in study area (Table 2). These indigenous medicinal plants were distributed among fifty five (55) families and seventy nine (79) genera. The largest portion (five species) of reported medicinal plants belonged to the Leguminoseae family followed by four species of Poaceae, three species of Asteraceae, Berberidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae and two species of each Alliaceae, Araliaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Berberidaceae, Gentianaceae, Hippocastanaceae, Meliaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae and another thirty four families reported one medicinal plant. Leguminoseae reported the highest diversity of medicinal plants followed by Asteraceae and Berberidaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae also showed the diversity of medicinal plants. Berberidaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae are those families which possess a variety of medicinal plants all over the Pakistan. 3.2. Use of herbal medicines Local indigenous healers of the study area play key roles in the basic healthcare system of this region. A majority of local people were poor and modern healthcare facilities were inaccessible to them. Herbalists deal with these poor clients, who come from resource poor families. People reported using the herbal preparations on their own to treat the minor health problems and they were well aware of the medicinal uses of indigenous plants. They used to prepare herbal medicines at homes and take dose according to the advice of the village's old people. Herbal specialists deal with serious health problems. Some disorders like premature ejaculation were preferred to treat with plants even by the urban community because allopathic medicines were thought to be ineffective for such disorders. People also visit the herbal specialists to cure the infertility and sexual relating problems; effective herbal medication was available against these issues. In the study area a number of medicinal plants were used against a single ailment for example jaundice was reportedly treated by Carissa opaca, Rhus coriaria, Justicia adhatoda, Taraxacum officinale, Calotropis procera, Equisetum debile; Liver related problems like hepatitis were treated by Carissa opaca, Calotropis procera and Equisetum debile and diabetes is treated by the Hedera helix,
Cedrela toona and Punica granatum. Similarly, a single ailment was treated by many plants depending upon the efficiency and efficacy of plant used (Fig. 2). Few of the plants reported in this study have been investigated for pharmacological studies and proved effective against ailments. Comelli et al. (2008) conducted a pharmacological research on Cannabis sativa extract and found its potential effect against neuropathic pain along with the suggestion that it inhibit hepatic metabolism. Anti-inflammatory activity of ethanoloic extract of Punica granatum was studied in Pakistan and found it very potential plant. In this study the phytochemical investigations of this plant revealed the presence of alkaloids, tanins, saponins, sterols and triterpenes etc. (Mohammed and Al-Yahya, 2005). Sidney et al. (2012) wrote a comprehensive review article on human clinical investigations in which Citrus aurantium extract and its phytochemicals like protoalkaloids and p-synephrine were used against various pharmacological and biological activities. Fruit of Solanum nigrum was studied for neuropharmacological activities on test animals and it was found a potential plant for this activity (Perez et al., 1998). Krishnamurthy et al. (2011) conducted a detailed research on leaf extract of Amaranthus viridis and found it best for treatment of diabetes while plant showed considerable Antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic activities. Detailed studied pharmacological activities of reported plants are presented in Supplementary information Table 1.
3.3. Plant parts used as herbal medicine Growth form analysis of medicinal plants used in the study area revealed that herbs constituted the largest proportion (43%) followed by trees (28%), shrubs (21%) and climbing plants (8%). This could be due to the reason, these growth forms are relatively resistant from seasonal variations and easily available in all seasons (Albuquerque, 2006). The whole plants were used most frequently (34%) followed by the leaves (27%), fruits (08%), bark (06%), seeds (05%), root (05%), rhizome (04%), stem, flower, gum, pod and tubers (02%) and milky latex (01%). In the study area local indigenous healers believed that the whole plants (herbs) including roots are more effective than other parts. Studies showed that the underground parts of plants like roots have the highest concentration of bio-active compounds (Kunwar et al., 2006; Mahmood et al., 2013b). The use of roots or whole plant in herbal preparation is problematic with the sustainability point of view; such kind of usage threatens the majority of herbal plants in the study area (Mahmood et al., 2013a).
3.4. Route of application and preparation of herbal medicines The main mode of application for herbal preparation was the oral route of administration (86%) followed by the topical (11%), brush (2%) and drops (1%). Local people also used the herbal preparations as tooth brush, eye and ear drops, poultices/ pastes, and oil. Mono-therapies founded on single plant preparation were most observable in the study area, although some remedies were prepared from more than one plant species (Fig. 2). One part of plant or mixtures of more than one plant part were also practiced for the herbal preparations. Herbal preparations were used as powder, decoction, juice, extract, paste, infusion, oil and fume. Powder and decoctions were the most used preparations. Decoction and infusions are two different preparations; infusion is made by soaking the plant material in water at normal temperature for 1–3 h while decoction is made by boiling the plant part in water until the volume of water is reduced by half. However, it is observed that no hard and fast rule was obeyed for the dosage of herbal preparation in the study area (Mahmood et al., 2012).
Table 2 List of indigenous medicinal plants used by the people of study area. a
c
d
Indigenous medicinal use
December–April
0.91
R, B, L, F
O
/H
March–April
0.32
Bl, L
O, T
/H
March–April
0.50
Bl, L
O, D
Used to treat cough, asthma, bronchitis, stomach inflammation, dysentery, diarrhea, phlegm, jaundice and diabetes, to purify blood, mouth Gums, toothache and T.B Used In treatment of cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, skin diseases, pimples, eruptions, stomach disorder and fever (cattle) Sinusitis, earache, skin infection, eruptions and pimples
March–October
0.48
WP
O
Used against cough, asthma and kidney stone
/H
March–October
0.89
L, S
O
Kangar
/T
March – April
0.24
L, Fr
O
Seeds are thought to improve eyesight, whole plant cooked as vegetable (tonic) Used in Cough, asthma, diarrhea phlegm
Anacardiaceae
Runn
/S
March–July
0.53
Fr, R, L
O, T
Apiaceae
Brahmi Booti
/H
March–May
0.31
WP
O
Used to treat Jaundice, cough, asthma and for body inflammation Tonic, sedative, alterative, anxiolytic
Apiaceae
Sonf
/H
April – June
0.56
WP
O
Used against cough, stomach diseases
Apocynaceae
Granda
/S
April–June
0.82
L, Fr, R
O, T
Apocynaceae
Kaner, Ghanira
/S
April–October
0.45
WP
B
Used to treat asthma, jaundice, kidney stones, liver disorder, anemia and for wound healing in animals Branches are used as miswak (toothbrush)
Araceae
Sap the booti
/H
July–August
0.18
Rh
T, P
Snake bite
Araliaceae
Adbes
/H
May–June
0.21
T ,S, Fr
O, T
Araliaceae
Hrbumbal
/Cl
July–August
0.63
L
O
Gas trouble, stomach disorder, asthma and skin diseases (eruption and pimples) Used against diabetes
Asclepiadaceae
Ak
/H
March– December
0.61
WP
T, P, O
Bata
/S
May–June
0.53
St
P
Useful in skin infections (chambal), back pain, rheumatism, piles, cough, asthma, dog, snake and sting biting Twigs burnt and used as toothpowder
Paktulla
/H
May–June
0.29
L and Rh
O
Tonic, laxative
Sadbarga / Raja
/H
0.18
L
P, T
Vermifuge
—/H
August– December April–May
0.30
WP
O
Jaundice
Plant species and voucher no.
Family name
Local name
1
Justicia adhatoda L. 125311
Acanthaceae
Bhekkar
/S
2
Allium cepa L. 125276
Alliaceae
Piaz
3
Allium sativum L. 125346
Alliaceae
Thom
4
Achyranthes aspera L. 125098 Amaranthus viridis L. 25467 Pistacia integerrima J.L. Stewart. 125099 Rhus coriaria L. 125109
Amaranthaceae
Putkanda
Amaranthaceae
Ganhar
Anacardiaceae
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15
16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23
Periploca aphylla subsp. Asclepiadaceae aphylla Decne. 125698 Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Asteraceae Beauvois 125609 Tagetes minuta L. 125543 Asteraceae Taraxacum officinale Wigg. 125487 Berberis lycium Royle. 125354
Berberis parkeriana C.K. Schn. 125390 Pophyllum hexandrum Royle 125389 Bombax ceiba L. 125392
/H
Flowering period
b
Uses
Part used
RP
Asteraceae
Hund
Berberidaceae
Sumbal
/S
April–May
0.79
R, L, Ba, Fr, Wd
O,T, D
Berberidaceae
Kala Simlu
/S
April–May
0.34
R, Ba
O
Jaundice, wound, rheumatism, injury, bone fracture, toothache, earache, eye diseases, skin diseases, mouth Gums, throat pains, backache, dysentery, liver disorder and to purify blood Urinary complaints
Berberidaceae
Bankakri
/H
June–July
0.19
Rh
O
Constipation, liver complaints (Jaundice)
Bombacaceae
Sumbal
/T
March–October
0.19
R, Ba,Wd, L
O, T
Body weakness, rheumatism, muscular strength, leucorrhoea, dysentery, diarrhea, skin diseases (eruptions and pimples)
Boraginaceae
Hundusee booti
/H
March–August
0.25
WP
O, T
‡
823
24
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. 125289 Foeniculum vulgare Miller 125312 Carissa opaca Stapf ex. Haines 125313 Nerium indicum Miller 125563 Sauromatum venosum (Aiton) Kunth 125543 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume 125511 Hedera nepalensis var. nepalensis K. Koch 1255610 Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. 125639
Origin/ habit
Z. Saqib et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
Use value
S. no
824
Table 2 (continued ) S. no
Plant species and voucher no.
Family name
Local name
a
Origin/ habit
Flowering period
b
Uses
Use value
c
Part used
d
RP
Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br. 125399 /H
November–April
0.67
WP
O
Cannabis sativa L. 125405 Cannabinaceae
Bhang
/H
April–September
0.23
L
O
Rumex hastatus D. Don 125478 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 125471 Convolvulus arvensis L. 125489 Cuscuta reflexa var. reflexa Roxb. 125472 Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. 125473 Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher 124975
Polygonaceae
Khatimal
March–August
0.43
WP
O
Polygonaceae
Hula
/H
March–May.
0.23
WP
O, T
Convolvulaceae
Lehli
/Cl
0.32
WP
O, T
Cuscutaceae
Nilatar
/Cl
February– November January–March
0.11
WP
O, T
Dioscoraceae
Dhattar Bail
/Cl
0.43
T
T
To kill lice and bedbugs
Equisetaceae
Trotoou Ghas
0.15
WP
O
In treatment of jaundice liver and intestinal inflammation
Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 124953 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. 125023 Phyllanthus emblica L. 125039 Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus 125495 Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten 125118 Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet 125589 Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta L. 125321 Juglans regia var. kamaonia L. 125639 Ajuga bracteosa var. bracteosa Wall. 125545
Euphorbiaceae
Lal booti
/H
August– September August– September (Spores) April–December
0.23
L
O
Used to treat diarrhea and dysentery
Euphorbiaceae
Kamila
/T
0.48
WP
O, T
Intestinal worms and constipation
Euphorbiaceae
Amla
/T
September– November. March–June
0.32
WP
O
Fagaceae
Rein
/T
April–May
0.12
Ba, L, Wd
O
Gentianaceae
Chirayita
/H
June–July
0.28
WP
O
Used in treatment of jaundice, dysentery, fever internal body inflammation and indigestion Used in treatment of asthma, cough, fever, rheumatism and backache Used against pimples and to purify blood
Geraniaceae
Rattanjot
/H
May–June
0.53
R
O
Hippocastanaceae Hippocastanaceae Lamiaceae
Ghoresum, Phuldhari Khore / Akhrote
/H
July–September
0.35
WP
O
/H
February–April
0.69
Fr, S
O
Kauri booti
/H
March– September
0.52
WP
O, T
Lamiaceae
Jangli Pina
—/H
July–August
0.70
L
O
Chitta Jand
/H
April–June
0.30
WP
O, P
Khair
/T
April–August
0.36
St
0, B
Brassica campestris L. 125402
26 27
29 30 31 32
33 34 35 36 37
38 39 40 41
Brassicaceae
42
Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson 125542
43
Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Lamiaceae Boiss. 125538 Acacia catechu (L.f.) Wild. Leguminoseae 125541
44
45 46
47
/H
—/H
▲
‡
‡▲
Acacia modesta Wall. 125678 Acacia nilotica subsp. indica (L.) Willd. 125540
Leguminoseae
Phulahi
/T
April–May
0.28
Ba, Gm, L
O
Leguminoseae
Kikar
/T
March–August
0.24
Ba, Gm, F, P, L
O, B
Cassia fistula L. 125314
Leguminoseae
Amaltas
/T
March–June
0.19
P, S
O
‡
Used as tonic, against gastric ulcers and for treatment of jaundice Used against intestinal and bladder inflammation and sexual debility Fruit tonic, seed sedative Used to treat mouth Gums, throat pain, blood purification, body inflammation, earache, eye diseases, eruption and pimples Used in Stomach disorder, gas trouble, indigestion, vomiting, cholera, fever and cough. Fresh and dry leaves are used as spice and carminative Used to treat Gums and throat pain. The WP is used as firewood when dry Useful against Gums diseases, sore throat, diarrhea, earache and eye diseases. Young twigs are used as toothbrush (miswak) Thought useful in leucorrhoea, sexual debility and back pain Effective against diarrhea, dysentery, cough, phlegm, rheumatism, leucorrhoea and wound healing. Twigs are used as toothbrush (miswak)
Z. Saqib et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
Sarsoon
Dysentery, stomach inflammation, joint swelling, to make wound soft, stomach disorder and to kill intestinal worms in cattle Used in treatment of leucorrhoea, menstrual disorder, gleets, body weakness, pain. WP is given as fodder to milk cattle to increase milk production Used to treat body inflammation, intoxication, to improve hunger, abdominal swelling due to indigestion in cattle Effective against asthma, cough, fever and for general body weakness in cattle To treat diarrhea, dysentery and for intestinal worms in cattle To relief constipation and also used for hair washing to remove dandruff Used in treatment of paralysis and jaundice; purgative
25
28
Indigenous medicinal use
48 49 50 51
52 53
54
56
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
65 66 67 68 69 70 71
72 73
0.37
L, Br
O, T
April–May
0.14
WP
O
Urinary complaints
April–May
0.24
L, F Wd
O, T
0.44
WP
O
April–November
0.58
L, Fr, Mlt
O, T
Effective against piles, diarrhea, dysentery and healing of wounds Effective against malarial fever, piles, earache, headache, swelling, wounds, to purify blood, gas trouble and indigestion in cattle Useful in skin infection, pimples and eruptions
March–May
0.31
L, Fr, St
O, T
July–September.
0.42
WP
O
/T
April–June
0.27
WP
O, P
Khatmith
/H
March– December
0.49
WP
O, T
Pinaceae
Chir
/T
February–April
0.13
WP
T
Plantaginaceae
Ispaghole
/H
Poaceae
Khabbal
Poaceae
Barru
Poaceae
Leguminoseae
Tali
/T
March–April
Liliaceae
Muniata
/H
Lytheraceae
Dhavi
/S
Meliaceae
Drek
/T
March–April
Moraceae
Phagwara
/T
Myrsinaceae
Khukal
/S
Boerhavia procumbens (Roxb.) Hk.F 125334 Olea ferruginea Royle 125376 Oxalis corniculata L. 125234
Nyctaginaceae
Itsit
Oleaceae
Kahu
Oxalidaceae
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. 125537 Plantago major L. 125338
Ficus palmata subsp. virgata Forssk. 125231 Myrsine africana L. 125241
‡
‡
0.36
L, S
O
June–October
0.49
WP
O
To check bleeding and for wound healing
/H
July–November
0.21
WP
O
Used for Indigestion
Kunak
/H
March–April
▲
0.65
WP
O
Poaceae
Makki
/H
June–August
▲
0.61
WP
O
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. 125009 Punica granatum L. 125536
Pteridaceae
Hansraj, Sraj
–/H
0.42
WP
O
Punicaceae
Dani / Daruna
/T
May–August (Spores) April–June
0.20
WP
O, P
Clematis grata Wall. 125156 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex D. Don 125535 Zizyphus jujuba Lam. 125622 Zizyphus oxyphylla Edgew. 125502 Prunus persica (L.) Batsch 125503 Rosa brunonii Lindl. 125234 Randia tetrasperma (Roxb.) Benth. and Hook. f. ex Brandis 125346 Wendlandia exserta (Roxb) DC. 125522 Citrus aurantium L. 125098
Ranunculaceae
Ojaw
/H
August–October
0.19
L
T
Ranunculaceae
Sarsoon booti
/H
March–May
0.39
L
T
Rhamnaceae
Ber
/T
May–August
0.77
WP
O, T
Stomach disorders, fever in cattle, increase milk production in cattle and nursing women Silk is used in kidney pain, stone and urinary disorders (scanty urination) Treatment of cough, asthma, fever, jaundice, cold, measles and chest pain Effective in diarrhea, dysentery, piles, diabetes, intestinal worms, fever, to purify blood, whooping cough, cooling, indigestion, stomach disorder, liver and intestinal inflammation, jaundice, vomiting, mouth Gums and toothache Use to treat skin infection (Chambal), to kill germs and worms in the wounds of cattle and dogs Skin infections (Chambal), to kill germs in dog and cattle wounds Taken for constipation, skin diseases (allergy) and diarrhea
Rhamnaceae
Jari
/T
June–September
0.48
WP
O, T, P
Rosaceae
Aru
/T
March–May
0.43
L, Fr
O, T
Rosaceae
Tarni
April–June
0.36
WP
O
Intestinal worms, skin diseases, pimples, eruption, mouth Gums, earache, eye diseases and high blood pressure Used to kill intestinal worms and to remove maggots from wounds in cattle and dogs Effective in constipation
Rubiaceae
Kuvvee
/S
September– November
0.19
L
O, P
To treat Gum and mouth diseases
Rubiaceae
Ukkan
/S
January–March
0.45
Ba
O
Urinary complaints
Rutaceae
Nembu
/T
June–July
0.34
Fr
O
Effective against cholera, fever and vomiting
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 125335 Sorghum halepense (L.) Beauvois 125336 Triticum aestivum L. 125339 Zea mays L. 125005
–/H
/H
/Cl
‡
825
May–October
Effective against intestinal worms, urinary disorder (scanty urination), to purify blood, kidney pain, skin diseases (allergy and pimples) Effective in diseases like jaundice, constipation and internal body inflammation Use to treat Gum diseases, toothache, throat pain and hoarseness Effective against stomach disorders, intestinal, liver and stomach inflammation, wound healing and to stop bleeding and to kill germs In treatment of measles. Leaves (Locally called Ter) are used for mud roof thatching, in mud plasters Asthma, cough, dysentery, fever and phlegm
Z. Saqib et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
55
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. 125366 Tulipa stellata Hook.f. 125341 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. 125315 Melia azedarach L. 125337
Effective in constipation, stomach disorders and chest infections Used against muscular pain, diarrhea and dandruff
826
Table 2 (continued ) a
c
d
Indigenous medicinal use
0.65
WP
O, B
0.23
WP
O
0.59
WP
O, T
0.43
Fr, S
O, T
March–May.
0.69
Rh
O
Effective in gas troubles, cholera, stomach disorder, piles, mouth Gum, toothache and indigestion. miswaks are made from the branches Newly sprouted buds are used to cure fevers, especially typhoid Used in treatment of rheumatism, swelling and intestinal worms Constipation, piles, rheumatism, internal inflammation, kidney pain and eye vision diseases, fruit is used to remove dandruff from hairs Effective against gastric ulcer, back pain, piles, dysentery, external and internal wounds
/H
June–August
0.43
L, F
O
Datura
/S
May–October
0.58
S, L
O, P
Solanaceae
Kachmach
/H
March– December
0.76
WP
O
Solanaceae
Mhokri
/H
0.36
WP
O
Tiliaceae
Dhaman
/T
March– December April – August
0.24
WP
O
Used to treat body and joint swelling, skin diseases, mouth Gums, for inflamed and painful parts of body and to wash wounds Useful in fever, cough, indigestion in cattle, stomach disorder and asthma Used against constipation and stomach inflammation
Urticaceae
Sindwari
/S
March–April
0.38
WP
O, D
Effective against dysentery, diarrhea and earache
Verbenaceae
Marween
/S
0.73
WP
O, B
Violaceae
Banafsha
/H
March– September March–April
0.65
WP
O, P
Vitaceae
Dakh
/Cl
March–May
0.71
Fr, L
O
Effective in gas trouble, cholera and stomach grips. Twigs are used as miswak Fever, cold, cough, asthma, jaundice, headache, toothache and sore throat Efficacious in kidney stone
Plant species and voucher no.
Family name
Local name
74
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 125087
Rutaceae
Timar
/S
March–May
75
Salix tetrasperma Roxb 125032 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 125109 Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. 125621
Salicaceae
Beense
/T
March–May.
Sapindaceae
Sanatha
/S
January–March
Sapindaceae
Ritha
/T
May–June
Saxifragaceae
Batpia
/H
Scrophulariaceae Loot Sella Solanaceae
76 77
78
79 80 81
82 83 84 85 86 87
Bergenia ciliata forma ligulata (Haw.) Sternb. 125672 Verbascum thapsus L. 125421 Datura stramonium L. 125547 Solanum nigrum L. 125554
Solanum surattense Burm. f. 125543 Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex Burret 125521 Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Don) Rendle 125620 Vitex negundo L. 125610 Viola canescens Wall. 125467 Vitis vinifera L. 125298
Origin/ habit
Flowering period
b
Uses
‡
‡
‡
Part used
RP
Effective against skin infections (Itch) in humans and dysentery and diarrhea in cattle Effective against cough, asthma and intestinal worms
a , Cosmopolitan; , Holarctic and Sino-Japanese-Indo-Malaysian; , Indian; , Indo-Malaysian; , Irano-Turanian or west (Introduced or cultivated); , South east Asiatic Malaysian; , South east Chinese; , Tropical; –, Not known; Tree, T; Herb, H; Shrub, S; Climbing; Cl. b Medicinal; , Fruit yielding plants; , Agricultural tools; , Crop/vegetable/potherb; , Fiber; ▲, Fodder; , Fuel; , Ornamental; , Thatching and sheltering; ‡, Timber; , Grazing and browsing. c d
Roots, R; Leaves, L; Branches, B; Flowers, F; Whole plant, WP; Bulb, Bl; Fruit, Fr; Seed, S; Rhizome, Rh; Bark, Ba; Stem, St; Milky latex, Mlt; Wood, Wd; Pod, P; Gum, Gm; Tuber, T. Route of application; O, Oral; D, Drop; T, Topical: B, Brush; P, Paste.
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Use value
S. no
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827
Fig. 2. Medicinal plants used against some specific diseases.
3.5. Relative importance of medicinal plants
Appendix A. Supporting information
Justicia adhatoda showed the maximum use value (0.91), due to its wide diversity in the study area and local people use it frequently against cough, asthma, bronchitis and as a blood purifier. Amaranthus viridis has the use value 0.89, and is commonly found in the study area and used as a vegetable as tonic agent. Carissa opaca has the use value 0.82 and has a great diversity in the study area; its fruit said to be very effective in jaundice and kidney stone. Berberis lyceum, Zizyphus jujube and Solanum nigrum also showed the high use vale (0.79, 0.77 and 0.76, respectively) while Cuscuta reflexa showed the least use value (0.11). Cuscuta reflexa is not abundant in the study area that is the reason its use value is low.
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.034.
4. Conclusion The present study showed that a number of indigenous plants are practiced by local people of study area in their healthcare system. The local community still relies on herbal remedies although, the modern heath care facilities are present in the study area; thus, the indigenous plants remain important medicines for solving local health problems. This study is an important document that preserves the indigenous medicinal knowledge of Kotli Sattian district Rawalpindi for scientific institutions and future generations. This ethnomedicinal study is a baseline to develop a link between local traditional healers and scientific institutions, to develop/discover new drugs. The present study also highlights the needs of conservation of medicinal plants of study area. A major proportion of plant parts used whole plant and roots, this use pattern without appropriate replanting could eradicate the flora of medicinal plants. There should be a proper check-up of medicinal plants in term of sustainability and conservation. There is a dare need of detailed pharmacological screenings of medicinal plants having high use value; although, some of reported plants in this study have been evaluated for pharmacological evaluations. However, a major proportion of indigenous plants still need attention for detailed pharmacological screenings.
Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the local people of study area for sharing their traditional knowledge. The authors especially express thanks to local healers for their extraordinary support during the survey.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in Kotli Sattian, Rawalpindi district, Pakistan Zafeer Saqib a,n, Adeel Mahmood b, Riffat Naseem Malik c, Aqeel Mahmood d, Jabir Hussian Syed a, Tahira Ahmad e a
Department of Environmental Science, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan Environmental Biology and Ecotoxicology Laboratory, Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, PO 45320, Pakistan c Environmental Biology and Ecotoxicology Laboratory, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, PO 45320, Pakistan d Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan e Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, PO 45320, Pakistan b
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 24 June 2013 Received in revised form 5 November 2013 Accepted 17 November 2013 Available online 25 November 2013
Aim of study: The present study aimed to report the ethnomedicinal information from Kotli Sattian, district Rawalpindi for detailed medicinal uses and to inform the community about conservation of medicinal plant diversity and ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants. Material and methods: Ethnomedicinal data were collected via Rapid Appraisal Approach (RAA) along with interview, group meetings with local people having awareness about medicinal knowledge of plants and individual meetings with local healers. Results and discussions: This study reported eighty seven (87) indigenous medicinal plants, distributed among fifty five (55) families and seventy nine (79) genera. Among these, herbs contributed 43%, trees 28%, shrubs 21% and climbing plants 8%. About 34% of herbal preparations were made from whole plants followed by the leaves (27%), fruits (08%), bark (06%), seeds (05%), root (05%), rhizome (04%), stem, flower, gum, pod and tubers (02%) and milky latex (01%). Justicia adhatoda showed the maximum use value (0.91) while Cuscuta reflexa showed the least use value (0.11). Conclusion: Elder people in the study area still rely on herbal remedies although the modern heath care facilities are present in the study area; thus, the indigenous plants remain important medicines in solving health problems. & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Kotli Sattian Etno-medicines Indigenous knowledge Local healers Rapid appraisal approach
1. Introduction The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about 65–80% of the world's population of developing nations relies on plants for their basic healthcare needs due to the lack of modern health facilities and poverty (Calixto, 2005). Presently, the ethnomedicinal information of indigenous plants has attained significant considerations in scientific sector (Heinrich, 2000). Medicinal plants gained attention because of increasing costs of allopathic medicines for the maintenance of personal health of human wellbeing (Hoareau and DaSilva, 1999). Over all, a number of available drugs were plants derivatives, either in crude extract
n
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ 92 3219808851. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Saqib), [email protected] (A. Mahmood). 0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.034
form or the simplest form of plant part or may be the mixture of various plants parts. About 200 years ago herbal medicines dominated the pharmacopoeia (Ernst, 2005) and even today if you walk into any pharmacy in the West, you will find at least 25% plant derived drugs (Gilani and Rahman, 2005). According to World Health Organization 252 drugs are essential for basic healthcare and out of these 11% are absolutely of plant origin (Rates, 2001). There are number of reports on the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants of Pakistan and these reports are increasing (Ahmad and Husain, 2008; Husain et al., 2008; Mahmood et al., 2011, 2013b; Qureshi et al., 2006, 2007, 2009; Shinwari and Khan, 2000). Pakistan has a rich diversity of medicinal plants and much work is required to save the indigenous medicinal knowledge from the Kotli Sattian. The present study aimed to report the ethnomedicinal information from that region for detailed pharmacological studies and to inform the community about conservation of medicinal plant diversity and ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants.
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Table 1 Age and gander characters of local people interviewed at Kotli Sattian. Informants
Local healer Female Male
Fig. 1. The location of study area in Tehsil Kotli Sattian.
This study aimed to analyze the traditional knowledge of most commonly used medicinal plants.
Age group (years) o 50
450
12 29 69
21 38 84
Total interviewed persons
33 67 153
However, two strata can be identified in a village, the landowners and the menials. The landowners serve as the cultivators while the menials include the artisans and the persons attached to different occupations. Women in the study area seem to move freely and there is no strict, traditional ‘Purda’ system. The houses are not properly fenced and villagers seem to visit each other quite freely. The people in general have a conservative outlook on life (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribes_and_clans_of_the_Pothohar_ Plateau). Due to unfavorable conditions for the agriculture most of the people go out in search of a livelihood inland and abroad. This has brought woman in the study area with new roles and expectations. 2.3. Data collection
2. Material and methods 2.1. Description of study area The study area consists of three watersheds placed at northeastern of Kotli Sattian, which is situated at northeastern portion of Rawalpindi district, the northeastern district of the Punjab (Fig. 1). It holds an important position among the ecological regions of Pakistan due to richness of its biodiversity. It consists of green hills, which are the outskirts of Himalayas, the largest mountain system in the world. The study area lies approximately between 73133′ to 73127′ east longitude and 33144′ to 33154′ north latitudes and covers more than 180 km2 of land. It is bounded on the east by the river Jhelum and on the northwest by the Murree tehsil, Kahuta tehsil bounds it on the south. Kotli Sattian touches the Kashmir Territory on the east by bridging the river Jhelum and on the southeast. The highest point in study area is Patriata at 2166 m above sea level (masl) and the lowest point is 450 m a.s.l. near river Jhelum (Satti, 2000). 2.2. Anthropology of study area In Kotli Sattian there are forty villages, out of which twenty-one are included in the study area. A total of forty four thousand individuals populate in these villages according to the 1998 census report populate these villages (Satti, 2000). The important families and tribes living in the study area are Satties, Dhunds, Dhanials, and Kethwals. The villages have a contour layout that has evolved as a result of an elaborate system of terracing developed for agriculture. The direction of terraces, orientation of scattered houses and location of the roads are all arranged to fit the slopes of the land. There are occasional strings of roadside shops that serve as village center. From this place radiate a number of foot tracks in all directions of holdings. The economy of the area is primarily based on agriculture, which is quite insufficient to support the existing population, consequently the subsistence economy prevails. This problem is the result of poor land capabilities, unfavorable climate, soil erosion, land sliding, land fragmentation and heavy pressure of cattle grazing and human population (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribes_and_clans_of_the_Pothohar_ Plateau). Unlike other parts of the Punjab, there are no landlords in the area and there is only a small proportion of tenant cultivators.
The study was conducted during March 2012 to August 2012. A total 33 herbal healers were identified via rapid appraisal approach. Rapid appraisal approach is hard to quantify but offer valued insight into the variety of dimensions, meanings and expertise of local community with indigenous herbal medicines. It arrests that knowledge, which standard plants use methods are possible to miss. Open ended approaches/methods like interviews and group meetings permitted us to highlight various issues and dimensions which are vital for local people. However, the rapid appraisal approach was easy to adopt and permitted genuine participation at local level. A total of 253 interviews were taken including 33 local healers (male), 67 female and 153 male (Table 1). The females interviewed were the young and old housewives while the majority of male interviewed were the farmers. People were asked to provide information about each indigenous medicinal plant, vernacular name, habit, origin, flowering period, uses (particularly medicinal uses), mode of administration and plant part used for therapeutic value. Interviews were made in the local language (Pothohari). Mr. Adeel was familiar with this language and it permitted the actual picture of information collected by community. Medicinal plants reported in this study were verified by at least three local healers to confirm its use. 2.4. Collection and identification of medicinal plants Medicinal plants reported by local community and verified by local healers were collected during the field survey. Plants used in indigenous healthcare system were identified in the field with the help of their vernacular names and a local person (Mr. Mohsin Raza) helped in field to identify and collect the plants. After collection plants were tagged, wrapped in blotting paper and placed in polythene bags. Plants were transported to the Plant Sciences Department, Quaid-IAzam University, Islamabad, Pakistan, where they were pressed, dried mounted and accessed on herbarium sheets. Voucher specimens were identified by matching the plant species with the flora of Pakistan (Ali and Nasir, 1989–1991; Ali and Qaiser, 1993–2011). 2.5. Data analysis The data collected during this research work was descriptive in nature. Data collected via interviews were coded and stored into
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themes. Various botanists have focused different aspects of content analysis, to breed quantitative explanations by analyzing word counts (Silverman, 1993) to its ability to help researchers draw inferences from a text by breaking that text into discrete units of manageable data that can then be meaningfully reorganized (Weber, 1990; Maroyi, 2011). This data was analyzed through the SPSS program after organizing to present the information in the form of proportions and percentages. 2.6. Use value Relative importance of a plant (UVi) for its indigenous use by local population was calculated by the formula of use value described by Phillips and Gentry (1993). Use value for plant species i is UVi ¼ Σ Ui=Ni where, Ui represents the number of use-report(s) cited by each informer for a specific plant species i and Ni represents the total number of informer interviewed for a specific plant species i.
3. Results and discussions 3.1. Diversity of medicinal plants The present study reported eighty seven (87) plants, being used to treat various human ailments in study area (Table 2). These indigenous medicinal plants were distributed among fifty five (55) families and seventy nine (79) genera. The largest portion (five species) of reported medicinal plants belonged to the Leguminoseae family followed by four species of Poaceae, three species of Asteraceae, Berberidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae and two species of each Alliaceae, Araliaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Berberidaceae, Gentianaceae, Hippocastanaceae, Meliaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae and another thirty four families reported one medicinal plant. Leguminoseae reported the highest diversity of medicinal plants followed by Asteraceae and Berberidaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae also showed the diversity of medicinal plants. Berberidaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae are those families which possess a variety of medicinal plants all over the Pakistan. 3.2. Use of herbal medicines Local indigenous healers of the study area play key roles in the basic healthcare system of this region. A majority of local people were poor and modern healthcare facilities were inaccessible to them. Herbalists deal with these poor clients, who come from resource poor families. People reported using the herbal preparations on their own to treat the minor health problems and they were well aware of the medicinal uses of indigenous plants. They used to prepare herbal medicines at homes and take dose according to the advice of the village's old people. Herbal specialists deal with serious health problems. Some disorders like premature ejaculation were preferred to treat with plants even by the urban community because allopathic medicines were thought to be ineffective for such disorders. People also visit the herbal specialists to cure the infertility and sexual relating problems; effective herbal medication was available against these issues. In the study area a number of medicinal plants were used against a single ailment for example jaundice was reportedly treated by Carissa opaca, Rhus coriaria, Justicia adhatoda, Taraxacum officinale, Calotropis procera, Equisetum debile; Liver related problems like hepatitis were treated by Carissa opaca, Calotropis procera and Equisetum debile and diabetes is treated by the Hedera helix,
Cedrela toona and Punica granatum. Similarly, a single ailment was treated by many plants depending upon the efficiency and efficacy of plant used (Fig. 2). Few of the plants reported in this study have been investigated for pharmacological studies and proved effective against ailments. Comelli et al. (2008) conducted a pharmacological research on Cannabis sativa extract and found its potential effect against neuropathic pain along with the suggestion that it inhibit hepatic metabolism. Anti-inflammatory activity of ethanoloic extract of Punica granatum was studied in Pakistan and found it very potential plant. In this study the phytochemical investigations of this plant revealed the presence of alkaloids, tanins, saponins, sterols and triterpenes etc. (Mohammed and Al-Yahya, 2005). Sidney et al. (2012) wrote a comprehensive review article on human clinical investigations in which Citrus aurantium extract and its phytochemicals like protoalkaloids and p-synephrine were used against various pharmacological and biological activities. Fruit of Solanum nigrum was studied for neuropharmacological activities on test animals and it was found a potential plant for this activity (Perez et al., 1998). Krishnamurthy et al. (2011) conducted a detailed research on leaf extract of Amaranthus viridis and found it best for treatment of diabetes while plant showed considerable Antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic activities. Detailed studied pharmacological activities of reported plants are presented in Supplementary information Table 1.
3.3. Plant parts used as herbal medicine Growth form analysis of medicinal plants used in the study area revealed that herbs constituted the largest proportion (43%) followed by trees (28%), shrubs (21%) and climbing plants (8%). This could be due to the reason, these growth forms are relatively resistant from seasonal variations and easily available in all seasons (Albuquerque, 2006). The whole plants were used most frequently (34%) followed by the leaves (27%), fruits (08%), bark (06%), seeds (05%), root (05%), rhizome (04%), stem, flower, gum, pod and tubers (02%) and milky latex (01%). In the study area local indigenous healers believed that the whole plants (herbs) including roots are more effective than other parts. Studies showed that the underground parts of plants like roots have the highest concentration of bio-active compounds (Kunwar et al., 2006; Mahmood et al., 2013b). The use of roots or whole plant in herbal preparation is problematic with the sustainability point of view; such kind of usage threatens the majority of herbal plants in the study area (Mahmood et al., 2013a).
3.4. Route of application and preparation of herbal medicines The main mode of application for herbal preparation was the oral route of administration (86%) followed by the topical (11%), brush (2%) and drops (1%). Local people also used the herbal preparations as tooth brush, eye and ear drops, poultices/ pastes, and oil. Mono-therapies founded on single plant preparation were most observable in the study area, although some remedies were prepared from more than one plant species (Fig. 2). One part of plant or mixtures of more than one plant part were also practiced for the herbal preparations. Herbal preparations were used as powder, decoction, juice, extract, paste, infusion, oil and fume. Powder and decoctions were the most used preparations. Decoction and infusions are two different preparations; infusion is made by soaking the plant material in water at normal temperature for 1–3 h while decoction is made by boiling the plant part in water until the volume of water is reduced by half. However, it is observed that no hard and fast rule was obeyed for the dosage of herbal preparation in the study area (Mahmood et al., 2012).
Table 2 List of indigenous medicinal plants used by the people of study area. a
c
d
Indigenous medicinal use
December–April
0.91
R, B, L, F
O
/H
March–April
0.32
Bl, L
O, T
/H
March–April
0.50
Bl, L
O, D
Used to treat cough, asthma, bronchitis, stomach inflammation, dysentery, diarrhea, phlegm, jaundice and diabetes, to purify blood, mouth Gums, toothache and T.B Used In treatment of cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, skin diseases, pimples, eruptions, stomach disorder and fever (cattle) Sinusitis, earache, skin infection, eruptions and pimples
March–October
0.48
WP
O
Used against cough, asthma and kidney stone
/H
March–October
0.89
L, S
O
Kangar
/T
March – April
0.24
L, Fr
O
Seeds are thought to improve eyesight, whole plant cooked as vegetable (tonic) Used in Cough, asthma, diarrhea phlegm
Anacardiaceae
Runn
/S
March–July
0.53
Fr, R, L
O, T
Apiaceae
Brahmi Booti
/H
March–May
0.31
WP
O
Used to treat Jaundice, cough, asthma and for body inflammation Tonic, sedative, alterative, anxiolytic
Apiaceae
Sonf
/H
April – June
0.56
WP
O
Used against cough, stomach diseases
Apocynaceae
Granda
/S
April–June
0.82
L, Fr, R
O, T
Apocynaceae
Kaner, Ghanira
/S
April–October
0.45
WP
B
Used to treat asthma, jaundice, kidney stones, liver disorder, anemia and for wound healing in animals Branches are used as miswak (toothbrush)
Araceae
Sap the booti
/H
July–August
0.18
Rh
T, P
Snake bite
Araliaceae
Adbes
/H
May–June
0.21
T ,S, Fr
O, T
Araliaceae
Hrbumbal
/Cl
July–August
0.63
L
O
Gas trouble, stomach disorder, asthma and skin diseases (eruption and pimples) Used against diabetes
Asclepiadaceae
Ak
/H
March– December
0.61
WP
T, P, O
Bata
/S
May–June
0.53
St
P
Useful in skin infections (chambal), back pain, rheumatism, piles, cough, asthma, dog, snake and sting biting Twigs burnt and used as toothpowder
Paktulla
/H
May–June
0.29
L and Rh
O
Tonic, laxative
Sadbarga / Raja
/H
0.18
L
P, T
Vermifuge
—/H
August– December April–May
0.30
WP
O
Jaundice
Plant species and voucher no.
Family name
Local name
1
Justicia adhatoda L. 125311
Acanthaceae
Bhekkar
/S
2
Allium cepa L. 125276
Alliaceae
Piaz
3
Allium sativum L. 125346
Alliaceae
Thom
4
Achyranthes aspera L. 125098 Amaranthus viridis L. 25467 Pistacia integerrima J.L. Stewart. 125099 Rhus coriaria L. 125109
Amaranthaceae
Putkanda
Amaranthaceae
Ganhar
Anacardiaceae
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15
16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23
Periploca aphylla subsp. Asclepiadaceae aphylla Decne. 125698 Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Asteraceae Beauvois 125609 Tagetes minuta L. 125543 Asteraceae Taraxacum officinale Wigg. 125487 Berberis lycium Royle. 125354
Berberis parkeriana C.K. Schn. 125390 Pophyllum hexandrum Royle 125389 Bombax ceiba L. 125392
/H
Flowering period
b
Uses
Part used
RP
Asteraceae
Hund
Berberidaceae
Sumbal
/S
April–May
0.79
R, L, Ba, Fr, Wd
O,T, D
Berberidaceae
Kala Simlu
/S
April–May
0.34
R, Ba
O
Jaundice, wound, rheumatism, injury, bone fracture, toothache, earache, eye diseases, skin diseases, mouth Gums, throat pains, backache, dysentery, liver disorder and to purify blood Urinary complaints
Berberidaceae
Bankakri
/H
June–July
0.19
Rh
O
Constipation, liver complaints (Jaundice)
Bombacaceae
Sumbal
/T
March–October
0.19
R, Ba,Wd, L
O, T
Body weakness, rheumatism, muscular strength, leucorrhoea, dysentery, diarrhea, skin diseases (eruptions and pimples)
Boraginaceae
Hundusee booti
/H
March–August
0.25
WP
O, T
‡
823
24
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. 125289 Foeniculum vulgare Miller 125312 Carissa opaca Stapf ex. Haines 125313 Nerium indicum Miller 125563 Sauromatum venosum (Aiton) Kunth 125543 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume 125511 Hedera nepalensis var. nepalensis K. Koch 1255610 Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. 125639
Origin/ habit
Z. Saqib et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
Use value
S. no
824
Table 2 (continued ) S. no
Plant species and voucher no.
Family name
Local name
a
Origin/ habit
Flowering period
b
Uses
Use value
c
Part used
d
RP
Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br. 125399 /H
November–April
0.67
WP
O
Cannabis sativa L. 125405 Cannabinaceae
Bhang
/H
April–September
0.23
L
O
Rumex hastatus D. Don 125478 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 125471 Convolvulus arvensis L. 125489 Cuscuta reflexa var. reflexa Roxb. 125472 Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. 125473 Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher 124975
Polygonaceae
Khatimal
March–August
0.43
WP
O
Polygonaceae
Hula
/H
March–May.
0.23
WP
O, T
Convolvulaceae
Lehli
/Cl
0.32
WP
O, T
Cuscutaceae
Nilatar
/Cl
February– November January–March
0.11
WP
O, T
Dioscoraceae
Dhattar Bail
/Cl
0.43
T
T
To kill lice and bedbugs
Equisetaceae
Trotoou Ghas
0.15
WP
O
In treatment of jaundice liver and intestinal inflammation
Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 124953 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. 125023 Phyllanthus emblica L. 125039 Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus 125495 Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten 125118 Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet 125589 Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta L. 125321 Juglans regia var. kamaonia L. 125639 Ajuga bracteosa var. bracteosa Wall. 125545
Euphorbiaceae
Lal booti
/H
August– September August– September (Spores) April–December
0.23
L
O
Used to treat diarrhea and dysentery
Euphorbiaceae
Kamila
/T
0.48
WP
O, T
Intestinal worms and constipation
Euphorbiaceae
Amla
/T
September– November. March–June
0.32
WP
O
Fagaceae
Rein
/T
April–May
0.12
Ba, L, Wd
O
Gentianaceae
Chirayita
/H
June–July
0.28
WP
O
Used in treatment of jaundice, dysentery, fever internal body inflammation and indigestion Used in treatment of asthma, cough, fever, rheumatism and backache Used against pimples and to purify blood
Geraniaceae
Rattanjot
/H
May–June
0.53
R
O
Hippocastanaceae Hippocastanaceae Lamiaceae
Ghoresum, Phuldhari Khore / Akhrote
/H
July–September
0.35
WP
O
/H
February–April
0.69
Fr, S
O
Kauri booti
/H
March– September
0.52
WP
O, T
Lamiaceae
Jangli Pina
—/H
July–August
0.70
L
O
Chitta Jand
/H
April–June
0.30
WP
O, P
Khair
/T
April–August
0.36
St
0, B
Brassica campestris L. 125402
26 27
29 30 31 32
33 34 35 36 37
38 39 40 41
Brassicaceae
42
Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson 125542
43
Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Lamiaceae Boiss. 125538 Acacia catechu (L.f.) Wild. Leguminoseae 125541
44
45 46
47
/H
—/H
▲
‡
‡▲
Acacia modesta Wall. 125678 Acacia nilotica subsp. indica (L.) Willd. 125540
Leguminoseae
Phulahi
/T
April–May
0.28
Ba, Gm, L
O
Leguminoseae
Kikar
/T
March–August
0.24
Ba, Gm, F, P, L
O, B
Cassia fistula L. 125314
Leguminoseae
Amaltas
/T
March–June
0.19
P, S
O
‡
Used as tonic, against gastric ulcers and for treatment of jaundice Used against intestinal and bladder inflammation and sexual debility Fruit tonic, seed sedative Used to treat mouth Gums, throat pain, blood purification, body inflammation, earache, eye diseases, eruption and pimples Used in Stomach disorder, gas trouble, indigestion, vomiting, cholera, fever and cough. Fresh and dry leaves are used as spice and carminative Used to treat Gums and throat pain. The WP is used as firewood when dry Useful against Gums diseases, sore throat, diarrhea, earache and eye diseases. Young twigs are used as toothbrush (miswak) Thought useful in leucorrhoea, sexual debility and back pain Effective against diarrhea, dysentery, cough, phlegm, rheumatism, leucorrhoea and wound healing. Twigs are used as toothbrush (miswak)
Z. Saqib et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
Sarsoon
Dysentery, stomach inflammation, joint swelling, to make wound soft, stomach disorder and to kill intestinal worms in cattle Used in treatment of leucorrhoea, menstrual disorder, gleets, body weakness, pain. WP is given as fodder to milk cattle to increase milk production Used to treat body inflammation, intoxication, to improve hunger, abdominal swelling due to indigestion in cattle Effective against asthma, cough, fever and for general body weakness in cattle To treat diarrhea, dysentery and for intestinal worms in cattle To relief constipation and also used for hair washing to remove dandruff Used in treatment of paralysis and jaundice; purgative
25
28
Indigenous medicinal use
48 49 50 51
52 53
54
56
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
65 66 67 68 69 70 71
72 73
0.37
L, Br
O, T
April–May
0.14
WP
O
Urinary complaints
April–May
0.24
L, F Wd
O, T
0.44
WP
O
April–November
0.58
L, Fr, Mlt
O, T
Effective against piles, diarrhea, dysentery and healing of wounds Effective against malarial fever, piles, earache, headache, swelling, wounds, to purify blood, gas trouble and indigestion in cattle Useful in skin infection, pimples and eruptions
March–May
0.31
L, Fr, St
O, T
July–September.
0.42
WP
O
/T
April–June
0.27
WP
O, P
Khatmith
/H
March– December
0.49
WP
O, T
Pinaceae
Chir
/T
February–April
0.13
WP
T
Plantaginaceae
Ispaghole
/H
Poaceae
Khabbal
Poaceae
Barru
Poaceae
Leguminoseae
Tali
/T
March–April
Liliaceae
Muniata
/H
Lytheraceae
Dhavi
/S
Meliaceae
Drek
/T
March–April
Moraceae
Phagwara
/T
Myrsinaceae
Khukal
/S
Boerhavia procumbens (Roxb.) Hk.F 125334 Olea ferruginea Royle 125376 Oxalis corniculata L. 125234
Nyctaginaceae
Itsit
Oleaceae
Kahu
Oxalidaceae
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. 125537 Plantago major L. 125338
Ficus palmata subsp. virgata Forssk. 125231 Myrsine africana L. 125241
‡
‡
0.36
L, S
O
June–October
0.49
WP
O
To check bleeding and for wound healing
/H
July–November
0.21
WP
O
Used for Indigestion
Kunak
/H
March–April
▲
0.65
WP
O
Poaceae
Makki
/H
June–August
▲
0.61
WP
O
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. 125009 Punica granatum L. 125536
Pteridaceae
Hansraj, Sraj
–/H
0.42
WP
O
Punicaceae
Dani / Daruna
/T
May–August (Spores) April–June
0.20
WP
O, P
Clematis grata Wall. 125156 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex D. Don 125535 Zizyphus jujuba Lam. 125622 Zizyphus oxyphylla Edgew. 125502 Prunus persica (L.) Batsch 125503 Rosa brunonii Lindl. 125234 Randia tetrasperma (Roxb.) Benth. and Hook. f. ex Brandis 125346 Wendlandia exserta (Roxb) DC. 125522 Citrus aurantium L. 125098
Ranunculaceae
Ojaw
/H
August–October
0.19
L
T
Ranunculaceae
Sarsoon booti
/H
March–May
0.39
L
T
Rhamnaceae
Ber
/T
May–August
0.77
WP
O, T
Stomach disorders, fever in cattle, increase milk production in cattle and nursing women Silk is used in kidney pain, stone and urinary disorders (scanty urination) Treatment of cough, asthma, fever, jaundice, cold, measles and chest pain Effective in diarrhea, dysentery, piles, diabetes, intestinal worms, fever, to purify blood, whooping cough, cooling, indigestion, stomach disorder, liver and intestinal inflammation, jaundice, vomiting, mouth Gums and toothache Use to treat skin infection (Chambal), to kill germs and worms in the wounds of cattle and dogs Skin infections (Chambal), to kill germs in dog and cattle wounds Taken for constipation, skin diseases (allergy) and diarrhea
Rhamnaceae
Jari
/T
June–September
0.48
WP
O, T, P
Rosaceae
Aru
/T
March–May
0.43
L, Fr
O, T
Rosaceae
Tarni
April–June
0.36
WP
O
Intestinal worms, skin diseases, pimples, eruption, mouth Gums, earache, eye diseases and high blood pressure Used to kill intestinal worms and to remove maggots from wounds in cattle and dogs Effective in constipation
Rubiaceae
Kuvvee
/S
September– November
0.19
L
O, P
To treat Gum and mouth diseases
Rubiaceae
Ukkan
/S
January–March
0.45
Ba
O
Urinary complaints
Rutaceae
Nembu
/T
June–July
0.34
Fr
O
Effective against cholera, fever and vomiting
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 125335 Sorghum halepense (L.) Beauvois 125336 Triticum aestivum L. 125339 Zea mays L. 125005
–/H
/H
/Cl
‡
825
May–October
Effective against intestinal worms, urinary disorder (scanty urination), to purify blood, kidney pain, skin diseases (allergy and pimples) Effective in diseases like jaundice, constipation and internal body inflammation Use to treat Gum diseases, toothache, throat pain and hoarseness Effective against stomach disorders, intestinal, liver and stomach inflammation, wound healing and to stop bleeding and to kill germs In treatment of measles. Leaves (Locally called Ter) are used for mud roof thatching, in mud plasters Asthma, cough, dysentery, fever and phlegm
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55
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. 125366 Tulipa stellata Hook.f. 125341 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. 125315 Melia azedarach L. 125337
Effective in constipation, stomach disorders and chest infections Used against muscular pain, diarrhea and dandruff
826
Table 2 (continued ) a
c
d
Indigenous medicinal use
0.65
WP
O, B
0.23
WP
O
0.59
WP
O, T
0.43
Fr, S
O, T
March–May.
0.69
Rh
O
Effective in gas troubles, cholera, stomach disorder, piles, mouth Gum, toothache and indigestion. miswaks are made from the branches Newly sprouted buds are used to cure fevers, especially typhoid Used in treatment of rheumatism, swelling and intestinal worms Constipation, piles, rheumatism, internal inflammation, kidney pain and eye vision diseases, fruit is used to remove dandruff from hairs Effective against gastric ulcer, back pain, piles, dysentery, external and internal wounds
/H
June–August
0.43
L, F
O
Datura
/S
May–October
0.58
S, L
O, P
Solanaceae
Kachmach
/H
March– December
0.76
WP
O
Solanaceae
Mhokri
/H
0.36
WP
O
Tiliaceae
Dhaman
/T
March– December April – August
0.24
WP
O
Used to treat body and joint swelling, skin diseases, mouth Gums, for inflamed and painful parts of body and to wash wounds Useful in fever, cough, indigestion in cattle, stomach disorder and asthma Used against constipation and stomach inflammation
Urticaceae
Sindwari
/S
March–April
0.38
WP
O, D
Effective against dysentery, diarrhea and earache
Verbenaceae
Marween
/S
0.73
WP
O, B
Violaceae
Banafsha
/H
March– September March–April
0.65
WP
O, P
Vitaceae
Dakh
/Cl
March–May
0.71
Fr, L
O
Effective in gas trouble, cholera and stomach grips. Twigs are used as miswak Fever, cold, cough, asthma, jaundice, headache, toothache and sore throat Efficacious in kidney stone
Plant species and voucher no.
Family name
Local name
74
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 125087
Rutaceae
Timar
/S
March–May
75
Salix tetrasperma Roxb 125032 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 125109 Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. 125621
Salicaceae
Beense
/T
March–May.
Sapindaceae
Sanatha
/S
January–March
Sapindaceae
Ritha
/T
May–June
Saxifragaceae
Batpia
/H
Scrophulariaceae Loot Sella Solanaceae
76 77
78
79 80 81
82 83 84 85 86 87
Bergenia ciliata forma ligulata (Haw.) Sternb. 125672 Verbascum thapsus L. 125421 Datura stramonium L. 125547 Solanum nigrum L. 125554
Solanum surattense Burm. f. 125543 Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex Burret 125521 Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Don) Rendle 125620 Vitex negundo L. 125610 Viola canescens Wall. 125467 Vitis vinifera L. 125298
Origin/ habit
Flowering period
b
Uses
‡
‡
‡
Part used
RP
Effective against skin infections (Itch) in humans and dysentery and diarrhea in cattle Effective against cough, asthma and intestinal worms
a , Cosmopolitan; , Holarctic and Sino-Japanese-Indo-Malaysian; , Indian; , Indo-Malaysian; , Irano-Turanian or west (Introduced or cultivated); , South east Asiatic Malaysian; , South east Chinese; , Tropical; –, Not known; Tree, T; Herb, H; Shrub, S; Climbing; Cl. b Medicinal; , Fruit yielding plants; , Agricultural tools; , Crop/vegetable/potherb; , Fiber; ▲, Fodder; , Fuel; , Ornamental; , Thatching and sheltering; ‡, Timber; , Grazing and browsing. c d
Roots, R; Leaves, L; Branches, B; Flowers, F; Whole plant, WP; Bulb, Bl; Fruit, Fr; Seed, S; Rhizome, Rh; Bark, Ba; Stem, St; Milky latex, Mlt; Wood, Wd; Pod, P; Gum, Gm; Tuber, T. Route of application; O, Oral; D, Drop; T, Topical: B, Brush; P, Paste.
Z. Saqib et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
Use value
S. no
Z. Saqib et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 820–828
827
Fig. 2. Medicinal plants used against some specific diseases.
3.5. Relative importance of medicinal plants
Appendix A. Supporting information
Justicia adhatoda showed the maximum use value (0.91), due to its wide diversity in the study area and local people use it frequently against cough, asthma, bronchitis and as a blood purifier. Amaranthus viridis has the use value 0.89, and is commonly found in the study area and used as a vegetable as tonic agent. Carissa opaca has the use value 0.82 and has a great diversity in the study area; its fruit said to be very effective in jaundice and kidney stone. Berberis lyceum, Zizyphus jujube and Solanum nigrum also showed the high use vale (0.79, 0.77 and 0.76, respectively) while Cuscuta reflexa showed the least use value (0.11). Cuscuta reflexa is not abundant in the study area that is the reason its use value is low.
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.034.
4. Conclusion The present study showed that a number of indigenous plants are practiced by local people of study area in their healthcare system. The local community still relies on herbal remedies although, the modern heath care facilities are present in the study area; thus, the indigenous plants remain important medicines for solving local health problems. This study is an important document that preserves the indigenous medicinal knowledge of Kotli Sattian district Rawalpindi for scientific institutions and future generations. This ethnomedicinal study is a baseline to develop a link between local traditional healers and scientific institutions, to develop/discover new drugs. The present study also highlights the needs of conservation of medicinal plants of study area. A major proportion of plant parts used whole plant and roots, this use pattern without appropriate replanting could eradicate the flora of medicinal plants. There should be a proper check-up of medicinal plants in term of sustainability and conservation. There is a dare need of detailed pharmacological screenings of medicinal plants having high use value; although, some of reported plants in this study have been evaluated for pharmacological evaluations. However, a major proportion of indigenous plants still need attention for detailed pharmacological screenings.
Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the local people of study area for sharing their traditional knowledge. The authors especially express thanks to local healers for their extraordinary support during the survey.
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