THE JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE Volume 21, Number 5, 2015, pp. 294–303 ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/acm.2014.0016

Indigenous Knowledge of Medicinal Plants Among Dozo Hunters: An Ethnobotanical Survey in Niamberla Village, Burkina Faso Andre´ Tibiri, PhD,1 Wamtinga Richard Sawadogo, PhD,1 Abou Dao, MD,2 Bethany G. Elkington, PhD,3 Noufou Ouedraogo, PhD,1 and Innocent Pierre Guissou, PhD1,4

Abstract

Objectives: This investigation aims to provide a database of Dozo traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used for the treatment of common diseases. Design: The study was conducted through individual interviews using a survey form. Data were recorded in a database allowing statistical analysis. Each plant was recorded and documented with a herbarium specimen. Settings/Location & Subjects: The term Dozo refers to great hunters from Burkina Faso, highly renowned for their knowledge of medicinal plants. Niamberla village was founded by Dozo hunters and is currently the residence of many traditional healers. Unfortunately, their indigenous knowledge is not well recorded and may be lost between two generations. Results: A total of 16 traditional healers were interviewed, giving 89 recipes for the treatment of 37 diseases. The most common diseases are malaria (13%), psychological/spiritual issues (12%), gastric disorders (11%), sexually transmitted diseases (10%), and wounds (8%). A total of 56 medicinal plants have been identified, consisting mostly of trees (44%), shrubs (34%), and herbs (16%). Conclusions: The results of this research provide a basis for pharmacological and toxicological investigations and are necessary to preserve the indigenous knowledge of traditional medicine among Dozo hunters.

Introduction

A

frican traditional medicine has been a main recourse for the medical needs of many populations in West Africa for many centuries.1,2 The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of the population of developing countries relies primarily on traditional medicine for their healthcare needs.3 The indigenous knowledge of this medicine, transmitted verbally from generation to generation, is at risk because of memory problems and lack of trust between the elderly and the youth. In addition, climate change is posing a threat to the survival of some of the medicinal plants,4 the major component of traditional medicine used by the Dozo hunters. Since 1978, the WHO has recommended that each developing country make a complete inventory of their me-

dicinal plants, with an evaluation of known safety and efficacy, along with methods for the standardization of the active components.5 This process necessarily passes through ethnobotanical investigations, involving collaboration between researchers, doctors, and traditional healers.6 In Burkina Faso, surveys have been conducted for scattered programs and institutions, but very few results have been published.1,7–9 This project aims to help document traditional medicine through an ethnobotanical survey involving 5 researchers, 16 traditional healers, and 1 biomedical doctor from Burkina Faso. The targeted area is Niamberla village, which is the birth village of one of the researchers, and was founded by Dozo hunters of the Se´nufo community. The Dozo are initiated and trained hunters, and their lives involve many secret ceremonies and sacrifices.10 These people are well known in West Africa for their

1

Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Sante´, Departement Me´decine, Pharmacope´e Traditionnelles et Pharmacie (IRSS-MEPHATRA/ PH), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. 2Centre de Radiothe ´ rapie et d’Oncologie, CHU Ibn Rochd, Universite´ Hassan II, Casablanca, Maroc. 3 Field Museum of Natural History, Center for Integrative Research, Science & Education Department (Botany), Chicago, IL. 4 Laboratoire de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie, UFR-SDS, Universite´ de Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

294

MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE OF DOZO OF BURKINA FASO

traditional knowledge regarding the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of common diseases, including malaria, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, and gastric disorders. While there are other similar villages founded by Dozo hunters throughout West Africa, this village was chosen not only because one member of the research team comes from this village, but also because his father was included as one of these venerable healers. The main objective of this research is to record the indigenous knowledge of one Se´nufo community of Dozo hunters about medicinal plants in order to preserve this knowledge and to provide a usable database for future analysis and investigations.

295

DC., Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill.&Perr., Burkea africana Hook., Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. and Dalziel, Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. Ex A.DC., Isoberlinia doka Craib and Stapf, and Guibourtia copallifera. The main herbaceous species were Andropogon gayanus Kunth, Diheteropogon amplectens (Nees) Clayton, Loudetia simplex (Nees) C.E. Hubb., and Vetiveria nigritana Stapf. Islam is the dominant religion in the area although many people also practice African traditional religions that are deeply rooted in their ancestral customs. The community is organized by strict discipline and respect for the customary hierarchy. Methods

Materials and Methods Study area and the people

Niamberla village, founded and inhabited by Dozo hunters of the Se´nufo community, is situated in the western quadrant of Burkina Faso in the province of Ke´ne´dougou (Fig. 1). The last census in 2006 reported the population to be 2687, of which 51% were female and 49% were male. The most frequently encountered soils are hydromorphic mineral to stagnosol (pseudogley) soils. The major plant communities are shrub savannas, tree savannas, and woodland savannas, along with woodland and gallery forests. The most common woody species included Acacia sieberiana

Two researchers and one biomedical doctor conducted the survey through individual semistructured interviews with 16 traditional healers, who were chosen following a meeting with the village chief and the president of the local chapter of the Association of Traditional Healers, based on their reputations as healers and medicinal plant experts in the community. The Se´nufo language was used for the discussion. One member of the research team served as the translator and medical reference. Data were collected using a special survey form and were recorded into a database for statistical analysis. The collected data included the diseases treated, the local plant name and parts used, and the types of extraction and methods of administration. A specimen of

FIG. 1. Location of Niamberla village in the municipality of Morolaba, province of Ke´ne´dougou. Source: Geographic Institute of Burkina Faso, 2002.

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each plant was collected in the presence of the traditional healer and was later identified by Prof. Hamdae´ Ouedraogo, a renowned botanist from the University of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Consent to have the results published in an international journal was given by the village chief after consultation with the participating healers. Results and Discussion Practice of traditional medicine among the Dozo hunters

Interviews were conducted with 16 traditional healers, with ages ranging from 39 to 100 years. Although the importance of gathering information from females in the community has been shown,11 all of the healers in this study were male. Similar to what is seen with modern biomedicine, each traditional healer in this community is specialized in the treatment of one or more diseases. This knowledge is transmitted in the same family from generation to generation. This research encountered four main obstacles:

TIBIRI ET AL.

results showed that the Dozo healers mostly use plant leaves, aiding in the conservation of species and environmental protection. Preparation methods varied, including decoction, maceration, infusion, calcination, carbonization, powder, and ointments for external application. Nevertheless, the most commonly used were found to be decoction (55%), maceration (25%), and powder (11%). The different modes of administration follow the same dynamics with predominantly oral (46%), followed by body bath (34%), and enema and poultices (7% each). According to entries in Napralert, PubMed, and the Web of Science, the most widely researched plants listed in this research included Arachis hypogaea L., Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., Manihot esculenta Crantz, Moringa oleifera Lam./Moringa ovalifolia Dinter & Berger, Sorghum bicolor (L.), and Tamarindus indica L.Moench. Each of these plants has more than 1000 research entries. In this study, a plant was only recorded the first time it was mentioned by a healer, so an area for future research could look at the frequency of citation for each plant to see which are used more than others.



Description of the diseases by healers is often imprecise by biomedical standards. That observation is in concordance with the results provided by another study on traditional medicine and kidney diseases in Burkina Faso.12  Emerging diseases such as high blood pressure, cancer, and diabetes are not understood, as well as diseases that have been more prevalent in the past.  The concept of dose is relative. For example, some dosages are measured by the little finger or by the palm of the hand. In these conditions, the amount of the medicine depends on the person who makes the measurements. That kind of dosage has also been described by Megersa et al. in an ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Ethiopia.2  Biomedical evidence of the traditional remedies is not well-established due to the lack of collaboration between biomedical doctors and traditional healers. Some African countries have established centers for traditional medicine to train both actors of modern and folk medicine,6,13 and this dynamic may also help to improve the practice of traditional medicine in Burkina Faso. Plants and remedies recorded

There were 83 medicinal plants recorded during the study, representing 58 common names. Of these, 56 were identified to species level (Table 1). The most common plant types were trees (44%), shrubs (34%), and herbs (16%). Because of the sterile condition of the plants when herbarium specimens were collected, the 27 plants that were not identified have been excluded from the present publication. Most recipes contain a single plant, which is a characteristic of traditional medicine among Dozo hunters, which differs from most African communities, in which recipes of traditional medicine consist of a mixture of two or more plants.14,15 The most commonly used plant parts are the leaves (37%), roots (33%), and stem bark (14%). These data are consistent with the extensive use of trees (41.8%) in the preparation of recipes. Unlike other communities, which preferentially use the roots and stem bark of plants,6 our

Diseases encountered

During our investigation, there were 89 preparations recorded for the treatment of 37 diseases and related health problems (Table 1). The main diseases were malaria (13%) followed by psychological and spiritual issues (12%), gastric disorders (11%), sexually transmitted diseases (10%), and various types of wounds (8%), various forms of headaches (6%), and chest pain (4%). The frequency of pathologies gives an idea about the health situation of Niamberla village. This community does not differ from others in Burkina Faso, where malaria is one of the leading causes of medical consultations and deaths each year.16 As the majority of rural populations use traditional medicine, the healers offer more recipes for the most common diseases compared with those not often encountered. Aside from easily classifiable diseases, other preparations are available to treat difficult-to-define diseases, including those involved with spiritual or psychological problems. The most common of these cited was anxiety/anguish (50%), followed by others that included hallucinatory psychoses, nightmares, bad luck or curses, schizophrenia or ‘‘craziness,’’ and being struck by lightning. These kinds of treatments are generally accompanied with incantation words that cannot be scientifically verified at this time. In this report, we explicitly removed the incantations related to the recipes. Future research

While comparing the uses of these plants to those that have been previously recorded, it was noted that very little or no previous ethnomedical and/or biochemical research could be found about Ampelocissus leonensis (Hook. f.) Planch, Anaphrenium insigne (Delile) Fiori, Maximilianea tinctoria (A. Rich.) Kuntze, Pusaetha africana (Guill. & Perr.) Kuntze, Vangueria agrestis (Schweinf. ex Hiern) Lantz, and Vicoa leptoclada (Webb) Dandy. These six plants, therefore, signal exciting opportunities for future biochemical discoveries. There are also biochemical studies that support the healers’ claims about some of the plants. Additional information may

297

Herbaceous Herbaceous, parasite Tree Shrub Shrub

Brouzon-ye´ Kla-do-ngan-ne´ Solodjone´ Solo-sibengue´ Dahadon-ngue´

Asparagaceae—Sansevieria liberica Ge´roˆme & Labroy (TA09-03, 51) Asteraceae—Vicoa leptoclada (Webb) Dandy (TA09-15) Bignoniaceae—Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. (TA09-41) Bixaceae—Cochlospermum planchonii Hook. f. ex Planch. (TA09-08) Cochlospermaceae—Maximilianea tinctoria (A. Rich.) Kuntze (TA09-44)

Liana

Kobligue´, Koblissigue´

Apocynaceae—Saba senegalensis (A. DC.) Pichon (TA09-50)

Shrub

Tree

Tree

Tje´-ngue´

Anacardiaceae—Lannea microcarpa Engl. (TA09-42)

Anacardiaceae—Sclerocarya birrea Kunan-yiri (A. Rich.) Hochst. (TA09-52) Annonaceae—Annona senegalensis Mourime´ Pers. (TA09-29)

Tree, shrub

Type of plant

Ti-fahame´

Local name (Se´nufo)

Anacardiaceae—Anaphrenium insigne (Delile) Fiori (TA09-28)

Scientific name (collection number)

Sexually transmitted diseases

Malaria

Diabetes

Jaundice

Psychological/spiritual (bad luck/curses) Sexually transmitted diseases Wounds (old or chronic)

General malaise Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Psychological/spiritual (schizophrenia) Headache Burns

Maceration

Stem bark

Leaves

Root

Fruit

Whole plant

Root Leaves

Root

Root

Fruit (green; unripe) Leaves Root

Leaves Root

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction

Decoction Maceration, powder Maceration, powder Maceration, powder Carbonization Decoction

Decoction

Decoction Maceration

Decoction

Decoction

Stem bark

Root

Decoction Decoction

Leaves Leaves

Headache Sexually transmitted diseases Uninterrupted menstrual, hematuria Psychological/spiritual (schizophrenia) Cough (dry)

Decoction

Preparation

Leaves

Plant parts

Chest pain

Traditional use in Niamberla

Table 1. Plants, Pathologies, Preparations, and Administration

Bathing

(continued)

Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral, bathing

Topical Enema

Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing

Bathing Enema

Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral, bathing, massage, steam bath Oral, bathing Oral, bathing

Administration

298

Tree, shrub

Tree, shrub Tree Tree

Mourigan-woone´

Sebari-ngue´ Gbonri-ngue´ Ne`ssigue´, Ne´zigue´

Fabaceae—Cassia sieberiana DC. (TA09-11)

Fabaceae—Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. (TA09-34) Fabaceae—Erythrina senegalensis DC. (TA09-13) Fabaceae—Parkia biglobosa ( Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don (TA09-46)

Tree

Kayan-ngue´

Herbaceous

Herbaceous

Massako-ngue´

Tingue`

Shrub

Korossire´

Shrub

Shrub

Kloufe´-boume´

Wou-logon-ngue´

Shrub

Tegui-re´ (Te´gue´re´)

Herbaceous

Shrub

Shrub

Type of plant

Nafoˆho-ngue´ (Na-fouˆ-ngue´) Se´kori-ngue´

Local name (Se´nufo)

Banaan-gou-ye´

Combretaceae—Combretum fragrans F. Hoffm. (TA09-20) Combretaceae—Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC. (TA09-21) Combretaceae—Combretum micranthum G. Don (TA09-14) Combretaceae—Combretum molle R. Br. ex G. Don (TA09-33) Combretaceae—Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. (TA09-17) Convolvulaceae—Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (TA09-39) Ebenaceae—Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC. (TA09-24) Euphorbiaceae—Manihot esculenta Crantz (TA09-43) Fabaceae—Acacia macrostachya Rchb. ex DC. (TA09-25) Fabaceae—Arachis hypogaea L. (TA09-30)

Scientific name (collection number)

Leaves

Tubercle

Leaves Leaves

Tuber

Stem Leaves (young)

Leaves

Fruit

Leaves Leaves Leaves Root

Plant parts

Decoction

Leaves

Root Leaves Stem bark Root

Sexual weakness General malaise Meningitis Hemorrhoids

Stem bark

Root

Malaria

Wounds (old or chronic) Chest pain

Maceration

Decoction

Powder

Decoction Decoction

Maceration

Decoction Maceration

Decoction

Maceration

Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction

Preparation

Decoction, maceration Decoction, infusion Powder Decoction Decoction Maceration, ointment Carbonization

Women’s health (heavy Seed or painful menstruation) Gastric disorders Root

Dental caries

Headache Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Sexual weakness

Malaria

Sexually transmitted diseases Headache (children) Diarrhea

Gastric disorders

Gastric disorders Malaria Chest pain Gastric disorders

Traditional use in Niamberla

Table 1. (Continued)

bathing bathing bathing bathing

(continued)

Oral, bathing

Oral, enema, massage

Oral Oral, bathing Oral, bathing, topical Purging, topical

Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral

Bathing, mouthwash

Oral

Bathing Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing Oral

Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral, Oral, Oral, Oral,

Administration

299

Malvaceae—Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl. (TA0932) Malvaceae—Sterculia setigera Delile (TA09-55) Malvaceae—Waltheria indica L. (TA09-10) Malvaceae—Wissadula amplissima var. rostrata (Schumach.) R.E. Fr. (TA09-12)

Malvaceae—Adansonia digitata L. (TA09-26)

Decoction, powder Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction

Stem bark

Seed Stem bark

Bone fractures Diarrhea Tingling sensation Malaria Wounds (fresh)

Tree Tree Herbaceous Herbaceous

Wong-ngue´ Kroukrou si-gue´ Ganha-tou-ye´ (Gantouye´) Ya-we´re´

Leaves

Root

Root Stem bark Flower Leaves

Leaves Stem

Leaves

Stem bark

Root

Leaves

Stem bark

Decoction, powder

Decoction

Decoction Decoction Powder, ointment Calcination, decoction Maceration Decoction

Decoction Decoction, carbonization

Decoction

Maceration, decoction Maceration, decoction Powder

Maceration

Decoction

Leaves

Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves

Decoction

Preparation

Leaves

Plant parts

Meningitis

Wounds (old or chronic) Malaria Wounds (old or chronic)

Sexual weakness

Psychological/spiritual (bad luck/curses) Sexually transmitted diseases Wounds (old or chronic) Cough Dystocia childbirth General malaise Psychological/spiritual (bad luck/curses) Women’s health (heavy or painful menstruation) Electrocution by lightning Malaria

Traditional use in Niamberla

Ga-ha-me´ Si-djime´, Parasite Korossire´ sidjime´, Lossigue´ sidjime´ Zingue´ Tree

Tree

Kordin-ngue´

Tree

Zan-na-lin-ngue´

Fabaceae—Pusaetha africana (Guill. & Perr.) Kuntze (TA09-49) Tree

Tree

Naye`rinn’gue´

Fabaceae—Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. (TA09-48)

Ka-dang-sigue´

Tree, shrub

Tje´win-ngue´ (Tje´wing-ngue´)

Fabaceae—Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. (TA09-47)

Fabaceae—Tamarindus indica L. (TA09-56) Lamiaceae—Gmelina arborea Roxb. (TA09-02) Loranthaceae—Tapinanthus ophiodes (Blume) Rchb. (TA09-18)

Tree

Type of plant

Yan-noug-gne`gue´, Yan-nougougne`gue´

Local name (Se´nufo)

Fabaceae—Pericopsis laxiflora (Benth. ex Baker) Meeuwen (TA09-05)

Scientific name (collection number)

Table 1. (Continued)

(continued)

Enema, topical

Oral, bathing

Oral Steam bath (feet)

Oral, bathing Oral, bathing Topical Topical, enema

Oral Enema, topical

Enema

Oral

Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral Oral, bathing Oral, bathing Oral, bathing, steam bath Oral

Enema, topical

Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing

Administration

300

Woue`gue´

Local name (Se´nufo)

Polygalaceae—Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. (TA09-53)

Olacaceae—Ximenia americana L. (TA09-59) Phyllanthaceae—Bridelia ferruginea Benth. (TA09-19) Phyllanthaceae—Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle (TA09-37) Poaceae—Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (TA09-54)

Moraceae—Ficus sycomorus L. (TA09-35) Moraceae—Ficus thoningii Blume (TA09-36) Moringaceae—Moringa oleifera Lam. (TA09-45) Shrub Shrub Tree, shrub Shrub Herbaceous Tree, shrub

Gban-ni-gban-ngue´ Noussina-ngue´ Djin-ni-ngue´ Kalah-gue´ Fe´he´me´ (Fe´me´)

Tree

Djatiguifaga

Type of plant

Toubabou-ne`re´

Tree

Tree

Tree

Gnitori-ngue´

Meliaceae—Trichilia emetica Vahl Kotounon-kougue´ (TA09-22)

Meliaceae—Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. (TA09-40)

Scientific name (collection number)

Foreign object in the eye Hemorrhages Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Sexually transmitted diseases Hemorrhoids

Hemorrhoids Gastric disorders Sciatica Diabetes Gastric disorders Malaria

Decoction Decoction Decoction Maceration Maceration

Seed Leaves Leaves Root

Decoction Maceration Decoction Decoction Maceration Maceration

Infusion, ointment Maceration Powder

Seed

Root Root Leaves Stem bark Root Root

Root Root

Root

Maceration Maceration

Root Leaves

Root Root Root

General malaise Malaria Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Malaria Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Hemorrhoids Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Sexually transmitted diseases Headache (sinus) Sickle cell disease

Decoction Decoction

Stem bark

Gastric disorders

Decoction, infusion, ointment Decoction, powder Maceration Maceration Maceration

Preparation

Leaves Leaves

Leaves

Plant parts

Sexually transmitted diseases

Traditional use in Niamberla

Table 1. (Continued)

Purging (continued)

Oral, bathing

Oral Oral, bathing

Eyewash

Topical Topical (brush the body and massage) Oral, steam bath Oral Massage Oral, bathing Oral Oral, bathing

Oral, topical

Oral, bathing Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing Bathing Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral, bathing

Administration

301

Local name (Se´nufo)

Katjar-gniidourgue´, Katjar-gue´

Saa dong kagoun ngue´ Darsoun-fougue´ (Darsin-fou-ye´ ) Fourougue´

Chest pain Earache (otitis) Wounds (old or chronic) Diarrhea

Tree

Liana

Shrub

Heart pain and disorders Dystocia childbirth

Malaria

Shrub

Herbaceous

Sexually transmitted diseases

Sexually transmitted diseases Wounds (old or chronic) Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Cardiac disorders Malaria Gastric disorders Headache (children) Malaria

Traditional use in Niamberla

Herbaceous

Tree

Tree, shrub

Shrub

Tree

Type of plant

Carbonization Decoction Decoction Decoction Maceration, decoction Decoction

Root Leaves Root Stem bark Root

Stem

Root

Fruit

Leaves Stem bark Stem bark

Root

Leaves, root

Decoction

Maceration

Decoction Decoction Decoction, powder Maceration

Decoction

Decoction, powder Maceration

Leaves (young) Root

Decoction

Preparation

Leaves

Plant parts

Oral, bathing

Oral

Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing Enema Enema, topical

Oral, bathing

Oral, bathing

Oral Oral Oral Oral, washing Bathing

Oral, bathing

Enema, topical

Oral, bathing

Administration

The table summarizes the main results of the survey by presenting the plants, treated diseases, plant parts used, preparation, and mode of administration. The plants are listed in alphabetical order first by the plant family and Latin binomial, and then by the common name.

Solanaceae—Solanum incanum L. (TA09-09) Vitaceae—Ampelocissus leonensis (Hook. f.) Planch. (TA09-27) Vitaceae—Cissus populnea Guill. & Perr. (TA09-31)

Rubiaceae—Vangueria agrestis Beri-djongue´ (Schweinf. ex Hiern) Lantz (Torosaba) (TA09-57) Rutaceae—Zanthoxylum Boug-sou-ngue´ zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler (TA09-60) Sapotaceae—Vitellaria paradoxa Lossigue´ C.F. Gaertn. (TA09-58)

Rubiaceae—Mitragyna inermis N’Djounoungue´ (Willd.) Kuntze (TA09-16) Rubiaceae—Sarcocephalus Kassina yangue´ latifolius (Sm.) Bruce (TA09-23)

Rubiaceae—Gardenia erubescens Stapf & Hutch. (TA09-38)

Rubiaceae—Crossopteryx febrifuga Wari-warigue´ (Afzel. ex G. Don) Benth. (TA09-04)

Scientific name (collection number)

Table 1. (Continued)

302

be sought for these plants, as they hold an especially appealing possibility of new treatments for diseases that affect people throughout the region. For example, Annona senegalensis (Mourime´) was reported as a treatment for general malaise and anxiety. Okoye et al. isolated a diterpenoid with potent anticonvulsant effects from this same plant, which was collected in Nigeria in 2007.17 Publications about antimalarial properties were found for a number of plants cited for treatment of symptoms of malaria in this study. For example, Benoit-Vical et al. found that when Cochlospermum planchonii was given to patients with uncomplicated malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum at a hospital in Banfora, Burkina Faso, it appeared to be as safe and effective as chloroquine.18 Other plants cited as treatments for malaria included Combretum fragrans (Nafoˆho-ngue´) and Waltheria indica (Ganha-tou-ye´), both of which have exhibited in vitro antiplasmodial activity.19,20 A dichloromethane extract of one plant used to treat both malaria and anxiety has shown antiplasmodial and GABAA– benzodiazepine receptor binding activity.21 Another plant that was cited for treatment of symptoms of sickle cell disease, Moringa oleifera (Toubabou-ne`re´), showed potential for antisickling properties in a study from Nigeria.22 These results provide a useful platform for future studies about medicinal plants used by Dozo hunters. As mentioned before, a similar study in the same village and surrounding villages could focus on the frequency of use of the plants noted in this study. It is also of vital importance that identification is provided for plants that were not identified previously. Because these specimens were collected without fruits and flowers, finding the taxonomic identification was not possible at the time, proving to be a key limitation to this study. However, in the future, herbarium specimens may be collected when these plants are fertile. When flowering and/ or fruiting specimens are collected, additional expertise may also be sought from taxonomists at other herbaria. When the identity of these plants is ascertained, it will be published in a separate scientific article. In addition, it would be interesting to ask the healers about perceived efficacy, side effects, and toxicity associated with these plants. Any similar studies in the future will begin with a memorandum of agreement between the researchers and the healers to clearly demonstrate that the research is a collaboration between the two groups and that both groups agree on the research methods and how to convey the results in the most beneficial manner. Conclusions

This research helps to document the indigenous knowledge of Dozo hunters on medicinal plants and traditional medicine. It opens a perspective for a botanical survey of Niamberla village to identify unknown plants that are useful for the treatment of many diseases. In addition, these results provide a base for future biological and ethnomedical investigations. Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the entire community of Niamberla village for its kind cooperation and its availability throughout the investigation. We are especially grateful to the village chief and the president of the association of traditional healers

TIBIRI ET AL.

for having facilitated the entry into the village and the mobilization of the entire community. We also acknowledge Aude Nikie`ma of the National Institute of Social Sciences (INSS-CNRST), who kindly provided us with the map of Niamberla. This study was self-funded by the authors. Author Disclosure Statement

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to the publication of this article. No competing financial interests exist. References

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Address correspondence to: Bethany G. Elkington, PhD Field Museum of Natural History Center for Integrative Research, Science and Education Department (Botany) 1400 South Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL 60605 E-mail: [email protected]

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Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants among Dozo hunters: an ethnobotanical survey in Niamberla village, Burkina Faso.

This investigation aims to provide a database of Dozo traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used for the treatment of common diseases...
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