THE JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE Volume 21, Number 5, 2015, pp. 294–303 ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/acm.2014.0016
Indigenous Knowledge of Medicinal Plants Among Dozo Hunters: An Ethnobotanical Survey in Niamberla Village, Burkina Faso Andre´ Tibiri, PhD,1 Wamtinga Richard Sawadogo, PhD,1 Abou Dao, MD,2 Bethany G. Elkington, PhD,3 Noufou Ouedraogo, PhD,1 and Innocent Pierre Guissou, PhD1,4
Abstract
Objectives: This investigation aims to provide a database of Dozo traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used for the treatment of common diseases. Design: The study was conducted through individual interviews using a survey form. Data were recorded in a database allowing statistical analysis. Each plant was recorded and documented with a herbarium specimen. Settings/Location & Subjects: The term Dozo refers to great hunters from Burkina Faso, highly renowned for their knowledge of medicinal plants. Niamberla village was founded by Dozo hunters and is currently the residence of many traditional healers. Unfortunately, their indigenous knowledge is not well recorded and may be lost between two generations. Results: A total of 16 traditional healers were interviewed, giving 89 recipes for the treatment of 37 diseases. The most common diseases are malaria (13%), psychological/spiritual issues (12%), gastric disorders (11%), sexually transmitted diseases (10%), and wounds (8%). A total of 56 medicinal plants have been identified, consisting mostly of trees (44%), shrubs (34%), and herbs (16%). Conclusions: The results of this research provide a basis for pharmacological and toxicological investigations and are necessary to preserve the indigenous knowledge of traditional medicine among Dozo hunters.
Introduction
A
frican traditional medicine has been a main recourse for the medical needs of many populations in West Africa for many centuries.1,2 The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of the population of developing countries relies primarily on traditional medicine for their healthcare needs.3 The indigenous knowledge of this medicine, transmitted verbally from generation to generation, is at risk because of memory problems and lack of trust between the elderly and the youth. In addition, climate change is posing a threat to the survival of some of the medicinal plants,4 the major component of traditional medicine used by the Dozo hunters. Since 1978, the WHO has recommended that each developing country make a complete inventory of their me-
dicinal plants, with an evaluation of known safety and efficacy, along with methods for the standardization of the active components.5 This process necessarily passes through ethnobotanical investigations, involving collaboration between researchers, doctors, and traditional healers.6 In Burkina Faso, surveys have been conducted for scattered programs and institutions, but very few results have been published.1,7–9 This project aims to help document traditional medicine through an ethnobotanical survey involving 5 researchers, 16 traditional healers, and 1 biomedical doctor from Burkina Faso. The targeted area is Niamberla village, which is the birth village of one of the researchers, and was founded by Dozo hunters of the Se´nufo community. The Dozo are initiated and trained hunters, and their lives involve many secret ceremonies and sacrifices.10 These people are well known in West Africa for their
1
Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Sante´, Departement Me´decine, Pharmacope´e Traditionnelles et Pharmacie (IRSS-MEPHATRA/ PH), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. 2Centre de Radiothe ´ rapie et d’Oncologie, CHU Ibn Rochd, Universite´ Hassan II, Casablanca, Maroc. 3 Field Museum of Natural History, Center for Integrative Research, Science & Education Department (Botany), Chicago, IL. 4 Laboratoire de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie, UFR-SDS, Universite´ de Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
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MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE OF DOZO OF BURKINA FASO
traditional knowledge regarding the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of common diseases, including malaria, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, and gastric disorders. While there are other similar villages founded by Dozo hunters throughout West Africa, this village was chosen not only because one member of the research team comes from this village, but also because his father was included as one of these venerable healers. The main objective of this research is to record the indigenous knowledge of one Se´nufo community of Dozo hunters about medicinal plants in order to preserve this knowledge and to provide a usable database for future analysis and investigations.
295
DC., Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill.&Perr., Burkea africana Hook., Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. and Dalziel, Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. Ex A.DC., Isoberlinia doka Craib and Stapf, and Guibourtia copallifera. The main herbaceous species were Andropogon gayanus Kunth, Diheteropogon amplectens (Nees) Clayton, Loudetia simplex (Nees) C.E. Hubb., and Vetiveria nigritana Stapf. Islam is the dominant religion in the area although many people also practice African traditional religions that are deeply rooted in their ancestral customs. The community is organized by strict discipline and respect for the customary hierarchy. Methods
Materials and Methods Study area and the people
Niamberla village, founded and inhabited by Dozo hunters of the Se´nufo community, is situated in the western quadrant of Burkina Faso in the province of Ke´ne´dougou (Fig. 1). The last census in 2006 reported the population to be 2687, of which 51% were female and 49% were male. The most frequently encountered soils are hydromorphic mineral to stagnosol (pseudogley) soils. The major plant communities are shrub savannas, tree savannas, and woodland savannas, along with woodland and gallery forests. The most common woody species included Acacia sieberiana
Two researchers and one biomedical doctor conducted the survey through individual semistructured interviews with 16 traditional healers, who were chosen following a meeting with the village chief and the president of the local chapter of the Association of Traditional Healers, based on their reputations as healers and medicinal plant experts in the community. The Se´nufo language was used for the discussion. One member of the research team served as the translator and medical reference. Data were collected using a special survey form and were recorded into a database for statistical analysis. The collected data included the diseases treated, the local plant name and parts used, and the types of extraction and methods of administration. A specimen of
FIG. 1. Location of Niamberla village in the municipality of Morolaba, province of Ke´ne´dougou. Source: Geographic Institute of Burkina Faso, 2002.
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each plant was collected in the presence of the traditional healer and was later identified by Prof. Hamdae´ Ouedraogo, a renowned botanist from the University of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Consent to have the results published in an international journal was given by the village chief after consultation with the participating healers. Results and Discussion Practice of traditional medicine among the Dozo hunters
Interviews were conducted with 16 traditional healers, with ages ranging from 39 to 100 years. Although the importance of gathering information from females in the community has been shown,11 all of the healers in this study were male. Similar to what is seen with modern biomedicine, each traditional healer in this community is specialized in the treatment of one or more diseases. This knowledge is transmitted in the same family from generation to generation. This research encountered four main obstacles:
TIBIRI ET AL.
results showed that the Dozo healers mostly use plant leaves, aiding in the conservation of species and environmental protection. Preparation methods varied, including decoction, maceration, infusion, calcination, carbonization, powder, and ointments for external application. Nevertheless, the most commonly used were found to be decoction (55%), maceration (25%), and powder (11%). The different modes of administration follow the same dynamics with predominantly oral (46%), followed by body bath (34%), and enema and poultices (7% each). According to entries in Napralert, PubMed, and the Web of Science, the most widely researched plants listed in this research included Arachis hypogaea L., Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., Manihot esculenta Crantz, Moringa oleifera Lam./Moringa ovalifolia Dinter & Berger, Sorghum bicolor (L.), and Tamarindus indica L.Moench. Each of these plants has more than 1000 research entries. In this study, a plant was only recorded the first time it was mentioned by a healer, so an area for future research could look at the frequency of citation for each plant to see which are used more than others.
Description of the diseases by healers is often imprecise by biomedical standards. That observation is in concordance with the results provided by another study on traditional medicine and kidney diseases in Burkina Faso.12 Emerging diseases such as high blood pressure, cancer, and diabetes are not understood, as well as diseases that have been more prevalent in the past. The concept of dose is relative. For example, some dosages are measured by the little finger or by the palm of the hand. In these conditions, the amount of the medicine depends on the person who makes the measurements. That kind of dosage has also been described by Megersa et al. in an ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Ethiopia.2 Biomedical evidence of the traditional remedies is not well-established due to the lack of collaboration between biomedical doctors and traditional healers. Some African countries have established centers for traditional medicine to train both actors of modern and folk medicine,6,13 and this dynamic may also help to improve the practice of traditional medicine in Burkina Faso. Plants and remedies recorded
There were 83 medicinal plants recorded during the study, representing 58 common names. Of these, 56 were identified to species level (Table 1). The most common plant types were trees (44%), shrubs (34%), and herbs (16%). Because of the sterile condition of the plants when herbarium specimens were collected, the 27 plants that were not identified have been excluded from the present publication. Most recipes contain a single plant, which is a characteristic of traditional medicine among Dozo hunters, which differs from most African communities, in which recipes of traditional medicine consist of a mixture of two or more plants.14,15 The most commonly used plant parts are the leaves (37%), roots (33%), and stem bark (14%). These data are consistent with the extensive use of trees (41.8%) in the preparation of recipes. Unlike other communities, which preferentially use the roots and stem bark of plants,6 our
Diseases encountered
During our investigation, there were 89 preparations recorded for the treatment of 37 diseases and related health problems (Table 1). The main diseases were malaria (13%) followed by psychological and spiritual issues (12%), gastric disorders (11%), sexually transmitted diseases (10%), and various types of wounds (8%), various forms of headaches (6%), and chest pain (4%). The frequency of pathologies gives an idea about the health situation of Niamberla village. This community does not differ from others in Burkina Faso, where malaria is one of the leading causes of medical consultations and deaths each year.16 As the majority of rural populations use traditional medicine, the healers offer more recipes for the most common diseases compared with those not often encountered. Aside from easily classifiable diseases, other preparations are available to treat difficult-to-define diseases, including those involved with spiritual or psychological problems. The most common of these cited was anxiety/anguish (50%), followed by others that included hallucinatory psychoses, nightmares, bad luck or curses, schizophrenia or ‘‘craziness,’’ and being struck by lightning. These kinds of treatments are generally accompanied with incantation words that cannot be scientifically verified at this time. In this report, we explicitly removed the incantations related to the recipes. Future research
While comparing the uses of these plants to those that have been previously recorded, it was noted that very little or no previous ethnomedical and/or biochemical research could be found about Ampelocissus leonensis (Hook. f.) Planch, Anaphrenium insigne (Delile) Fiori, Maximilianea tinctoria (A. Rich.) Kuntze, Pusaetha africana (Guill. & Perr.) Kuntze, Vangueria agrestis (Schweinf. ex Hiern) Lantz, and Vicoa leptoclada (Webb) Dandy. These six plants, therefore, signal exciting opportunities for future biochemical discoveries. There are also biochemical studies that support the healers’ claims about some of the plants. Additional information may
297
Herbaceous Herbaceous, parasite Tree Shrub Shrub
Brouzon-ye´ Kla-do-ngan-ne´ Solodjone´ Solo-sibengue´ Dahadon-ngue´
Asparagaceae—Sansevieria liberica Ge´roˆme & Labroy (TA09-03, 51) Asteraceae—Vicoa leptoclada (Webb) Dandy (TA09-15) Bignoniaceae—Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. (TA09-41) Bixaceae—Cochlospermum planchonii Hook. f. ex Planch. (TA09-08) Cochlospermaceae—Maximilianea tinctoria (A. Rich.) Kuntze (TA09-44)
Liana
Kobligue´, Koblissigue´
Apocynaceae—Saba senegalensis (A. DC.) Pichon (TA09-50)
Shrub
Tree
Tree
Tje´-ngue´
Anacardiaceae—Lannea microcarpa Engl. (TA09-42)
Anacardiaceae—Sclerocarya birrea Kunan-yiri (A. Rich.) Hochst. (TA09-52) Annonaceae—Annona senegalensis Mourime´ Pers. (TA09-29)
Tree, shrub
Type of plant
Ti-fahame´
Local name (Se´nufo)
Anacardiaceae—Anaphrenium insigne (Delile) Fiori (TA09-28)
Scientific name (collection number)
Sexually transmitted diseases
Malaria
Diabetes
Jaundice
Psychological/spiritual (bad luck/curses) Sexually transmitted diseases Wounds (old or chronic)
General malaise Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Psychological/spiritual (schizophrenia) Headache Burns
Maceration
Stem bark
Leaves
Root
Fruit
Whole plant
Root Leaves
Root
Root
Fruit (green; unripe) Leaves Root
Leaves Root
Decoction
Decoction
Decoction
Decoction
Decoction Maceration, powder Maceration, powder Maceration, powder Carbonization Decoction
Decoction
Decoction Maceration
Decoction
Decoction
Stem bark
Root
Decoction Decoction
Leaves Leaves
Headache Sexually transmitted diseases Uninterrupted menstrual, hematuria Psychological/spiritual (schizophrenia) Cough (dry)
Decoction
Preparation
Leaves
Plant parts
Chest pain
Traditional use in Niamberla
Table 1. Plants, Pathologies, Preparations, and Administration
Bathing
(continued)
Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral, bathing
Topical Enema
Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing
Bathing Enema
Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral, bathing, massage, steam bath Oral, bathing Oral, bathing
Administration
298
Tree, shrub
Tree, shrub Tree Tree
Mourigan-woone´
Sebari-ngue´ Gbonri-ngue´ Ne`ssigue´, Ne´zigue´
Fabaceae—Cassia sieberiana DC. (TA09-11)
Fabaceae—Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. (TA09-34) Fabaceae—Erythrina senegalensis DC. (TA09-13) Fabaceae—Parkia biglobosa ( Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don (TA09-46)
Tree
Kayan-ngue´
Herbaceous
Herbaceous
Massako-ngue´
Tingue`
Shrub
Korossire´
Shrub
Shrub
Kloufe´-boume´
Wou-logon-ngue´
Shrub
Tegui-re´ (Te´gue´re´)
Herbaceous
Shrub
Shrub
Type of plant
Nafoˆho-ngue´ (Na-fouˆ-ngue´) Se´kori-ngue´
Local name (Se´nufo)
Banaan-gou-ye´
Combretaceae—Combretum fragrans F. Hoffm. (TA09-20) Combretaceae—Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC. (TA09-21) Combretaceae—Combretum micranthum G. Don (TA09-14) Combretaceae—Combretum molle R. Br. ex G. Don (TA09-33) Combretaceae—Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. (TA09-17) Convolvulaceae—Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (TA09-39) Ebenaceae—Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC. (TA09-24) Euphorbiaceae—Manihot esculenta Crantz (TA09-43) Fabaceae—Acacia macrostachya Rchb. ex DC. (TA09-25) Fabaceae—Arachis hypogaea L. (TA09-30)
Scientific name (collection number)
Leaves
Tubercle
Leaves Leaves
Tuber
Stem Leaves (young)
Leaves
Fruit
Leaves Leaves Leaves Root
Plant parts
Decoction
Leaves
Root Leaves Stem bark Root
Sexual weakness General malaise Meningitis Hemorrhoids
Stem bark
Root
Malaria
Wounds (old or chronic) Chest pain
Maceration
Decoction
Powder
Decoction Decoction
Maceration
Decoction Maceration
Decoction
Maceration
Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction
Preparation
Decoction, maceration Decoction, infusion Powder Decoction Decoction Maceration, ointment Carbonization
Women’s health (heavy Seed or painful menstruation) Gastric disorders Root
Dental caries
Headache Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Sexual weakness
Malaria
Sexually transmitted diseases Headache (children) Diarrhea
Gastric disorders
Gastric disorders Malaria Chest pain Gastric disorders
Traditional use in Niamberla
Table 1. (Continued)
bathing bathing bathing bathing
(continued)
Oral, bathing
Oral, enema, massage
Oral Oral, bathing Oral, bathing, topical Purging, topical
Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral
Bathing, mouthwash
Oral
Bathing Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing Oral
Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral, Oral, Oral, Oral,
Administration
299
Malvaceae—Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl. (TA0932) Malvaceae—Sterculia setigera Delile (TA09-55) Malvaceae—Waltheria indica L. (TA09-10) Malvaceae—Wissadula amplissima var. rostrata (Schumach.) R.E. Fr. (TA09-12)
Malvaceae—Adansonia digitata L. (TA09-26)
Decoction, powder Decoction Decoction Decoction Decoction
Stem bark
Seed Stem bark
Bone fractures Diarrhea Tingling sensation Malaria Wounds (fresh)
Tree Tree Herbaceous Herbaceous
Wong-ngue´ Kroukrou si-gue´ Ganha-tou-ye´ (Gantouye´) Ya-we´re´
Leaves
Root
Root Stem bark Flower Leaves
Leaves Stem
Leaves
Stem bark
Root
Leaves
Stem bark
Decoction, powder
Decoction
Decoction Decoction Powder, ointment Calcination, decoction Maceration Decoction
Decoction Decoction, carbonization
Decoction
Maceration, decoction Maceration, decoction Powder
Maceration
Decoction
Leaves
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves
Decoction
Preparation
Leaves
Plant parts
Meningitis
Wounds (old or chronic) Malaria Wounds (old or chronic)
Sexual weakness
Psychological/spiritual (bad luck/curses) Sexually transmitted diseases Wounds (old or chronic) Cough Dystocia childbirth General malaise Psychological/spiritual (bad luck/curses) Women’s health (heavy or painful menstruation) Electrocution by lightning Malaria
Traditional use in Niamberla
Ga-ha-me´ Si-djime´, Parasite Korossire´ sidjime´, Lossigue´ sidjime´ Zingue´ Tree
Tree
Kordin-ngue´
Tree
Zan-na-lin-ngue´
Fabaceae—Pusaetha africana (Guill. & Perr.) Kuntze (TA09-49) Tree
Tree
Naye`rinn’gue´
Fabaceae—Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. (TA09-48)
Ka-dang-sigue´
Tree, shrub
Tje´win-ngue´ (Tje´wing-ngue´)
Fabaceae—Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. (TA09-47)
Fabaceae—Tamarindus indica L. (TA09-56) Lamiaceae—Gmelina arborea Roxb. (TA09-02) Loranthaceae—Tapinanthus ophiodes (Blume) Rchb. (TA09-18)
Tree
Type of plant
Yan-noug-gne`gue´, Yan-nougougne`gue´
Local name (Se´nufo)
Fabaceae—Pericopsis laxiflora (Benth. ex Baker) Meeuwen (TA09-05)
Scientific name (collection number)
Table 1. (Continued)
(continued)
Enema, topical
Oral, bathing
Oral Steam bath (feet)
Oral, bathing Oral, bathing Topical Topical, enema
Oral Enema, topical
Enema
Oral
Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral Oral, bathing Oral, bathing Oral, bathing, steam bath Oral
Enema, topical
Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing
Administration
300
Woue`gue´
Local name (Se´nufo)
Polygalaceae—Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. (TA09-53)
Olacaceae—Ximenia americana L. (TA09-59) Phyllanthaceae—Bridelia ferruginea Benth. (TA09-19) Phyllanthaceae—Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle (TA09-37) Poaceae—Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (TA09-54)
Moraceae—Ficus sycomorus L. (TA09-35) Moraceae—Ficus thoningii Blume (TA09-36) Moringaceae—Moringa oleifera Lam. (TA09-45) Shrub Shrub Tree, shrub Shrub Herbaceous Tree, shrub
Gban-ni-gban-ngue´ Noussina-ngue´ Djin-ni-ngue´ Kalah-gue´ Fe´he´me´ (Fe´me´)
Tree
Djatiguifaga
Type of plant
Toubabou-ne`re´
Tree
Tree
Tree
Gnitori-ngue´
Meliaceae—Trichilia emetica Vahl Kotounon-kougue´ (TA09-22)
Meliaceae—Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. (TA09-40)
Scientific name (collection number)
Foreign object in the eye Hemorrhages Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Sexually transmitted diseases Hemorrhoids
Hemorrhoids Gastric disorders Sciatica Diabetes Gastric disorders Malaria
Decoction Decoction Decoction Maceration Maceration
Seed Leaves Leaves Root
Decoction Maceration Decoction Decoction Maceration Maceration
Infusion, ointment Maceration Powder
Seed
Root Root Leaves Stem bark Root Root
Root Root
Root
Maceration Maceration
Root Leaves
Root Root Root
General malaise Malaria Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Malaria Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Hemorrhoids Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Sexually transmitted diseases Headache (sinus) Sickle cell disease
Decoction Decoction
Stem bark
Gastric disorders
Decoction, infusion, ointment Decoction, powder Maceration Maceration Maceration
Preparation
Leaves Leaves
Leaves
Plant parts
Sexually transmitted diseases
Traditional use in Niamberla
Table 1. (Continued)
Purging (continued)
Oral, bathing
Oral Oral, bathing
Eyewash
Topical Topical (brush the body and massage) Oral, steam bath Oral Massage Oral, bathing Oral Oral, bathing
Oral, topical
Oral, bathing Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing Bathing Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral, bathing
Administration
301
Local name (Se´nufo)
Katjar-gniidourgue´, Katjar-gue´
Saa dong kagoun ngue´ Darsoun-fougue´ (Darsin-fou-ye´ ) Fourougue´
Chest pain Earache (otitis) Wounds (old or chronic) Diarrhea
Tree
Liana
Shrub
Heart pain and disorders Dystocia childbirth
Malaria
Shrub
Herbaceous
Sexually transmitted diseases
Sexually transmitted diseases Wounds (old or chronic) Psychological/spiritual (anxiety) Cardiac disorders Malaria Gastric disorders Headache (children) Malaria
Traditional use in Niamberla
Herbaceous
Tree
Tree, shrub
Shrub
Tree
Type of plant
Carbonization Decoction Decoction Decoction Maceration, decoction Decoction
Root Leaves Root Stem bark Root
Stem
Root
Fruit
Leaves Stem bark Stem bark
Root
Leaves, root
Decoction
Maceration
Decoction Decoction Decoction, powder Maceration
Decoction
Decoction, powder Maceration
Leaves (young) Root
Decoction
Preparation
Leaves
Plant parts
Oral, bathing
Oral
Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing Enema Enema, topical
Oral, bathing
Oral, bathing
Oral Oral Oral Oral, washing Bathing
Oral, bathing
Enema, topical
Oral, bathing
Administration
The table summarizes the main results of the survey by presenting the plants, treated diseases, plant parts used, preparation, and mode of administration. The plants are listed in alphabetical order first by the plant family and Latin binomial, and then by the common name.
Solanaceae—Solanum incanum L. (TA09-09) Vitaceae—Ampelocissus leonensis (Hook. f.) Planch. (TA09-27) Vitaceae—Cissus populnea Guill. & Perr. (TA09-31)
Rubiaceae—Vangueria agrestis Beri-djongue´ (Schweinf. ex Hiern) Lantz (Torosaba) (TA09-57) Rutaceae—Zanthoxylum Boug-sou-ngue´ zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler (TA09-60) Sapotaceae—Vitellaria paradoxa Lossigue´ C.F. Gaertn. (TA09-58)
Rubiaceae—Mitragyna inermis N’Djounoungue´ (Willd.) Kuntze (TA09-16) Rubiaceae—Sarcocephalus Kassina yangue´ latifolius (Sm.) Bruce (TA09-23)
Rubiaceae—Gardenia erubescens Stapf & Hutch. (TA09-38)
Rubiaceae—Crossopteryx febrifuga Wari-warigue´ (Afzel. ex G. Don) Benth. (TA09-04)
Scientific name (collection number)
Table 1. (Continued)
302
be sought for these plants, as they hold an especially appealing possibility of new treatments for diseases that affect people throughout the region. For example, Annona senegalensis (Mourime´) was reported as a treatment for general malaise and anxiety. Okoye et al. isolated a diterpenoid with potent anticonvulsant effects from this same plant, which was collected in Nigeria in 2007.17 Publications about antimalarial properties were found for a number of plants cited for treatment of symptoms of malaria in this study. For example, Benoit-Vical et al. found that when Cochlospermum planchonii was given to patients with uncomplicated malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum at a hospital in Banfora, Burkina Faso, it appeared to be as safe and effective as chloroquine.18 Other plants cited as treatments for malaria included Combretum fragrans (Nafoˆho-ngue´) and Waltheria indica (Ganha-tou-ye´), both of which have exhibited in vitro antiplasmodial activity.19,20 A dichloromethane extract of one plant used to treat both malaria and anxiety has shown antiplasmodial and GABAA– benzodiazepine receptor binding activity.21 Another plant that was cited for treatment of symptoms of sickle cell disease, Moringa oleifera (Toubabou-ne`re´), showed potential for antisickling properties in a study from Nigeria.22 These results provide a useful platform for future studies about medicinal plants used by Dozo hunters. As mentioned before, a similar study in the same village and surrounding villages could focus on the frequency of use of the plants noted in this study. It is also of vital importance that identification is provided for plants that were not identified previously. Because these specimens were collected without fruits and flowers, finding the taxonomic identification was not possible at the time, proving to be a key limitation to this study. However, in the future, herbarium specimens may be collected when these plants are fertile. When flowering and/ or fruiting specimens are collected, additional expertise may also be sought from taxonomists at other herbaria. When the identity of these plants is ascertained, it will be published in a separate scientific article. In addition, it would be interesting to ask the healers about perceived efficacy, side effects, and toxicity associated with these plants. Any similar studies in the future will begin with a memorandum of agreement between the researchers and the healers to clearly demonstrate that the research is a collaboration between the two groups and that both groups agree on the research methods and how to convey the results in the most beneficial manner. Conclusions
This research helps to document the indigenous knowledge of Dozo hunters on medicinal plants and traditional medicine. It opens a perspective for a botanical survey of Niamberla village to identify unknown plants that are useful for the treatment of many diseases. In addition, these results provide a base for future biological and ethnomedical investigations. Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the entire community of Niamberla village for its kind cooperation and its availability throughout the investigation. We are especially grateful to the village chief and the president of the association of traditional healers
TIBIRI ET AL.
for having facilitated the entry into the village and the mobilization of the entire community. We also acknowledge Aude Nikie`ma of the National Institute of Social Sciences (INSS-CNRST), who kindly provided us with the map of Niamberla. This study was self-funded by the authors. Author Disclosure Statement
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to the publication of this article. No competing financial interests exist. References
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Address correspondence to: Bethany G. Elkington, PhD Field Museum of Natural History Center for Integrative Research, Science and Education Department (Botany) 1400 South Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL 60605 E-mail:
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