Perceptualand Motor Skills, 1992, 74, 807-818. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1992
FIELD DEPENDENCE/INDEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY O F STYLE VS ABILITY DAVID ROLLOCK Purdue UniuersiQ Summary.-Recent reviews have concluded that field-independent individuals typically show learning equal or superior to that of field-dependent individuals. However, many studies supporting these conclusions have not capitalized fully on the stylistic strengths of field-dependent learners. Among 35 field-independent and 42 field-dependent undergraduates, when grade-point average was controlled, no significant differences were found in scores on an examination following an audiotaped lecture. However, field-dependent learners significantly outperformed their field-independent peers on follow-up quizzes when material was presented interactively, using examples that required social sensitivity for full appreciation. These results are discussed as supporting the importance of further study of the stylistic aspects of field dependencelindependence and the narrowness of conceptualizations of individual differences when teaching.
Field dependencetindependence has been studied extensively as an important contributor to the ways in which students learn. However, patterns of recent findings have suggested that students scored along this dimension may differ more in learning abilities than style. This study was designed to evaluate whether certain learning conditions could bring out effects of style as distinct from ability.
Field Dependencellndependence and Learning Field dependencelindependence is a dimension of cognitive style associated with the tendency to elaborate and rely primarily on either external or internal referents in processing information (Witkin, Goodenough, & Oltman, 1979). Learners who show greater field dependence are attentive to contextual and social information in the learning situation and tend to be particularly responsive to the introduction of external reinforcement, either material or social (Konstadt & Forman, 1965; Ruble & Nakamura, 1972; Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, & Cox, 1977). Learners who are more field independent, on the other hand, tend to impose their own analytical structure on ambiguous material and ignore external influences (Crandd & Sinkeldam, 1964; Frank, 1984; Witkin, et al., 1977). Theory suggests that actual learning outcomes should not differ as a function of cognitive style when task demands are clear, when the material to be learned is familiar, when task-relevant information is readily available
'Requests for reprints may be sent to David Rollock, Department of Psychological Sciences, 1364 Psychological Sciences Building, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907.
808
D. ROLLOCK
and distractions are minimal, or when the learning situation is structured to suit the characteristics of each type of learner (Frank, 1984; Goodenough, 1976; Jolly & Reardon, 1985; Konstadt & Forman, 1965; Witkin, et al., 1977). Under appropriate conditions, learners at either end of this cognitive style continuum should outperform learners at the opposite end (e.g., Abraham, 1985; Douglass & Kahle, 1978; Kiewra & Frank, 1986; McLeod, Carpenter, McCornack, & Skvarcius, 1978; Ruble & Nakamura, 1972). Learners characterized by greater field independence, however, frequently outperform field-dependent learners (Davis & Cochran, 1989; Shade, 1982), especially in situations where unambiguous task-relevant information, appropriate social feedback, or external reinforcement are limited (Goodenough, 1976; Witkin, et al., 1977). Some studies have found field-independent learners significantly outperform field-dependent peers even under instructional treatments designed to facilitate field-dependent learners' approach to material (Davis, 1991). Early criticisms of fieid dependencelindependence as a construct raised questions about interpreting performance differences primarily in terms of style because there were ambiguities in criterion measurement and persistent correlations between field dependencelindependence and IQ (Goodenough, 1976; Kogan, 1983; Nisbett & Temoshok, 1976; Wachtel, 1972; Zigler, 1963). More recent criticisms suggest that field-independent learners simply may be better equipped to learn most types of school-related material given their superior metacognitive capabilities which overshadow the stylistic effects (Davis, 1991; Davis & Cochran, 1989). Field-independent learners' higher achievement may reflect their keen awareness of their own cognitive processes, tendencies to narrow the direction of their attention, less susceptibility to the deleterious effects of distraction, and tendencies to organize information for efficient retrieval from memory (Davis & Frank, 1979; Durso, Reardon, &Jolly, 1985; Frank, 1983; Goodenough, 1976; Jolly & Reardon, 1985; Robertson & Alfano, 1985).
Demonstrations of Style us Ability There are at least two directions for exploring further the stylistic contributions of field dependencelindependence. One is through the, concept of mobility-fixity. Heinz Werner, Herman Witkin, and Paul Wachtel each have distinguished style-related capabilities from the range of and preference for different modes of cognitive functioning (Hansson, Rydin, & Johnsson, 1986). Research on mobility-fixity has suggested that, while mobility (access to different modes of cognitive functioning) is associated primarily with field independence (e.g., Hansson, et al., 1986), mobility-fixity is distributed across the field dependencelindependence spectrum and may be important in a wide array of tasks (Niaz, 1987). However, there is no criterion measure of mobility, and while strategies for increasing mobility in certain domains can
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION
809
be taught, training in the use of mobility-related strategies appears to have only task-specific effects (Pennings, 1991). Another approach to demonstrating stylistic effects is to vary the nature of the tasks posed for learners. Closer examination shows a pattern among studies reporting no significant interactions between instructional treatments and learners' characteristics. Instructional treatments used in many of these studies simply added social content, cues, or organization of material designed to help field-dependent learners process information like their fieldindependent counterparts (e.g., Halpin & Peterson, 1986; Provost, 1981; Strawitz, 1984; Threadgill, 1979). Such conditions at best could have been expected to equalize performance between the two groups but certainly not maximize the stylistic potential of the field-dependent group. Salomon (1971) proposed that full aptitude-treatment interactions may be observed even employing remedial or compensatory strategies in instructional treatments. Still, the "proficient" learners may perform less well than their "deficient" peers only when they are bored or experience interference with their natural capabilities under such conditions. O n the other hand, preferential approaches to aptitude-treatment interactions focus on learning conditions that capitalize on the particular strengths of each group rather than correcting deficiencies or altering topical content of material to be learned. More than using social rather than neutral material or providing individualized help, any advantage for field-dependent learners should occur when sensitivity to social or contextual aspects of the learning setting is an integral capacity for performing the required task. Several studies designed to use the differences in social sensitivity between the groups as the basis for performance have shown advantages for field-dependent learners (e.g., Abraham, 1985; Ruble & Nakamura, 1972). From the foregoing discussion, it might be expected that differential performance for learners at opposite ends of the field dependencelindependence continuum will be seen most clearly under conditions that do more than compensate for ability "deficits" associated with cognitive style. Stylistic differences should be clearest when field-independent learners are allowed to structure learning material themselves, and field-dependent learners can use their social/context sensitivity as a means to learn. The purpose of this study was to examine whether field-dependent students could perform better on a test of newly-learned material than field-independent peers when learning required social sensitivity. These results could inform the design of studies in which full trait-treatment interactions can be sought more rigorously.
METHOD Study Participants
Participants were from a pool of 128 undergraduate volunteers (75 men
810
D. ROLLOCK
and 46 women, with 7 who did not indicate sex) fulfilling introductory psychology course requirements at a large midwestern university. Among the participants were 91 Euro-American, 28 African-American, 5 Asian-American, and 4 Hispanic undergraduates, with 1 participant who did not indicate ethnicity. Although researchers have raised questions about the ways in which field dependencelindependence may be manifested among different ethnic groups (Jones, 1978; Ramirez & Castaneda, 1984; Shade, 1982, 1986), participants were included without regard for ethnicity. A first set of participants was recruited early in the semester, before they had been exposed to course content relevant to the topics of the material covered in this experiment. A second set was recruited later in the semester, after such material had been covered in their courses. Measures Portable Rod-and-Frame Test.-The Portable Rod-and-Frame Test (Oltman, 1968) was used to measure field dependencelindependence. Individual participants are required to view a rod on a movable disk through one end of a translucent acrylic frame, which provides a restricted visual environment. The frame is tilted on alternate trials to 28O to the right and to the left. For a series of eight trials, the participant must rotate the rod to the right or left until it reaches (gravitational) vertical. The odd angle of the tilt of the frame provides a perceptual distraction the participant must "ignore" in order to make accurate judgements. Field dependencelindependence is operationalized as the sum of deviations (in degrees) from vertical over trials; field-dependent individuals should be more distracted by the off-center visual environment and have greater deviations from vertical. Oltman (1968) reported the test to have acceptable reliability (Spearman-Brown split-half r = .95) and significant correlations with other criterion measures of field dependencelindependence (correlations of .60 with the Embedded Figures Test and .89 with the fulI room-sized Rod-and-Frame Test). As will be described below, data from students from the top and bottom thirds of the distribution of Portable Rod-and-Frame Test scores were included in this study. content of the material participants Prior exposure to material.-The were to learn is described below. Prior exposure was treated as a categorical independent variable rather than a covariate due to the difficulty of reliably establishing extent of prior exposure to the material to be learned. Participants who were tested early in the semester and had never taken a previous course in psychology were considered "naive." All other participants were considered previously exposed. Learning quizzes.-The dependent variables were separate sets of multiple-choice questions that followed the presentation of information on classical conditioning and on instrumental conditioning. For each quiz, 13 ques-
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION
811
tions had been drawn from published introductory psychology textbook test banks and questions used by introductory psychology instructors on the campus. Each set consisted of questions of factual recognition and of application. Internal consistency of each of the original 13-item quizzes had been assessed as modest: for the classical conditioning quiz, standardized Cronbach's alpha = .69, and for the instrumental conditioning quiz, Cronbach's alpha = .50. However, eliminating one item from the classical conditioning quiz that had had low correlations with the other items increased standardized Cronbach's alpha to .77. Eliminating four items from the instrumental conditioning quiz which had had low and negative correlations with the rest of the scale increased the standardized ~ronbach'salpha to .60. Given the speed with which this material was covered in this study, the necessary heterogeneity of the items, and the short length of the quizzes, alphas had not been expected to be very high. Grade-Point Average (GPA).-Participants were asked to report their cumulative grade-point averages on the 6-point scale employed by the university. Since measured field dependencetindependence has been correlated with measured intellectual abilities and since the tasks employed were considered typical of college students' intellectual challenges, GPA was considered an important control for general-and specific-ability. -
-
Procedure Participants were brought in groups of three into a small room with desks and chairs, where they filled out demographic questionnaires and were taken aside individually for assessment on the Portable Rod-and-Frame Test. Each group of participants then listened to an audiotaped 6-min. lecture on the basic principles of classical conditioning, which was immediately followed by the first brief quiz. This "lecture condition" was designed to exemplify learning situations favored by field-independent learners. A research assistant then administered the "demonstration condition" by reading an introduction to operant conditioning and engaging participants in a demonstration of operant principles. The format of the presentation paralleled that of the lecture condition. Participants then took the brief quiz on this material. The demonstration consisted of a "Hor-Cold" guessing game designed to convey basic principles of shaping and reinforcement. One participant was selected as a "target," whose behavior was shaped to a predetermined pattern (picking up a pen on a table and drawing a circle) only by the other participants' feedback that those actions were "hot" or "cold." The personal involvement and social sensitivity necessary to succeed at the game and appreciate the concepts were presumed to favor field-dependent learners. Following these learning exercises, participants filled out questionnaires on their perceptions of the learning tasks, were debriefed, and were dismissed.
8 12
D. ROLLOCK
RESULTS General Analyses Participants whose Portable Rod-and-Frame Test scores were above the 66th percentile of the distribution (greater than 1 6 O deviation), and who had ~ r o v i d e dall other required information, were classified as field-dependent (n = 43). Their peers below the 33rd percentile (less than l o 0 total deviation) were considered field-independent ( n = 35). Among the field-dependent participants were 22 women and 2 1 men, with 25 Euro-Americans, 15 African-Americans, and 3 Latino students. The field-independent participants included 9 women and 26 men, with 25 Euro-Americans, 8 African-Americans, and 2 Asian-Americans. One field-dependent African-American man was identified as an outlier, and elimination of his data brought the total number of field-dependent participants to 42. Fifty-three participants had been exposed to the material previously (19 women and 34 men), and 24 were "naive" (12 women and 12 men). No significant differences were observed between Portable Rod-and-Frame groups or prior exposure groups in terms of GPA, ethnicity, or colIege major, and there was no association between Portable Rod-and-Frame groups and prior exposure. However, women were less likely to be found in the field-independent group ( X , 2 (N= 77) = 4.59, p = .03). Two 2 x 2 between-groups analyses of covariance were performed on quiz scores, using GPA as a covarjate in each analysis: one for scores in the lecture condition and one for scores in the interactive condition. Independent variables were field dependence/independence and prior exposure to the material (comparing those with some prior exposure with those who had had none). Although cell sizes were unequal, all other statistical assumptions for the use of analysis of covariance were met. Cell means were weighted by cell sizes to compensate for the inequalities in cell size. I n Table 1 are listed the means, standard deviations, and group sizes for both dependent variables by levels of the independent variables. TABLE 1
UNADJUSTED MEANS AND STANDARD DEVLATIONS OF Qurz PERFORMANCE BY COGNITNE STYLEAND PRIOR EXPOSURE Field DependenceJIndependence
n
Field Dependent Previously exposed 30 Never exposed 12 Field Independent Previously exposed 23 Never exposed 12 'Based on 12 items. b ~ a s e don 9 items.
Quiz Performance Interactive Conditionb Lecture Con&tionn
M
SD
M
SD
9.20 8.33
2.64 2.42
6.73 5.67
1.56 1.37
8.43 9.75
3.10 2.56
5.22 5.75
2.37 2.01
813
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION
Pearson intercorrelations among aU variables are presented in Table 2. As expected, GPA was strongly and significantly positively associated with performance in both lecture and demonstration conditions. Also as predicted, extreme Portable Rod-and-Frame Test scores were significantly positively associated with the demonstration-condition's quiz scores but were unrelated to those of the lecture condition. Previous exposure was not significantly correlated with either dependent variable, although the coefficients were in the proper direction. Finally, the two dependent variables were significantly positively correlated. However, univariate analyses of covariance were used in the next phase of the analyses since the two conditions were conceptually distinct, at least as far as this exploratory work was concerned (Huberty & Morris, 1989). TABLE 2 INTERCORRELATIONS AMONGVARIABLES (N = 77) Variable
2
1
3
4
1. Field Dependence" 2. Prior ~ x ~ o s u r e ~ -.06 3. Grade Point Average .15 .18 4. Lecture Quiz .18 .03 .19* 5. Interactive Quiz .26t -.09 .33t .47t 'This correlation is based upon dummy codes for group membership. Positive correlations indicate direct relationship with field dependence. bThis correlation is based upon dummy group membership. Positive correlations indicate direct relationships with lack of exposure. *p
FIELD DEPENDENCE/INDEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY O F STYLE VS ABILITY DAVID ROLLOCK Purdue UniuersiQ Summary.-Recent reviews have concluded that field-independent individuals typically show learning equal or superior to that of field-dependent individuals. However, many studies supporting these conclusions have not capitalized fully on the stylistic strengths of field-dependent learners. Among 35 field-independent and 42 field-dependent undergraduates, when grade-point average was controlled, no significant differences were found in scores on an examination following an audiotaped lecture. However, field-dependent learners significantly outperformed their field-independent peers on follow-up quizzes when material was presented interactively, using examples that required social sensitivity for full appreciation. These results are discussed as supporting the importance of further study of the stylistic aspects of field dependencelindependence and the narrowness of conceptualizations of individual differences when teaching.
Field dependencetindependence has been studied extensively as an important contributor to the ways in which students learn. However, patterns of recent findings have suggested that students scored along this dimension may differ more in learning abilities than style. This study was designed to evaluate whether certain learning conditions could bring out effects of style as distinct from ability.
Field Dependencellndependence and Learning Field dependencelindependence is a dimension of cognitive style associated with the tendency to elaborate and rely primarily on either external or internal referents in processing information (Witkin, Goodenough, & Oltman, 1979). Learners who show greater field dependence are attentive to contextual and social information in the learning situation and tend to be particularly responsive to the introduction of external reinforcement, either material or social (Konstadt & Forman, 1965; Ruble & Nakamura, 1972; Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, & Cox, 1977). Learners who are more field independent, on the other hand, tend to impose their own analytical structure on ambiguous material and ignore external influences (Crandd & Sinkeldam, 1964; Frank, 1984; Witkin, et al., 1977). Theory suggests that actual learning outcomes should not differ as a function of cognitive style when task demands are clear, when the material to be learned is familiar, when task-relevant information is readily available
'Requests for reprints may be sent to David Rollock, Department of Psychological Sciences, 1364 Psychological Sciences Building, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907.
808
D. ROLLOCK
and distractions are minimal, or when the learning situation is structured to suit the characteristics of each type of learner (Frank, 1984; Goodenough, 1976; Jolly & Reardon, 1985; Konstadt & Forman, 1965; Witkin, et al., 1977). Under appropriate conditions, learners at either end of this cognitive style continuum should outperform learners at the opposite end (e.g., Abraham, 1985; Douglass & Kahle, 1978; Kiewra & Frank, 1986; McLeod, Carpenter, McCornack, & Skvarcius, 1978; Ruble & Nakamura, 1972). Learners characterized by greater field independence, however, frequently outperform field-dependent learners (Davis & Cochran, 1989; Shade, 1982), especially in situations where unambiguous task-relevant information, appropriate social feedback, or external reinforcement are limited (Goodenough, 1976; Witkin, et al., 1977). Some studies have found field-independent learners significantly outperform field-dependent peers even under instructional treatments designed to facilitate field-dependent learners' approach to material (Davis, 1991). Early criticisms of fieid dependencelindependence as a construct raised questions about interpreting performance differences primarily in terms of style because there were ambiguities in criterion measurement and persistent correlations between field dependencelindependence and IQ (Goodenough, 1976; Kogan, 1983; Nisbett & Temoshok, 1976; Wachtel, 1972; Zigler, 1963). More recent criticisms suggest that field-independent learners simply may be better equipped to learn most types of school-related material given their superior metacognitive capabilities which overshadow the stylistic effects (Davis, 1991; Davis & Cochran, 1989). Field-independent learners' higher achievement may reflect their keen awareness of their own cognitive processes, tendencies to narrow the direction of their attention, less susceptibility to the deleterious effects of distraction, and tendencies to organize information for efficient retrieval from memory (Davis & Frank, 1979; Durso, Reardon, &Jolly, 1985; Frank, 1983; Goodenough, 1976; Jolly & Reardon, 1985; Robertson & Alfano, 1985).
Demonstrations of Style us Ability There are at least two directions for exploring further the stylistic contributions of field dependencelindependence. One is through the, concept of mobility-fixity. Heinz Werner, Herman Witkin, and Paul Wachtel each have distinguished style-related capabilities from the range of and preference for different modes of cognitive functioning (Hansson, Rydin, & Johnsson, 1986). Research on mobility-fixity has suggested that, while mobility (access to different modes of cognitive functioning) is associated primarily with field independence (e.g., Hansson, et al., 1986), mobility-fixity is distributed across the field dependencelindependence spectrum and may be important in a wide array of tasks (Niaz, 1987). However, there is no criterion measure of mobility, and while strategies for increasing mobility in certain domains can
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION
809
be taught, training in the use of mobility-related strategies appears to have only task-specific effects (Pennings, 1991). Another approach to demonstrating stylistic effects is to vary the nature of the tasks posed for learners. Closer examination shows a pattern among studies reporting no significant interactions between instructional treatments and learners' characteristics. Instructional treatments used in many of these studies simply added social content, cues, or organization of material designed to help field-dependent learners process information like their fieldindependent counterparts (e.g., Halpin & Peterson, 1986; Provost, 1981; Strawitz, 1984; Threadgill, 1979). Such conditions at best could have been expected to equalize performance between the two groups but certainly not maximize the stylistic potential of the field-dependent group. Salomon (1971) proposed that full aptitude-treatment interactions may be observed even employing remedial or compensatory strategies in instructional treatments. Still, the "proficient" learners may perform less well than their "deficient" peers only when they are bored or experience interference with their natural capabilities under such conditions. O n the other hand, preferential approaches to aptitude-treatment interactions focus on learning conditions that capitalize on the particular strengths of each group rather than correcting deficiencies or altering topical content of material to be learned. More than using social rather than neutral material or providing individualized help, any advantage for field-dependent learners should occur when sensitivity to social or contextual aspects of the learning setting is an integral capacity for performing the required task. Several studies designed to use the differences in social sensitivity between the groups as the basis for performance have shown advantages for field-dependent learners (e.g., Abraham, 1985; Ruble & Nakamura, 1972). From the foregoing discussion, it might be expected that differential performance for learners at opposite ends of the field dependencelindependence continuum will be seen most clearly under conditions that do more than compensate for ability "deficits" associated with cognitive style. Stylistic differences should be clearest when field-independent learners are allowed to structure learning material themselves, and field-dependent learners can use their social/context sensitivity as a means to learn. The purpose of this study was to examine whether field-dependent students could perform better on a test of newly-learned material than field-independent peers when learning required social sensitivity. These results could inform the design of studies in which full trait-treatment interactions can be sought more rigorously.
METHOD Study Participants
Participants were from a pool of 128 undergraduate volunteers (75 men
810
D. ROLLOCK
and 46 women, with 7 who did not indicate sex) fulfilling introductory psychology course requirements at a large midwestern university. Among the participants were 91 Euro-American, 28 African-American, 5 Asian-American, and 4 Hispanic undergraduates, with 1 participant who did not indicate ethnicity. Although researchers have raised questions about the ways in which field dependencelindependence may be manifested among different ethnic groups (Jones, 1978; Ramirez & Castaneda, 1984; Shade, 1982, 1986), participants were included without regard for ethnicity. A first set of participants was recruited early in the semester, before they had been exposed to course content relevant to the topics of the material covered in this experiment. A second set was recruited later in the semester, after such material had been covered in their courses. Measures Portable Rod-and-Frame Test.-The Portable Rod-and-Frame Test (Oltman, 1968) was used to measure field dependencelindependence. Individual participants are required to view a rod on a movable disk through one end of a translucent acrylic frame, which provides a restricted visual environment. The frame is tilted on alternate trials to 28O to the right and to the left. For a series of eight trials, the participant must rotate the rod to the right or left until it reaches (gravitational) vertical. The odd angle of the tilt of the frame provides a perceptual distraction the participant must "ignore" in order to make accurate judgements. Field dependencelindependence is operationalized as the sum of deviations (in degrees) from vertical over trials; field-dependent individuals should be more distracted by the off-center visual environment and have greater deviations from vertical. Oltman (1968) reported the test to have acceptable reliability (Spearman-Brown split-half r = .95) and significant correlations with other criterion measures of field dependencelindependence (correlations of .60 with the Embedded Figures Test and .89 with the fulI room-sized Rod-and-Frame Test). As will be described below, data from students from the top and bottom thirds of the distribution of Portable Rod-and-Frame Test scores were included in this study. content of the material participants Prior exposure to material.-The were to learn is described below. Prior exposure was treated as a categorical independent variable rather than a covariate due to the difficulty of reliably establishing extent of prior exposure to the material to be learned. Participants who were tested early in the semester and had never taken a previous course in psychology were considered "naive." All other participants were considered previously exposed. Learning quizzes.-The dependent variables were separate sets of multiple-choice questions that followed the presentation of information on classical conditioning and on instrumental conditioning. For each quiz, 13 ques-
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION
811
tions had been drawn from published introductory psychology textbook test banks and questions used by introductory psychology instructors on the campus. Each set consisted of questions of factual recognition and of application. Internal consistency of each of the original 13-item quizzes had been assessed as modest: for the classical conditioning quiz, standardized Cronbach's alpha = .69, and for the instrumental conditioning quiz, Cronbach's alpha = .50. However, eliminating one item from the classical conditioning quiz that had had low correlations with the other items increased standardized Cronbach's alpha to .77. Eliminating four items from the instrumental conditioning quiz which had had low and negative correlations with the rest of the scale increased the standardized ~ronbach'salpha to .60. Given the speed with which this material was covered in this study, the necessary heterogeneity of the items, and the short length of the quizzes, alphas had not been expected to be very high. Grade-Point Average (GPA).-Participants were asked to report their cumulative grade-point averages on the 6-point scale employed by the university. Since measured field dependencetindependence has been correlated with measured intellectual abilities and since the tasks employed were considered typical of college students' intellectual challenges, GPA was considered an important control for general-and specific-ability. -
-
Procedure Participants were brought in groups of three into a small room with desks and chairs, where they filled out demographic questionnaires and were taken aside individually for assessment on the Portable Rod-and-Frame Test. Each group of participants then listened to an audiotaped 6-min. lecture on the basic principles of classical conditioning, which was immediately followed by the first brief quiz. This "lecture condition" was designed to exemplify learning situations favored by field-independent learners. A research assistant then administered the "demonstration condition" by reading an introduction to operant conditioning and engaging participants in a demonstration of operant principles. The format of the presentation paralleled that of the lecture condition. Participants then took the brief quiz on this material. The demonstration consisted of a "Hor-Cold" guessing game designed to convey basic principles of shaping and reinforcement. One participant was selected as a "target," whose behavior was shaped to a predetermined pattern (picking up a pen on a table and drawing a circle) only by the other participants' feedback that those actions were "hot" or "cold." The personal involvement and social sensitivity necessary to succeed at the game and appreciate the concepts were presumed to favor field-dependent learners. Following these learning exercises, participants filled out questionnaires on their perceptions of the learning tasks, were debriefed, and were dismissed.
8 12
D. ROLLOCK
RESULTS General Analyses Participants whose Portable Rod-and-Frame Test scores were above the 66th percentile of the distribution (greater than 1 6 O deviation), and who had ~ r o v i d e dall other required information, were classified as field-dependent (n = 43). Their peers below the 33rd percentile (less than l o 0 total deviation) were considered field-independent ( n = 35). Among the field-dependent participants were 22 women and 2 1 men, with 25 Euro-Americans, 15 African-Americans, and 3 Latino students. The field-independent participants included 9 women and 26 men, with 25 Euro-Americans, 8 African-Americans, and 2 Asian-Americans. One field-dependent African-American man was identified as an outlier, and elimination of his data brought the total number of field-dependent participants to 42. Fifty-three participants had been exposed to the material previously (19 women and 34 men), and 24 were "naive" (12 women and 12 men). No significant differences were observed between Portable Rod-and-Frame groups or prior exposure groups in terms of GPA, ethnicity, or colIege major, and there was no association between Portable Rod-and-Frame groups and prior exposure. However, women were less likely to be found in the field-independent group ( X , 2 (N= 77) = 4.59, p = .03). Two 2 x 2 between-groups analyses of covariance were performed on quiz scores, using GPA as a covarjate in each analysis: one for scores in the lecture condition and one for scores in the interactive condition. Independent variables were field dependence/independence and prior exposure to the material (comparing those with some prior exposure with those who had had none). Although cell sizes were unequal, all other statistical assumptions for the use of analysis of covariance were met. Cell means were weighted by cell sizes to compensate for the inequalities in cell size. I n Table 1 are listed the means, standard deviations, and group sizes for both dependent variables by levels of the independent variables. TABLE 1
UNADJUSTED MEANS AND STANDARD DEVLATIONS OF Qurz PERFORMANCE BY COGNITNE STYLEAND PRIOR EXPOSURE Field DependenceJIndependence
n
Field Dependent Previously exposed 30 Never exposed 12 Field Independent Previously exposed 23 Never exposed 12 'Based on 12 items. b ~ a s e don 9 items.
Quiz Performance Interactive Conditionb Lecture Con&tionn
M
SD
M
SD
9.20 8.33
2.64 2.42
6.73 5.67
1.56 1.37
8.43 9.75
3.10 2.56
5.22 5.75
2.37 2.01
813
FIELD DEPENDENCE AND LEARNING CONDITION
Pearson intercorrelations among aU variables are presented in Table 2. As expected, GPA was strongly and significantly positively associated with performance in both lecture and demonstration conditions. Also as predicted, extreme Portable Rod-and-Frame Test scores were significantly positively associated with the demonstration-condition's quiz scores but were unrelated to those of the lecture condition. Previous exposure was not significantly correlated with either dependent variable, although the coefficients were in the proper direction. Finally, the two dependent variables were significantly positively correlated. However, univariate analyses of covariance were used in the next phase of the analyses since the two conditions were conceptually distinct, at least as far as this exploratory work was concerned (Huberty & Morris, 1989). TABLE 2 INTERCORRELATIONS AMONGVARIABLES (N = 77) Variable
2
1
3
4
1. Field Dependence" 2. Prior ~ x ~ o s u r e ~ -.06 3. Grade Point Average .15 .18 4. Lecture Quiz .18 .03 .19* 5. Interactive Quiz .26t -.09 .33t .47t 'This correlation is based upon dummy codes for group membership. Positive correlations indicate direct relationship with field dependence. bThis correlation is based upon dummy group membership. Positive correlations indicate direct relationships with lack of exposure. *p
