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Feature
Feature ONE HEALTH
Improving animal health for poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihoods Animals are vital to ensuring food security for individuals, families and communities in countries around the world. In this, the latest article in Veterinary Record’s series promoting One Health, Andy Stringer, director of veterinary programmes at the Society for the Protection of Animals Abroad, discusses how improving animal health, particularly of poultry and working equids, has the potential to reduce poverty and promote food security and sustainable livelihoods in low-income countries
Image: Marisol Collins, University of Liverpool
healthy life (FAO 2009). Animals The United Nations are of considerable importance as Millennium Development a route out of poverty, ensuring Goals (MDGs), agreed in food security and sustainable 2000, were a set of eight livelihoods; solutions to these targets to respond to the problems may therefore include world’s main development approaches derived from a One challenges. Included in Health perspective. the MDGs was the aim to ‘eradicate extreme poverty and hunger’ (Anon 2014a). Animals and livelihoods By 2050, the human In countries around the globe, population is likely to increase animals are vital to ensuring to over nine billion (Anon food security for individuals, 2012). Millions of households families and communities depend on agriculture as part through livelihood processes of their livelihoods, and about (Bazeley and others 1999, 90 per cent of the world’s Anon 2002, Perry and Grace extremely poor are small2009, Okello and others 2011, A woman living in rural Ethiopia feeds the household’s chickens. Poultry play scale farmers (FAO 2012). An FAO 2012). One approach to an important economic, nutritional and sociocultural role in the livelihoods of poor rural households in many low-income countries estimated 2.6 billion people understanding how animals and in the developing world have livelihoods are linked is the UK to live on less than $2 a day Department for International Development’s sustainable livelihoods and, of these, about 1.4 billion are extremely height and age. Stunting (low height framework (DFID 1999). The livelihoods poor – surviving on less than $1.25 a day for age) in children under the age of five framework (Fig 1) identifies five core asset (FAO 2012). increases the risk of concurrent disease and categories – human capital, natural capital, Poverty reduction requires reducing the affects physical and cognitive development financial capital, social capital and physical number of people who are poor, as well capital – on which livelihoods are built. as the extent of their deprivation. To do ‘About 90 per cent of the world’s These assets are then used in a number of this, the root causes and structural factors extremely poor are small-scale processes that determine the livelihood of poverty must be addressed. Poverty is farmers’ status of the household and the wellbeing intimately associated with malnutrition, of its members. Increasing access to a range with global estimates suggesting that around of assets, whether by ownership or by the 925 million people were undernourished in capacity, as well as productivity in right to use them, and use of assets through 2010 (FAO 2012). Malnutrition affects the adulthood (Alders and others 2013). these processes, is the primary mechanism height and weight of affected populations Preventing malnutrition is therefore of to sustainable livelihoods and human and is measured by the ratio of weight, importance to a multitude of human, social wellbeing. and economic stakeholders. Animals can contribute to several asset Food security exists when populations types and livelihoods through processes have consistent access to sufficient, safe Andy Stringer, BVSc, PhD, MRCVS, including the direct production of produce and nutritious food to meet their dietary SPANA, 14 John Street, London WC1N 2EB, UK for consumption (for example, meat, eggs e-mail: [email protected] needs and food preferences for an active and 526 | Veterinary Record | November 29, 2014
Downloaded from http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/ on March 29, 2015 - Published by group.bmj.com
Image: Department for International Development
Feature purchasing of poultry as one of the earliest stages of progress (Kristjanson and others 2004). Income derived from poultry can be used to help progress out of poverty, including making additional investment in animals. Given that investment in large animal stock is typically beyond the means of the poorest households (Kristjanson and others 2004), poultry are potentially an accessible option to the poorest in society. Indeed, the identification of farmers whose only livestock are poultry can, in many cases, be a tool for targeting very poor farming households (Dolberg 2003). Fig 1: The Department for International Development’s Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, showing the main Numerous varieties of components that influence livelihoods and the relationships between them indigenous poultry breeds are found in low-income countries and are kept under village scavenging and milk), providing services for other people, animals and the environment’ production systems (Luu and others 2013). households that can be exchanged for goods (AVMA 2008). A collaborative approach Poultry provide animal protein in the form or cash, and, if necessary, the animal assets by experts in animal health, marketing and of meat and eggs and can be sold or bartered can be liquidated. Poverty analyses have economics, and integration with human to meet essential family needs such as shown that people’s ability to escape from and social science counterparts, is necessary medicine, clothes and school fees (Alders poverty is critically dependent upon their to strengthen all aspects of the animal and Pym 2009). Output from village poultry access to assets (DFID 1999). health sector. While many animal species in terms of weight gain and number of Disruption to livelihoods through are found in smallholder systems in loweggs per hen per year is often low when shocks results in a vulnerable livelihood income countries, this article explores how compared to intensively raised birds, but status and potential food insecurity. Shocks improving the health of two such groups production efficiency is moderate as there is that can affect animals include climatic of animals, poultry and working equids minimal input into these husbandry systems events (for example, droughts or floods) (species often given less recognition than (Alders and Spradbrow 2001, Alders and and animal disease. These shocks can result cattle, sheep and goats), has the potential to Pym 2009). Poultry are especially important in poor health and condition of animals, promote poverty reduction, food security to individuals who do not own other thereby lowering their productivity. This and sustainable livelihoods. animals, landless people and women, who may result in animal death, a reduction in often control the income from sales (Anon the volume of produce consumed by the Poultry 2014b). household, or reduced value of the animal, Poultry play an important economic, However, despite these indigenous and therefore reduced opportunities for the nutritional and sociocultural role in the breeds being well adapted to the local household. livelihoods of poor rural households in conditions, low genetic potential and poor There is increasing evidence that many low-income countries (Tadelle and levels of husbandry mean that many of improving access of poor farmers to these breeds grow slowly and are poor animal health services will improve their producers of small eggs (Anon 2014b). Poor ‘Poultry are especially important livelihoods. For improvements to be made management and limited resources hinder to individuals who do not own to animal health in low-income countries the development of chicken production by by primary animal healthcare services, key other animals, landless people and reducing outputs and predisposing birds to criteria must be addressed: the affordability, women, who often control the disease outbreaks (Halima and others 2007, accessibility, availability, acceptability and Dinka and others 2010). income from sales’ quality of these animal health services Infectious diseases have a major are essential for sustainability (Catley and impact on poultry productivity (Halima Leyland 2001, Catley and others 2002). Ogle 2001) and have the potential to play and others 2007, Dinka and others 2010, Supporting animal health to mitigate a significant role in poverty alleviation Luu and others 2013). Limited extension the effect of shocks on households is an and food security (Alders 2004, Dolberg and veterinary services are also important important role of the animal health sector in 2008, Alders and Pym 2009, Anon 2014b). constraints to village chicken production maintaining the livelihoods and, ultimately, Family poultry account for up to 80 per cent (Luu and others 2013). For the smallholder, food security, of the world’s poorest of poultry stocks in low-income countries disease outbreaks can mean a dramatic populations. where households raise poultry in small reduction in livelihood opportunities and One Health definitions and approaches numbers (FAO 2014). It has been shown increased vulnerability. Poultry health can have been explored in depth in previous that households can escape from poverty be improved through the introduction of papers (Okello and others 2011, Gibbs 2014), by diversifying on-farm incomes through genetically improved indigenous breeds but one definition with relevance to this livestock, including poultry (Kristjanson (with better meat and egg production), article is ‘the collaborative effort of multiple and others 2004). Livestock (chickens, disease control strategies (improved disciplines working locally, nationally, sheep, goats and cattle) play a key role in biosecurity and vaccination) to mitigate and globally to attain optimal health for providing pathways out of poverty, with the disease risks, and the training of farmers in November 29, 2014 | Veterinary Record | 527
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Feature
Image: Rodrique Ngowi/AP/Press Association Images
flock management (including egg handling and storage) and produce marketing to maximise additional benefits for the household (FAO 2014). Improving genetic resistance to infectious diseases through selective breeding programmes presents a valuable opportunity to improve the productivity of poultry production systems (Anon 2014b). Reductions in mortality through vaccination programmes (Alexander and others 2004) and improved management that protects young chicks for the first six to eight weeks of life are of considerable importance (Dolberg 2003). The implementation of effective control programmes for Newcastle disease in low-income countries has resulted in numerous benefits for households, including increased chicken numbers, increased household purchasing power, increased home consumption of chicken products and increased decision-making power for women (Alders and Pym 2009). These benefits can be viewed as contributing to a number of livelihood assets within the household (for example, financial capital and social capital), which, with appropriate processes and livelihood strategies, can achieve positive livelihood outcomes such as increased income and improved food security. Simply increasing the number of poultry will not always make an enterprise more profitable (Alders 2004). Care must be taken to ensure that inputs and expertise are available and affordable (as attempts to intensify poultry production may not end up being sustainable) and that markets exist and are accessible. As the density of a poultry population increases, more sophisticated disease control measures are required (Alders and Pym 2009). For programmes to be sustainable and, therefore, to continue to support livelihoods, an increase in production will require a market for the
sale of products (for example, eggs and live birds) so that producers are able to pay for production inputs (Alders and Pym 2009). Village poultry improvement programmes have the potential to contribute to each of the MDGs, not just the goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, and to do so for the most vulnerable households in low-income countries (Alders and Pym 2009). However, poultry have received little attention in rural development and food security agendas until recently, so their potential is underused (Duguma 2009).
Working equids
Working equids have an essential role in the livelihoods of millions of individuals worldwide (Perry and others 2002, Thornton and others 2002). It is estimated that the total world equine population is around 112 million (approximately 58.5 million horses, 43 million donkeys and 10.5
‘Equids are often used in the most marginalised of communities, and are of particular importance to vulnerable groups, including the landless. They also help to reduce the daily drudgery of backbreaking tasks for women and children especially’
million mules), although this is likely to be an underestimate (FAO 2013). These equids perform numerous vital tasks, including the transportation of goods, people and construction materials, as well as being used in agricultural and tourism activities (Garuma and others 2007, Pritchard 2010, Stringer and others 2011). Working equids are estimated to support between 300 and 600 million people globally. Many of these people will be in the so-called ‘bottom billion’ (Collier 2007). Equids are often used in the most marginalised of communities, and are of particular importance to vulnerable groups, including the landless. They also help to reduce the daily drudgery of backbreaking tasks for women and children especially (Marshall and Ali 1997). The increases in human populations are being matched in many areas with increases in working equid populations, especially in Africa, as global economic issues and a changing Donkeys ferrying rocks for construction in Lamu, Kenya. Working environment underline their equids support millions globally; many of these will be in the importance in sustaining so-called ‘bottom billion’ 528 | Veterinary Record | November 29, 2014
the livelihoods of millions (Pritchard 2010). Working equids are economically and socially important, and the net returns from equid use are significantly higher than the total cost of owning them (Marshall and Ali 1997, Admassu and Shiferaw 2011). Admassu and Shiferaw (2011) showed that the contribution to the household income of working equids was approximately equivalent to the household income from livestock farming. This estimate of income from equid use did not include equid use on homesteads and, if this were taken into consideration, the income from equid use could be even greater. Their study also revealed that the very poor did not own equine animals, with much of the extra burden falling on women if donkeys in particular were not owned. Working equids are largely absent from agricultural and animal health policy, research and educational programmes and agendas, and there is a distinct lack of recognition of working animals by policymakers (Pritchard 2010). Working equids suffer from low productivity as a result of prevalent infectious diseases and diseases associated with poor management practices compounded by low nutritional standards. The problems faced by working equids can be addressed through increasing the recognition of working equids among legislators and administrators and by working to reduce the high prevalence of health and welfare problems through appropriate primary animal health services (Pritchard 2010). Working equids can increase access to and ownership of different capitals, including human, social and natural capital. At a household level, human capital varies according to many factors, including working equid ownership. Benefits from working equid ownership include reducing labour burdens, such as carrying firewood and water, supporting agricultural activities and creating opportunities for women to diversify their income streams. In some countries, working equids are used to transport women to health centres in the late stages of pregnancy, thus reducing the risk of maternal complications at birth. Working equids also increase access to social capital, the social resources that individuals use in pursuit of their livelihood objectives. Working equids provide greater access to networks and increase the connectedness within social structures. They are used to build relationships of trust and provide the basis for informal safety nets among poor people. Working equids also have the potential to reduce the vulnerability of livelihoods due to climatic events (changes in natural capital). In Africa, many subsistence smallholder farmers have a high dependency on agricultural production for survival and are at risk from climatic events. Using working equids
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Feature produces greater farm outputs than working farmland by hand, with working equids also being used for off-farm diversification. The ownership of a healthy and productive working equid contributes to livelihood assets within the household, and therefore positive livelihood outcomes. Working equids contribute towards the MDGs’ aim of poverty reduction, as well as gender equality, improved maternal health and environmental stability. In the first article in Veterinary Record’s series promoting One Health, Paul Gibbs included a diagram to illustrate selected applications of One Health to date (Gibbs 2014). Those applications largely apply to the fields of zoonotic disease control and translational medicine and, to a much lesser extent, to global health. Development in rural areas over recent decades has seen a gradual trend toward smallholder farmer participation as an essential ingredient in the development process (Pretty 1995). The degree to which smallholder farmers are involved in the development process is an important factor in determining long-term sustainability. For further success, projects should continue to move away from topdown, technology-driven interventions, and focus on holistic, participatory and community-based programmes, which are community led and driven, with increasing recognition given to local knowledge and experience (Chambers 1983, Kumar 2002, FAO 2012). There is great scope to use One Health approaches at the interface between animal health and international development goals, such as poverty reduction, food security and sustainable livelihoods. However, it will require the paradigm shift discussed by Gibbs (2014) for a ‘wider and deeper commitment to interdisciplinary action addressing the protection and needs of society in the 21st century’.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Rob Christley and Claire Okell for their helpful comments on the manuscript during its preparation.
References
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Image: Andy Stringer
Conclusion
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Newcastle disease in village chickens: a field manual. ACIAR Monograph 82, pp. 112. http://aciar.gov.au/ publication/mn082 ALEXANDER, D. J., BELL, J. G. & ALDERS, R. G. (2004) Technology review: Newcastle disease with special emphasis on its effect on village chickens. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 161, p 63. FAO, Rome ANON (2002) Improved animal health for poverty reduction and sustainable livelihoods. FAO Animal Health and Production Paper 153. FAO, Rome ANON (2012) World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision. http://esa.un.org/wpp/. Accessed September 30, 2014 ANON (2014a) United Nations Millennium Development Goals www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. Accessed September 30, 2014 ANON (2014b) Chicken health for development. http:// ch4d.wordpress.com. Accessed September 30, 2014 AVMA (2008) One Health: a new professional imperative, One Health initiative task force: final report. http:// avma.org/onehealth. Accessed September 30, 2014 Bazeley, P. B. S., Holden, S. J. & Ashley, S. (1999) Livestock in poverty focused development. IDL Group CHAMBERS, R. (1983) Rural development: putting the last first. Longman Scientific and Technical. pp 75-85 CATLEY, A., BLAKEWAY, S. & LEYLAND, T. (2002) Community-based animal healthcare: a practical guide to improving primary veterinary services. pp 51-103. ITDG Publishing CATLEY, A. & LEYLAND, T. (2001) Community participation and the delivery of veterinary services in Africa. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 49, 95-113 COLLIER, P. (2007) The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It. Oxford University Press. p 3 DFID (1999) Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. http://bmj.co/109LVUr. Accessed September 30, 2014 DINKA, H., CHALA, R., DAWO, F., BEKANA, E. & LETA, S. (2010) Major constraints and health management of village poultry production in Rift Valley of Oromia, Ethiopia. American Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science 9, 529-533 DOLBERG, F. (2003) Review of household poultry production as a tool in poverty reduction with focus on Bangladesh and India. FAO Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative Working Paper No 6 DOLBERG, F. (2008) Poultry production for livelihood improvement and poverty alleviation. In Poultry in the 21st Century: Avian influenza and beyond. Eds O.
Thieme and D. Pilling. Proceedings of the International Poultry Conference, November 5-7, 2007, Bangkok, FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 9. www. fao.org/AG/againfo/home/events/bangkok2007/docs/ part3/3_1.pdf. Accessed October 16, 2014 DUGUMA, R. (2009) Understanding the role of indigenous chickens during the long walk to food security in Ethiopia. Livestock Research for Rural Development 29, 116 FAO (2009) The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Economic crises- Impacts and Lessons Learned. FAO, Rome FAO (2012) Livestock sector development for poverty reduction: an economic and policy perspective. Livestock’s many virtues. FAO, Rome FAO (2013) FAO Statistical Database. http://faostat.fao. org/site/573/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=573#ancor Accessed October 30, 2013 FAO (2014) Decision tools for family poultry development. FAO Animal Production and Health Guidelines 16. FAO, Rome GARUMA, S., LEMECHA, F., SISAY, A. & JEMAL, E. (2007) Study on gender distribution of ownership of animal-drawn carts and its effect on women’s life in Adami Tulu and Dugda Bora districts. Draught Animal News 45, 29-34 GIBBS, E. P. J. (2014) The evolution of One Health: a decade of progress and challenges for the future. Veterinary Record 174, 85-91 HALIMA, H., NESER, F. W. C., MARLE-KOSTER, E. & KOCK, A. (2007) Village-based indigenous chicken production system in north-west Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 39, 189-197 LUU, L., BETTRIDGE, J., CHRISTLEY, R. M., MELESE, K., BLAKE, D., DESSIE, T., WIGLEY, P., DESTA, T. T., HANOTTE, O. & OTHERS (2013) Prevalence and molecular characterisation of Eimeria species in Ethiopian village chickens. BMC Veterinary Research 9, 208 KRISTJANSON, P., KRISHNA, A., RADENY, M. & NINDO, W. (2004) Pathways Out of Poverty in Western Kenya and the Role of Livestock. PPLPI Working Paper No.14, FAO, Rome KUMAR, S. (2002) Methods for Community Participation: A Complete Guide for Practitioners. Practical Action Publishing. pp 23-52 MARSHALL, K. & ALI, Z. (1997) Gender issues in donkey use in rural Ethiopia. Donkeys, People and Development: A Resource Book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA). In Eds P. Starkey & D. Fielding. ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), The Netherlands, pp 62-68 OKELLO, A. L., GIBBS, E. P., VANDERSMISSEN, A. & WELBURN, S. C. (2011) One health and the neglected zoonoses: turning rhetoric into reality. Veterinary Record 169, 281-285 PERRY, B. & GRACE, D. (2009) The impacts of livestock diseases and their control on growth and development processes that are pro-poor. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 364, 2643-2655 PERRY, B., RANDOLPH, T., MCDERMOTT, J., SONES, K & THORNTON, P. (2002) Investing in Animal Research to Alleviate Poverty. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). Nairobi, Kenya PRETTY, J. N. (1995) Participatory learning for sustainable agriculture. World Development 23, 1247-1263 PRITCHARD, J. C. (2010) Animal traction and transport in the 21st century: getting the priorities right. Veterinary Journal 186, 271-274 STRINGER, A. P., BELL, C. E., CHRISTLEY, R. M., GEBREAB, F., TEFERA, G., REED, K., TRAWFORD, A. & PINCHBECK, G. L. (2011) A cluster randomisedcontrolled trial to evaluate knowledge transfer interventions for rural working equid users in Ethiopia. Preventative Veterinary Medicine 100, 90-99 TADELLE, D. & OGLE, B. (2001) Village poultry production systems in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 33, 521-537 THORNTON, P., KRUSKA, R. L., HENNINGER, L., KRISTJANSON, P. M., REID, R. S., ATIENO, F., ODENO, A. N. & NDEGWA, T. (2002) Mapping Poverty and Livestock in Developing Countries. International Livestock Research Institute. Nairobi, Kenya
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Improving animal health for poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihoods Andy Stringer Veterinary Record 2014 175: 526-529
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Feature
Feature ONE HEALTH
Improving animal health for poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihoods Animals are vital to ensuring food security for individuals, families and communities in countries around the world. In this, the latest article in Veterinary Record’s series promoting One Health, Andy Stringer, director of veterinary programmes at the Society for the Protection of Animals Abroad, discusses how improving animal health, particularly of poultry and working equids, has the potential to reduce poverty and promote food security and sustainable livelihoods in low-income countries
Image: Marisol Collins, University of Liverpool
healthy life (FAO 2009). Animals The United Nations are of considerable importance as Millennium Development a route out of poverty, ensuring Goals (MDGs), agreed in food security and sustainable 2000, were a set of eight livelihoods; solutions to these targets to respond to the problems may therefore include world’s main development approaches derived from a One challenges. Included in Health perspective. the MDGs was the aim to ‘eradicate extreme poverty and hunger’ (Anon 2014a). Animals and livelihoods By 2050, the human In countries around the globe, population is likely to increase animals are vital to ensuring to over nine billion (Anon food security for individuals, 2012). Millions of households families and communities depend on agriculture as part through livelihood processes of their livelihoods, and about (Bazeley and others 1999, 90 per cent of the world’s Anon 2002, Perry and Grace extremely poor are small2009, Okello and others 2011, A woman living in rural Ethiopia feeds the household’s chickens. Poultry play scale farmers (FAO 2012). An FAO 2012). One approach to an important economic, nutritional and sociocultural role in the livelihoods of poor rural households in many low-income countries estimated 2.6 billion people understanding how animals and in the developing world have livelihoods are linked is the UK to live on less than $2 a day Department for International Development’s sustainable livelihoods and, of these, about 1.4 billion are extremely height and age. Stunting (low height framework (DFID 1999). The livelihoods poor – surviving on less than $1.25 a day for age) in children under the age of five framework (Fig 1) identifies five core asset (FAO 2012). increases the risk of concurrent disease and categories – human capital, natural capital, Poverty reduction requires reducing the affects physical and cognitive development financial capital, social capital and physical number of people who are poor, as well capital – on which livelihoods are built. as the extent of their deprivation. To do ‘About 90 per cent of the world’s These assets are then used in a number of this, the root causes and structural factors extremely poor are small-scale processes that determine the livelihood of poverty must be addressed. Poverty is farmers’ status of the household and the wellbeing intimately associated with malnutrition, of its members. Increasing access to a range with global estimates suggesting that around of assets, whether by ownership or by the 925 million people were undernourished in capacity, as well as productivity in right to use them, and use of assets through 2010 (FAO 2012). Malnutrition affects the adulthood (Alders and others 2013). these processes, is the primary mechanism height and weight of affected populations Preventing malnutrition is therefore of to sustainable livelihoods and human and is measured by the ratio of weight, importance to a multitude of human, social wellbeing. and economic stakeholders. Animals can contribute to several asset Food security exists when populations types and livelihoods through processes have consistent access to sufficient, safe Andy Stringer, BVSc, PhD, MRCVS, including the direct production of produce and nutritious food to meet their dietary SPANA, 14 John Street, London WC1N 2EB, UK for consumption (for example, meat, eggs e-mail: [email protected] needs and food preferences for an active and 526 | Veterinary Record | November 29, 2014
Downloaded from http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/ on March 29, 2015 - Published by group.bmj.com
Image: Department for International Development
Feature purchasing of poultry as one of the earliest stages of progress (Kristjanson and others 2004). Income derived from poultry can be used to help progress out of poverty, including making additional investment in animals. Given that investment in large animal stock is typically beyond the means of the poorest households (Kristjanson and others 2004), poultry are potentially an accessible option to the poorest in society. Indeed, the identification of farmers whose only livestock are poultry can, in many cases, be a tool for targeting very poor farming households (Dolberg 2003). Fig 1: The Department for International Development’s Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, showing the main Numerous varieties of components that influence livelihoods and the relationships between them indigenous poultry breeds are found in low-income countries and are kept under village scavenging and milk), providing services for other people, animals and the environment’ production systems (Luu and others 2013). households that can be exchanged for goods (AVMA 2008). A collaborative approach Poultry provide animal protein in the form or cash, and, if necessary, the animal assets by experts in animal health, marketing and of meat and eggs and can be sold or bartered can be liquidated. Poverty analyses have economics, and integration with human to meet essential family needs such as shown that people’s ability to escape from and social science counterparts, is necessary medicine, clothes and school fees (Alders poverty is critically dependent upon their to strengthen all aspects of the animal and Pym 2009). Output from village poultry access to assets (DFID 1999). health sector. While many animal species in terms of weight gain and number of Disruption to livelihoods through are found in smallholder systems in loweggs per hen per year is often low when shocks results in a vulnerable livelihood income countries, this article explores how compared to intensively raised birds, but status and potential food insecurity. Shocks improving the health of two such groups production efficiency is moderate as there is that can affect animals include climatic of animals, poultry and working equids minimal input into these husbandry systems events (for example, droughts or floods) (species often given less recognition than (Alders and Spradbrow 2001, Alders and and animal disease. These shocks can result cattle, sheep and goats), has the potential to Pym 2009). Poultry are especially important in poor health and condition of animals, promote poverty reduction, food security to individuals who do not own other thereby lowering their productivity. This and sustainable livelihoods. animals, landless people and women, who may result in animal death, a reduction in often control the income from sales (Anon the volume of produce consumed by the Poultry 2014b). household, or reduced value of the animal, Poultry play an important economic, However, despite these indigenous and therefore reduced opportunities for the nutritional and sociocultural role in the breeds being well adapted to the local household. livelihoods of poor rural households in conditions, low genetic potential and poor There is increasing evidence that many low-income countries (Tadelle and levels of husbandry mean that many of improving access of poor farmers to these breeds grow slowly and are poor animal health services will improve their producers of small eggs (Anon 2014b). Poor ‘Poultry are especially important livelihoods. For improvements to be made management and limited resources hinder to individuals who do not own to animal health in low-income countries the development of chicken production by by primary animal healthcare services, key other animals, landless people and reducing outputs and predisposing birds to criteria must be addressed: the affordability, women, who often control the disease outbreaks (Halima and others 2007, accessibility, availability, acceptability and Dinka and others 2010). income from sales’ quality of these animal health services Infectious diseases have a major are essential for sustainability (Catley and impact on poultry productivity (Halima Leyland 2001, Catley and others 2002). Ogle 2001) and have the potential to play and others 2007, Dinka and others 2010, Supporting animal health to mitigate a significant role in poverty alleviation Luu and others 2013). Limited extension the effect of shocks on households is an and food security (Alders 2004, Dolberg and veterinary services are also important important role of the animal health sector in 2008, Alders and Pym 2009, Anon 2014b). constraints to village chicken production maintaining the livelihoods and, ultimately, Family poultry account for up to 80 per cent (Luu and others 2013). For the smallholder, food security, of the world’s poorest of poultry stocks in low-income countries disease outbreaks can mean a dramatic populations. where households raise poultry in small reduction in livelihood opportunities and One Health definitions and approaches numbers (FAO 2014). It has been shown increased vulnerability. Poultry health can have been explored in depth in previous that households can escape from poverty be improved through the introduction of papers (Okello and others 2011, Gibbs 2014), by diversifying on-farm incomes through genetically improved indigenous breeds but one definition with relevance to this livestock, including poultry (Kristjanson (with better meat and egg production), article is ‘the collaborative effort of multiple and others 2004). Livestock (chickens, disease control strategies (improved disciplines working locally, nationally, sheep, goats and cattle) play a key role in biosecurity and vaccination) to mitigate and globally to attain optimal health for providing pathways out of poverty, with the disease risks, and the training of farmers in November 29, 2014 | Veterinary Record | 527
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Feature
Image: Rodrique Ngowi/AP/Press Association Images
flock management (including egg handling and storage) and produce marketing to maximise additional benefits for the household (FAO 2014). Improving genetic resistance to infectious diseases through selective breeding programmes presents a valuable opportunity to improve the productivity of poultry production systems (Anon 2014b). Reductions in mortality through vaccination programmes (Alexander and others 2004) and improved management that protects young chicks for the first six to eight weeks of life are of considerable importance (Dolberg 2003). The implementation of effective control programmes for Newcastle disease in low-income countries has resulted in numerous benefits for households, including increased chicken numbers, increased household purchasing power, increased home consumption of chicken products and increased decision-making power for women (Alders and Pym 2009). These benefits can be viewed as contributing to a number of livelihood assets within the household (for example, financial capital and social capital), which, with appropriate processes and livelihood strategies, can achieve positive livelihood outcomes such as increased income and improved food security. Simply increasing the number of poultry will not always make an enterprise more profitable (Alders 2004). Care must be taken to ensure that inputs and expertise are available and affordable (as attempts to intensify poultry production may not end up being sustainable) and that markets exist and are accessible. As the density of a poultry population increases, more sophisticated disease control measures are required (Alders and Pym 2009). For programmes to be sustainable and, therefore, to continue to support livelihoods, an increase in production will require a market for the
sale of products (for example, eggs and live birds) so that producers are able to pay for production inputs (Alders and Pym 2009). Village poultry improvement programmes have the potential to contribute to each of the MDGs, not just the goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, and to do so for the most vulnerable households in low-income countries (Alders and Pym 2009). However, poultry have received little attention in rural development and food security agendas until recently, so their potential is underused (Duguma 2009).
Working equids
Working equids have an essential role in the livelihoods of millions of individuals worldwide (Perry and others 2002, Thornton and others 2002). It is estimated that the total world equine population is around 112 million (approximately 58.5 million horses, 43 million donkeys and 10.5
‘Equids are often used in the most marginalised of communities, and are of particular importance to vulnerable groups, including the landless. They also help to reduce the daily drudgery of backbreaking tasks for women and children especially’
million mules), although this is likely to be an underestimate (FAO 2013). These equids perform numerous vital tasks, including the transportation of goods, people and construction materials, as well as being used in agricultural and tourism activities (Garuma and others 2007, Pritchard 2010, Stringer and others 2011). Working equids are estimated to support between 300 and 600 million people globally. Many of these people will be in the so-called ‘bottom billion’ (Collier 2007). Equids are often used in the most marginalised of communities, and are of particular importance to vulnerable groups, including the landless. They also help to reduce the daily drudgery of backbreaking tasks for women and children especially (Marshall and Ali 1997). The increases in human populations are being matched in many areas with increases in working equid populations, especially in Africa, as global economic issues and a changing Donkeys ferrying rocks for construction in Lamu, Kenya. Working environment underline their equids support millions globally; many of these will be in the importance in sustaining so-called ‘bottom billion’ 528 | Veterinary Record | November 29, 2014
the livelihoods of millions (Pritchard 2010). Working equids are economically and socially important, and the net returns from equid use are significantly higher than the total cost of owning them (Marshall and Ali 1997, Admassu and Shiferaw 2011). Admassu and Shiferaw (2011) showed that the contribution to the household income of working equids was approximately equivalent to the household income from livestock farming. This estimate of income from equid use did not include equid use on homesteads and, if this were taken into consideration, the income from equid use could be even greater. Their study also revealed that the very poor did not own equine animals, with much of the extra burden falling on women if donkeys in particular were not owned. Working equids are largely absent from agricultural and animal health policy, research and educational programmes and agendas, and there is a distinct lack of recognition of working animals by policymakers (Pritchard 2010). Working equids suffer from low productivity as a result of prevalent infectious diseases and diseases associated with poor management practices compounded by low nutritional standards. The problems faced by working equids can be addressed through increasing the recognition of working equids among legislators and administrators and by working to reduce the high prevalence of health and welfare problems through appropriate primary animal health services (Pritchard 2010). Working equids can increase access to and ownership of different capitals, including human, social and natural capital. At a household level, human capital varies according to many factors, including working equid ownership. Benefits from working equid ownership include reducing labour burdens, such as carrying firewood and water, supporting agricultural activities and creating opportunities for women to diversify their income streams. In some countries, working equids are used to transport women to health centres in the late stages of pregnancy, thus reducing the risk of maternal complications at birth. Working equids also increase access to social capital, the social resources that individuals use in pursuit of their livelihood objectives. Working equids provide greater access to networks and increase the connectedness within social structures. They are used to build relationships of trust and provide the basis for informal safety nets among poor people. Working equids also have the potential to reduce the vulnerability of livelihoods due to climatic events (changes in natural capital). In Africa, many subsistence smallholder farmers have a high dependency on agricultural production for survival and are at risk from climatic events. Using working equids
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Feature produces greater farm outputs than working farmland by hand, with working equids also being used for off-farm diversification. The ownership of a healthy and productive working equid contributes to livelihood assets within the household, and therefore positive livelihood outcomes. Working equids contribute towards the MDGs’ aim of poverty reduction, as well as gender equality, improved maternal health and environmental stability. In the first article in Veterinary Record’s series promoting One Health, Paul Gibbs included a diagram to illustrate selected applications of One Health to date (Gibbs 2014). Those applications largely apply to the fields of zoonotic disease control and translational medicine and, to a much lesser extent, to global health. Development in rural areas over recent decades has seen a gradual trend toward smallholder farmer participation as an essential ingredient in the development process (Pretty 1995). The degree to which smallholder farmers are involved in the development process is an important factor in determining long-term sustainability. For further success, projects should continue to move away from topdown, technology-driven interventions, and focus on holistic, participatory and community-based programmes, which are community led and driven, with increasing recognition given to local knowledge and experience (Chambers 1983, Kumar 2002, FAO 2012). There is great scope to use One Health approaches at the interface between animal health and international development goals, such as poverty reduction, food security and sustainable livelihoods. However, it will require the paradigm shift discussed by Gibbs (2014) for a ‘wider and deeper commitment to interdisciplinary action addressing the protection and needs of society in the 21st century’.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Rob Christley and Claire Okell for their helpful comments on the manuscript during its preparation.
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Image: Andy Stringer
Conclusion
A young girl from a village in Uganda collecting water for use in the home. Ownership of working equids reduces the daily labour burdens for women and children, such as carrying firewood and water
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Improving animal health for poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihoods Andy Stringer Veterinary Record 2014 175: 526-529
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