Perceptsal and Motor Skills, 1975, 40, 515-523. @ Perceptual and Motor Skills 1975
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF CIGARETTE SMOKING AS RELATED TO DIFFERENT SMOKING HABITSL ANNA-LISA MYRSTEN, KARIN ANDERSSON, MARIANNE FRANKENHAEUSER, AND ANITA ELGEROT
Psychological hboratwies, University of Stockholm, Sweden Summary.-A questionnaire concerning interactions between the need to smoke and the external situation was used to select 8 "low-arousal smokers" and 8 "high-arousal smokers." The former were smokers who generally experienced their strongest need to smoke in low-arousal situations, characterized by e.g., monotony or boredom, while the latter experienced their strongest need to smoke in high-arousal situations, characterized by, e.g., anxiety or excitement. Members of each group were examined under smoking and nonsmoking conditions in a low-arousal situation, i.e., performing a vigilance-type sensorimotor task, and in a high-arousal situation, i.e., performing a complex sensorimotor task. It was shown that the two groups reacted differently to smoking in the two situations. In low-arousal smokers performance and general well-being were favourably affected by smo!-ing in the low-arousal situation only. Conversely, performance and well-being of the high-arousal smokers were enhanced by smoking in the high-arousal situation only.
Although smoking habits have been explored in many large surveys in different countries, the question why people smoke is, as yet, poorly understood. While it is generally agreed that both pharmacological effects of nicotine and psychological factors associated with the smoking "ritual" play a role, little is known about the relative importance and the interactive effects of these factors. In recent years, however, the problem of smoking motivation has been the subject of a number of studies, in which smoking habits have been related to arousal level. This new approach is based on observations concerning both subjective and physiological effects of smoking. With regard to subjective arousal, smokers tend to give different reasons for smoking, stating either that they experience an alerting effect or a sedative effect (Frith, 1971). Correspondingly, cortical arousal, as measured by EEG, may be either increased or decreased by nicotine depending upon dosage (Armitage, Hall, & Sellers, 1969). These observations suggest that smoking may be used as a tool by which people can themselves manipulate their level of arousal (cf. Burn, 1960). An interesting study of this problem was performed by Frith (1971) who constructed a questionnaire with the aid of which two kinds of smokers could be identified: those whose need to smoke was strongest in low-arousal situations, e.g., situations inducing boredom, tiredness, or relaxation, and those whose 'This investigation was supported by grants from the Swedish Council for Social Science Research, and the Swedish Cancer Sociery (Project No. 623-B72-01XP). W. Ferlander participated in the data collection.
516
A.-L. MYRSTEN, ET AL.
need to smoke was strongest in high-arousal situations, e.g., situations inducing anxiety, excitement, and arousal associated with mental activity. It was shown that, in general, people had a greater desire to smoke in low-arousal situations, which is consistent with nicotine acting as a stimulant. Frith's results are in general agreement with those obtained by other investigators who have approached the same problem from a slightly different angle. Thus, McKennel (1970), using a questionnaire to examine smoking motivation in different situations, found different types of smokers, characterized by, e.g., "nervous irritation smoking" versus "relaxation smoking." Similarly, Tornkins ( 1966) distinguished between "positive affect" smokers and "negative affect" smokers, and Russel (1971) refers to "tranquilizing smoking" and "stimulation smoking." The basic assumption underlying all these investigations is that smoking behavior is in some way related to the smoker's characteristic level of arousal. Frankenhaeuser and Myrsten together with their associates have approached the smoking problem in a different way, i.e., by studying immediate effects of smoking on psychological and physiological arousal in laboratory experiments. In these investigations, moderate smokers have been examined under smoking and non-smoking conditions. In essence, the results show that adrenaline secretion, mental efficiency, and subjective well-being are increased in a smoking situation as compared with a non-smoking situation (Frankenhaeuser, Myrsten, & Post, 1970; Frankenhaeuser, Myrsten, Waszak, Neri, & Post, 1968; Myrsten, Post, Frankenhaeuser, & Johansson, 1972). These results are consistent with animal studies showing that nicotine enhances certain performances (e.g., BovetNitti, 1969; Morrison, 1967) as well as with electroencephalographic studies on human Ss showing that smoking induces cortical arousal (e.g., Philips, 1971; Ulett & Itil, 1969). The present investigation was designed to test the assumption that subjects with different smoking habits differ with regard to the immediate effects induced by smoking on their arousal level. To this end, "low-arousal smokers" and "high-arousal smokers," selected with the aid of a questionnaire concerning the need to smoke in different situations, were examined under smoking and non-smoking conditions in two contrasting laboratory situations, i.e., a lowarousal situation and a high-arousal situation. METHOD
Selection of Ss A questionnaire was constructed (Elgerot, Andersson & Myrsten, unpublished) for selecting Ss with different smoking habits, i.e., Ss whose desire to smoke was greatest in either low-arousal situations or high-arousal situations. The questionnaire comprised 10 items referring to low-arousal situations and 1 0
SMOKING AND SMOKING HABITS
5 17
items referring to high-arousal situations, chosen from the questionnaires constructed by Frith ( 1971) and McKennel ( 1970). Ss were instructed to imagine themselves in each of the situations and to indicate, on a 7-point scale, how strong their desire to smoke would be. In a group of 90 male smokers, one group of 8 was chosen from those who had high scores on high-arousal items and low scores on low-arousal items, and another group of 8 from those with high scores on low-arousal items and low scores on high-arousal items. These contrasting groups will be referred to as "high-arousal smokers" and "low-arousal smokers." Ss were all moderate smokers with a consumption of 5 to 15 cigarettes per day. Their ages ranged between 21 and 29 yr. (mean 24 yr.), and their body weight between 59 and 80 kg (mean 70 k g ) . There were no differences between the low- and high-arousal smokers with regard to these variables. General D e ~ i g nand Procedure Each S was tested under four experimental conditions: low-arousal sicuation without smoking, low-arousal situation with smoking, high-arousal situation without smoking, and high-arousal situation with smoking. Half of Ss started with the low-arousal conditions, the other half with the high-arousal conditions, smolclng and non-smoking sessions being alternatively first and second. In addition, an introductory session was held, in which Ss were informed about the experimental procedure and were trained on the performance tests. Ss were asked to refrain from smoking and consuming alcohol- or caffeine-containing beverages 15 hr. prior to the experiments. The experimental sessions started at 8 a.m. or 10 a.m. and lasted for about 100 min. Each S had all his sessions at the same hour and was examined by the same E during the whole series. The sessions were spaced at intervals of about 1 wk. In order to standardize the experimental setting, S, after arriving in the laboratory, was served a light breakfast (tea and toast). In a short interview it was ascertained that instructions had been followed. Cigarette Smoking Filter cigarettes of the Swedish brand Prince were used. Each cigarette was 80 mm long and contained 1.8 mg nicotine (according to current information from the Swedish Tobacco Company). S was instructed to inhale in his usual manner and to stop smoking at a mark set at 10 rnm from the cigarette end. The mean time for smoking was 7 min. Two cigarettes were smoked, at 30 and 60 min, respectively, after the beginning of the test period. In the low-arousal situation S was isolated in a semi-sound-proof chamber
518
A.-L. MYRSTEN, ET AL.
where he performed a vigilance-type test described by McGrath (1963) and modified by Frankenhaeuser, Nordheden, Myrsten, and Post ( 1971). S was instructed to observe a visual signal, which was lit for 0.75 sec. at 1.50-sec. intervals, and to report each increase in signal intensity ("relevant signal") by pressing a button. The stimuli were presented automatically according to a predetermined random schedule, the relevant signal occurring at irregular intervals. The intensity of the relevant signal was adjusted so as to lie slightly above the detection threshold determined for each S prior to the experiment. Each of three consecutive 30-min. periods contained 10 relevant signals. The first 10 min. of the pre-test period, test-period 1, and test-period 2, each served as warming-up trials and measurements from these were disregarded. During the first 10 min. of test-periods 1 and 2, respectively, a cigarette was smoked without performance being interrupted. Responses were recorded electronically, and the scores were the mean reaction times within each 20-min. test period. To facilitate comparison with performance scores in the high-arousal situation, reaction times rather than signal-detection rates were used as the criterion.
High-aroasal Sitaation In the high-arousal situation a complex sensorimotor task requiring simultaneous capacity was performed. S had to respond to green, yellow, blue, white, and red signals, by pressing, with his index fingers, a button of corresponding color. In addition, he had to respond to a white signal, appearing at irregular intervals on either side of the stimulus board, by pressing a pedal with his right or left foot. He also had to attend to auditory signals of high vs low frequencies, given through head phones, by pulling a right- or left-hand lever. Three 20min. tests, each comprising 1080 stimuli presented at a progressively faster rate, were carried out in each session. After the pre-test period and after test-period 1 there was a 10-min, pause during which a cigarette was smoked. Before the pre-test period there was a 10-min. warming-up trial. Responses were recorded electronically, and the scores were the mean reaction times for each 20-min. test period. Self-estimates Ss were instructed to rate themselves on a graphic scale, the end points of which were defined as "much less than usual" and "much more than usual." Ratings were made at the end of each session for the following variables: "alert," "concentrated," and "bored." The score for each variable was the distance (in cm) from the point marked by S and the end point defined as "much less than usual." Heart Rate Heart rate was measured by a pulse meter (San-ei PM 101), using an ear electrode. Measurements were made twice during each of the 20-min. test
SMOKING AND SMOKING HABITS
5 19
periods in the experimental sessions and the scores were the means of the two measurements during each period.
RESULTS Measilrements During Non-smoking Condition Table 1 shows means and standard errors for measurements of reaction time and heart rate during the non-smoking session in the low- and high-arousal situations for each group of Ss. The over-all picture indicates that there were no consistent differences between low- and high-arousal smokers. In both groups heart rate was higher during the high-arousal situation than during the low-arousal situation, which is consistent with previous results (Frankenhaeuser, et d.,1971). TABLE 1 STANDARD ERRORS FOR MEASUREMENTS OF REACTION TIMEAND HEART RATEIN LOW-AROUSAL SMOKERS AND HIGH-AROUSAL SMOKERS M D E 10-30 MIN. (PRETEST),40-60 MIN. (TEST-PERIOD I ) , AND 70-90 MIN. 2 ) AFTERBEGINNING OF NON-SMOKING SESSIONS (TEST-PERIOD
MEANS AND
Variable
smokers M
Reaction time, msec. Heart rate, beats/min.
Reaction time, msec. Heart rate, beats/min.
SE
smokers M
SE
Low-arousal situation-non-smoking Pretest 437 46 Test 1 486 61 Test 2 459 42 Pretest 66 3.3 Test 1 69 2.7 Test 2 66 2.2 High-arousal situation-non-smoking 614 23 Pretest Test 1 612 21 Test 2 607 26 Pretest 85 4.6 Test 1 85 4.6 Test 2 82 4.4
Effects of Smoking Performance.-To facilitate comparison between reaction time in the two groups, all measurements were expressed in relation to pre-smoking scores. Furthermore, the influence of factors other than smoking was eliminated by expressing each score obtained in the smoking sessions in per cent of the corresponding score in the non-smoking sessions. The scores thus obtained are presented in Fig. 1. The upper diagram, showing performance in the low-arousal situation, indicates that smoking produced an improvement for the low-arousal smokers and a slight impairment for the high-arousal smokers.
A.-L. MYRSTEN, ET AL. I
-
;
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF CIGARETTE SMOKING AS RELATED TO DIFFERENT SMOKING HABITSL ANNA-LISA MYRSTEN, KARIN ANDERSSON, MARIANNE FRANKENHAEUSER, AND ANITA ELGEROT
Psychological hboratwies, University of Stockholm, Sweden Summary.-A questionnaire concerning interactions between the need to smoke and the external situation was used to select 8 "low-arousal smokers" and 8 "high-arousal smokers." The former were smokers who generally experienced their strongest need to smoke in low-arousal situations, characterized by e.g., monotony or boredom, while the latter experienced their strongest need to smoke in high-arousal situations, characterized by, e.g., anxiety or excitement. Members of each group were examined under smoking and nonsmoking conditions in a low-arousal situation, i.e., performing a vigilance-type sensorimotor task, and in a high-arousal situation, i.e., performing a complex sensorimotor task. It was shown that the two groups reacted differently to smoking in the two situations. In low-arousal smokers performance and general well-being were favourably affected by smo!-ing in the low-arousal situation only. Conversely, performance and well-being of the high-arousal smokers were enhanced by smoking in the high-arousal situation only.
Although smoking habits have been explored in many large surveys in different countries, the question why people smoke is, as yet, poorly understood. While it is generally agreed that both pharmacological effects of nicotine and psychological factors associated with the smoking "ritual" play a role, little is known about the relative importance and the interactive effects of these factors. In recent years, however, the problem of smoking motivation has been the subject of a number of studies, in which smoking habits have been related to arousal level. This new approach is based on observations concerning both subjective and physiological effects of smoking. With regard to subjective arousal, smokers tend to give different reasons for smoking, stating either that they experience an alerting effect or a sedative effect (Frith, 1971). Correspondingly, cortical arousal, as measured by EEG, may be either increased or decreased by nicotine depending upon dosage (Armitage, Hall, & Sellers, 1969). These observations suggest that smoking may be used as a tool by which people can themselves manipulate their level of arousal (cf. Burn, 1960). An interesting study of this problem was performed by Frith (1971) who constructed a questionnaire with the aid of which two kinds of smokers could be identified: those whose need to smoke was strongest in low-arousal situations, e.g., situations inducing boredom, tiredness, or relaxation, and those whose 'This investigation was supported by grants from the Swedish Council for Social Science Research, and the Swedish Cancer Sociery (Project No. 623-B72-01XP). W. Ferlander participated in the data collection.
516
A.-L. MYRSTEN, ET AL.
need to smoke was strongest in high-arousal situations, e.g., situations inducing anxiety, excitement, and arousal associated with mental activity. It was shown that, in general, people had a greater desire to smoke in low-arousal situations, which is consistent with nicotine acting as a stimulant. Frith's results are in general agreement with those obtained by other investigators who have approached the same problem from a slightly different angle. Thus, McKennel (1970), using a questionnaire to examine smoking motivation in different situations, found different types of smokers, characterized by, e.g., "nervous irritation smoking" versus "relaxation smoking." Similarly, Tornkins ( 1966) distinguished between "positive affect" smokers and "negative affect" smokers, and Russel (1971) refers to "tranquilizing smoking" and "stimulation smoking." The basic assumption underlying all these investigations is that smoking behavior is in some way related to the smoker's characteristic level of arousal. Frankenhaeuser and Myrsten together with their associates have approached the smoking problem in a different way, i.e., by studying immediate effects of smoking on psychological and physiological arousal in laboratory experiments. In these investigations, moderate smokers have been examined under smoking and non-smoking conditions. In essence, the results show that adrenaline secretion, mental efficiency, and subjective well-being are increased in a smoking situation as compared with a non-smoking situation (Frankenhaeuser, Myrsten, & Post, 1970; Frankenhaeuser, Myrsten, Waszak, Neri, & Post, 1968; Myrsten, Post, Frankenhaeuser, & Johansson, 1972). These results are consistent with animal studies showing that nicotine enhances certain performances (e.g., BovetNitti, 1969; Morrison, 1967) as well as with electroencephalographic studies on human Ss showing that smoking induces cortical arousal (e.g., Philips, 1971; Ulett & Itil, 1969). The present investigation was designed to test the assumption that subjects with different smoking habits differ with regard to the immediate effects induced by smoking on their arousal level. To this end, "low-arousal smokers" and "high-arousal smokers," selected with the aid of a questionnaire concerning the need to smoke in different situations, were examined under smoking and non-smoking conditions in two contrasting laboratory situations, i.e., a lowarousal situation and a high-arousal situation. METHOD
Selection of Ss A questionnaire was constructed (Elgerot, Andersson & Myrsten, unpublished) for selecting Ss with different smoking habits, i.e., Ss whose desire to smoke was greatest in either low-arousal situations or high-arousal situations. The questionnaire comprised 10 items referring to low-arousal situations and 1 0
SMOKING AND SMOKING HABITS
5 17
items referring to high-arousal situations, chosen from the questionnaires constructed by Frith ( 1971) and McKennel ( 1970). Ss were instructed to imagine themselves in each of the situations and to indicate, on a 7-point scale, how strong their desire to smoke would be. In a group of 90 male smokers, one group of 8 was chosen from those who had high scores on high-arousal items and low scores on low-arousal items, and another group of 8 from those with high scores on low-arousal items and low scores on high-arousal items. These contrasting groups will be referred to as "high-arousal smokers" and "low-arousal smokers." Ss were all moderate smokers with a consumption of 5 to 15 cigarettes per day. Their ages ranged between 21 and 29 yr. (mean 24 yr.), and their body weight between 59 and 80 kg (mean 70 k g ) . There were no differences between the low- and high-arousal smokers with regard to these variables. General D e ~ i g nand Procedure Each S was tested under four experimental conditions: low-arousal sicuation without smoking, low-arousal situation with smoking, high-arousal situation without smoking, and high-arousal situation with smoking. Half of Ss started with the low-arousal conditions, the other half with the high-arousal conditions, smolclng and non-smoking sessions being alternatively first and second. In addition, an introductory session was held, in which Ss were informed about the experimental procedure and were trained on the performance tests. Ss were asked to refrain from smoking and consuming alcohol- or caffeine-containing beverages 15 hr. prior to the experiments. The experimental sessions started at 8 a.m. or 10 a.m. and lasted for about 100 min. Each S had all his sessions at the same hour and was examined by the same E during the whole series. The sessions were spaced at intervals of about 1 wk. In order to standardize the experimental setting, S, after arriving in the laboratory, was served a light breakfast (tea and toast). In a short interview it was ascertained that instructions had been followed. Cigarette Smoking Filter cigarettes of the Swedish brand Prince were used. Each cigarette was 80 mm long and contained 1.8 mg nicotine (according to current information from the Swedish Tobacco Company). S was instructed to inhale in his usual manner and to stop smoking at a mark set at 10 rnm from the cigarette end. The mean time for smoking was 7 min. Two cigarettes were smoked, at 30 and 60 min, respectively, after the beginning of the test period. In the low-arousal situation S was isolated in a semi-sound-proof chamber
518
A.-L. MYRSTEN, ET AL.
where he performed a vigilance-type test described by McGrath (1963) and modified by Frankenhaeuser, Nordheden, Myrsten, and Post ( 1971). S was instructed to observe a visual signal, which was lit for 0.75 sec. at 1.50-sec. intervals, and to report each increase in signal intensity ("relevant signal") by pressing a button. The stimuli were presented automatically according to a predetermined random schedule, the relevant signal occurring at irregular intervals. The intensity of the relevant signal was adjusted so as to lie slightly above the detection threshold determined for each S prior to the experiment. Each of three consecutive 30-min. periods contained 10 relevant signals. The first 10 min. of the pre-test period, test-period 1, and test-period 2, each served as warming-up trials and measurements from these were disregarded. During the first 10 min. of test-periods 1 and 2, respectively, a cigarette was smoked without performance being interrupted. Responses were recorded electronically, and the scores were the mean reaction times within each 20-min. test period. To facilitate comparison with performance scores in the high-arousal situation, reaction times rather than signal-detection rates were used as the criterion.
High-aroasal Sitaation In the high-arousal situation a complex sensorimotor task requiring simultaneous capacity was performed. S had to respond to green, yellow, blue, white, and red signals, by pressing, with his index fingers, a button of corresponding color. In addition, he had to respond to a white signal, appearing at irregular intervals on either side of the stimulus board, by pressing a pedal with his right or left foot. He also had to attend to auditory signals of high vs low frequencies, given through head phones, by pulling a right- or left-hand lever. Three 20min. tests, each comprising 1080 stimuli presented at a progressively faster rate, were carried out in each session. After the pre-test period and after test-period 1 there was a 10-min, pause during which a cigarette was smoked. Before the pre-test period there was a 10-min. warming-up trial. Responses were recorded electronically, and the scores were the mean reaction times for each 20-min. test period. Self-estimates Ss were instructed to rate themselves on a graphic scale, the end points of which were defined as "much less than usual" and "much more than usual." Ratings were made at the end of each session for the following variables: "alert," "concentrated," and "bored." The score for each variable was the distance (in cm) from the point marked by S and the end point defined as "much less than usual." Heart Rate Heart rate was measured by a pulse meter (San-ei PM 101), using an ear electrode. Measurements were made twice during each of the 20-min. test
SMOKING AND SMOKING HABITS
5 19
periods in the experimental sessions and the scores were the means of the two measurements during each period.
RESULTS Measilrements During Non-smoking Condition Table 1 shows means and standard errors for measurements of reaction time and heart rate during the non-smoking session in the low- and high-arousal situations for each group of Ss. The over-all picture indicates that there were no consistent differences between low- and high-arousal smokers. In both groups heart rate was higher during the high-arousal situation than during the low-arousal situation, which is consistent with previous results (Frankenhaeuser, et d.,1971). TABLE 1 STANDARD ERRORS FOR MEASUREMENTS OF REACTION TIMEAND HEART RATEIN LOW-AROUSAL SMOKERS AND HIGH-AROUSAL SMOKERS M D E 10-30 MIN. (PRETEST),40-60 MIN. (TEST-PERIOD I ) , AND 70-90 MIN. 2 ) AFTERBEGINNING OF NON-SMOKING SESSIONS (TEST-PERIOD
MEANS AND
Variable
smokers M
Reaction time, msec. Heart rate, beats/min.
Reaction time, msec. Heart rate, beats/min.
SE
smokers M
SE
Low-arousal situation-non-smoking Pretest 437 46 Test 1 486 61 Test 2 459 42 Pretest 66 3.3 Test 1 69 2.7 Test 2 66 2.2 High-arousal situation-non-smoking 614 23 Pretest Test 1 612 21 Test 2 607 26 Pretest 85 4.6 Test 1 85 4.6 Test 2 82 4.4
Effects of Smoking Performance.-To facilitate comparison between reaction time in the two groups, all measurements were expressed in relation to pre-smoking scores. Furthermore, the influence of factors other than smoking was eliminated by expressing each score obtained in the smoking sessions in per cent of the corresponding score in the non-smoking sessions. The scores thus obtained are presented in Fig. 1. The upper diagram, showing performance in the low-arousal situation, indicates that smoking produced an improvement for the low-arousal smokers and a slight impairment for the high-arousal smokers.
A.-L. MYRSTEN, ET AL. I
-
;
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
![[Food habits and cigarette smoking in adolescents].](/assets/img/hold.png)
