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Highly sensitive hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) gas sensors from viral-templated nanocrystalline gold nanowires

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Nanotechnology Nanotechnology 25 (2014) 135205 (9pp)

doi:10.1088/0957-4484/25/13/135205

Highly sensitive hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas sensors from viral-templated nanocrystalline gold nanowires Chung Hee Moon1 , Miluo Zhang2 , Nosang V Myung2 and Elaine D Haberer1,3 1

Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA 3 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA 2

E-mail: [email protected] Received 3 October 2013, revised 17 January 2014 Accepted for publication 29 January 2014 Published 5 March 2014

Abstract

A facile, site-specific viral-templated assembly method was used to fabricate sensitive hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) gas sensors at room temperature. A gold-binding M13 bacteriophage served to organize gold nanoparticles into linear arrays which were used as seeds for subsequent nanowire formation through electroless deposition. Nanowire widths and densities within the sensors were modified by electroless deposition time and phage concentration, respectively, to tune device resistance. Chemiresistive H2 S gas sensors with superior room temperature sensing performance were produced with sensitivity of 654%/ppmv , theoretical lowest detection limit of 2 ppbv , and 70% recovery within 9 min for 0.025 ppmv . The role of the viral template and associated gold-binding peptide was elucidated by removing organics using a short O2 plasma treatment followed by an ethanol dip. The template and gold-binding peptide were crucial to electrical and sensor performance. Without surface organics, the resistance fell by several orders of magnitude, the sensitivity dropped by more than a factor of 100 to 6%/ppmv , the lower limit of detection increased, and no recovery was detected with dry air flow. Viral templates provide a novel, alternative fabrication route for highly sensitive, nanostructured H2 S gas sensors. Keywords: hydrogen sulfide, M13 bacteriophage, biological template, gold nanoparticles, gas sensors S Online supplementary data available from stacks.iop.org/Nano/25/135205/mmedia (Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction

death [2, 3]. To minimize occupational health hazards, H2 S gas levels must be monitored continuously. In particular, compact, low power consumption sensors with high sensitivity and low detection limit for personal exposure and mobile monitoring applications are highly desirable. Nanostructured materials with high surface area-tovolume ratios are good candidates for chemiresistive gas sensors that address these needs. These materials facilitate interaction with analytes and support significant changes in electrical

Hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) is a toxic gas released in petroleum, mining, paper, and water treatment industries [1] Although low concentrations of H2 S, below 5 ppm, are innocuous, slightly higher concentrations, near 20 ppm, can cause eye and respiratory tract irritation. Furthermore, H2 S concentrations at or above 100 ppm are considered immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), and may cause paralysis and even 0957-4484/14/135205+09$33.00

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c 2014 IOP Publishing Ltd

Printed in the UK

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880 nm in length [25, 26], was used to template nanocrystalline gold. The high aspect ratio M13 virus has been used successfully to template numerous inorganic nanowires and nanowire assemblies, as well as for the fabrication of a range of device architectures [27–29]. These one-dimensional biological structures were well-suited for nanowire-based H2 S gas sensor formation. Unlike previous bio-templated H2 S sensors [22–24], the viral template was designed with specific affinity for the inorganic sensor material and the template was not removed prior to gas detection. The 2700 copies of gold-specific 8-mer peptide displayed on the length of the virus not only functioned as selective binding sites, but were also integral sensor components necessary for sensitive and effective H2 S sensing at low ppb levels. To our knowledge, this is the first report of bio-templated, room temperature H2 S gas sensors in which the template contributes more than simple geometry to sensing performance. These studies reveal the promise of biologically-directed synthesis for simple fabrication of highly sensitive, nanostructured gas sensors.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the sensor fabrication process for as-assembled devices. (a) O2 plasma treatment of pre-patterned gold electrodes to enhance surface hydrophilicity. (b) Non-specific adsorption of gold-binding phage on the patterned substrate. (c) Specific binding of 5 nm gold nanoparticles to the pVIII coat protein of the gold-binding phages. (d) Nanocrystalline gold nanowires formed through seeded, electroless deposition.

resistance due to analyte surface adsorption/desorption, with minimal power expenditure and a reduced device footprint. H2 S gas sensors have been assembled from a variety of nanostructured metals and metal oxides [4–8]. Gold has received specific attention because its strong affinity for sulfur-containing compounds can be used to impart sensor selectivity [9–11]. Gold nanostructures, assembled with various methods, have been investigated both as sensitizers for other materials and as independent building blocks to fabricate H2 S gas sensors. For example, for H2 S detection, electrochemical deposition has been used to attach gold nanoparticles to carbon [12, 13] and polyaniline nanotubes [14]; sputtering has also been used to create discontinuous nanoscale gold films on carbon nanotubes [15] and 1-pyrenesulfonic acid-coated templates have been used to synthesize gold nanoparticles and nanowires on the surface of carbon nanotubes [16]. Additionally, gold-based H2 S sensors have been assembled directly from thermally evaporated nanocrystalline gold films [17], thick chains of electrophoretically-assembled glycine-stabilized gold nanoparticles [4], and clusters of randomly deposited citrate-coated gold nanoparticles [5], Moreover, some of these gold-based and gold-functionalized devices report room temperature operation [4, 13, 14, 16] a condition which significantly reduces power consumption and is generally not feasible for metal-oxide-based H2 S sensors. Biological materials with nanoscale, hierarchical structures advantageous for gas sensing provide an alternative route to nanostructured material synthesis [18–21]. Fibrous matrices of eggshells [22] quasi-honeycomb structures of butterfly wings [23] and reticulated porous networks of wood [24] have been used to template solution-based synthesis of SnO2 , α-Fe2 O3 , and ZnO, respectively. Not readily attainable with conventional fabrication or synthesis methods, these novel architectures with high surface area-to-volume ratios were found to be useful for chemiresistive H2 S gas sensors at elevated operation temperatures following calcination to remove the biological template [22–24]. In this work, viral-templated gold nanowire H2 S gas sensors were demonstrated. A gold-binding M13 filamentous bacteriophage, approximately 6–7 nm in diameter and

2. Experimental details 2.1. Assembly of viral-templated gold nanowire gas sensors

As depicted in figures 1(a)–(d), to form H2 S gas sensors, bio-templated gold nanowires were assembled on electrodes fabricated on a Si/SiO2 substrate using a modification of a previously reported procedure [30, 31]. A gold-binding [26] M13 bacteriophage was used as the template. This particular clone displayed an 8-mer peptide (VSGSSPDS) with an affinity for gold on the N-terminus of each of 2700 copies of the pVIII major coat protein [26, 32]. The 300 nm thermal oxide layer electrically insulated the viral-templated nanowires from the underlying Si substrate. The Ti/Au (20 nm/180 nm) electrodes, which were 50 µm wide and separated by a 3 µm gap, were fabricated using standard photolithography, electron beam deposition, and lift-off techniques. Prior to nanowire assembly, the substrates with patterned electrodes were solvent cleaned with ultrasonication in acetone, isopropanol, and deionized water and activated with O2 plasma using a reactive ion etching (RIE, Surface Technology Systems) system at 100 W, 100 mT for 30 s. This plasma treatment was critical for uniform and non-specific adhesion of the viral template to the patterned substrates. The pre-patterned substrates were then incubated with gold-binding phage in tris-buffered saline (TBS, 50 mM Tris–HCl, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.5) for 10 min. During this step, the gold-binding phages were adsorbed onto the substrate. The substrate was then washed and rinsed in TBS with 0.7% Tween 20 and deionized water. To control the density of phage on the substrate surface, and ultimately the number of parallel electrical connections between the electrodes, samples were made with three different phage concentrations: 1 × 108 pfu µl−1 , 3 × 108 pfu µl−1 , and 5 × 108 pfu µl−1 . Gold nanoparticles were selectively bound to the gold-binding phage by submerging the substrate in a 5 nm diameter gold colloid solution of 5 × 1013 particles ml−1 (BBI Solutions.) for 1 h. The substrate was rinsed 3 times with deionized water and gently dried with air. The nanoparticles 2

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bound to the phages were used as seeds for electroless deposition of gold using Nanoprobes GoldEnhanceTM LM solutions. The electroless deposition time was varied from 3 to 12 min to control the nanoparticle size and electrical resistance of the gold nanowires formed. The viral-templated gold nanowire devices are hereafter referred to as ‘as-assembled’ devices. As-assembled devices were treated with O2 plasma for 30 s at 100 mT and 100 W using the RIE system, dipped in ethanol (Sigma-Aldrich) for 10 min, and gently blown dry with air. This two-step process removed the viral template and surface organics, as well as Au2 O3 which may have been generated by exposure to O2 plasma [33, 34]. These devices will hereafter be referred to as ‘ethanol-treated’ devices and were used to evaluate the contribution of the viral template to device resistance and sensing performance. Figure 2. Morphology of viral-templated gold nanowires within fabricated devices assembled with a 1 × 108 pfu µl−1 phage

2.2. Morphological characterization

concentration and a range of electroless deposition times. (a) Low magnification SEM image that shows viral-templated gold nanowires with a 3 min electroless deposition time on 50 µm electrode and across 3 µm gap. Scale bar is 1 µm. High magnification SEM images of viral-templated gold nanowires with electroless deposition times of (b) 3 min, (c) 7 min, and (d) 12 min. Gold nanoparticles are assembled in a bead-like nanowire form with increasing nanowire widths corresponding to increasing electroless deposition time. Scale bars are 1 µm.

Scanning electron microscopy (SrEM, Phillips XL30 FEG) was used to determine the morphology and spatial distribution of the gold nanowires on the substrate. The number of seed particles per phage was quantified. A short electroless deposition of 1 min was used to slightly enlarge the gold nanoparticle seeds without merging them, making them easier to observe with SEM. The particles on 15 individual templates were counted for range and average. In addition, the areal fill factors of viral-templated gold nanowires on the Si/SiO2 substrate were determined for devices assembled with phage concentrations of 1 × 108 pfu µl−1 , 3 × 108 pfu µl−1 , and 5 × 108 pfu µl−1 . For each concentration, a minimum of 10 locations were imaged and analyzed. Furthermore, the width of the gold nanocrystal components of the viral-templated nanowires was measured at various electroless deposition times. Approximately 100 gold nanoparticles were analyzed for each electroless deposition time. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM, Phillips Tecnai 12) was used to analyze the morphology and connection between the nanoparticles within the gold nanowires. For TEM sample preparation, gold nanowires were fabricated on unpatterned SiO2 substrates and dispersed in deionized water by ultrasonication. The dispersed nanowires were then loaded onto carbon-coated copper grids and dried in vacuum.

cell chamber with a gas inlet and outlet. A constant bias of 0.15 V was applied to each device and, after establishing a stable baseline resistance, sensing analysis was performed at ambient temperature and pressure under a constant flow rate of 200 sccm. The resistance change of each viral-templated gold nanowire sensor was measured with exposure to H2 S gas. To vary analyte concentration, H2 S gas was diluted using dry air as the carrier gas and each sensor was alternately exposed to H2 S gas at the specified concentration and dry air for time intervals of 15 min and 30 min, respectively. A mass flow controller with LabView interface was used to control the H2 S concentration and exposure time. A similar procedure was followed for selectivity analysis using NH3 and NO2 as the gas analytes. 3. Results and discussion

2.3. Resistance measurements

3.1. Morphological characteristics of nanocrystalline, viral-templated gold nanowires

The room temperature resistance of each as-assembled viraltemplated gold nanowire device was determined using twoterminal, current–voltage (I –V ) measurements in which the current was recorded as the applied voltage was swept from −0.3 to 0.3 V (Keithley 2636A sourcemeter) in 30 mV increments. The same procedure was used to measure device resistance after ethanol treatment.

The morphology of the viral-templated gold nanowires which comprise the sensors was examined with SEM to study the effect of electroless deposition time and phage concentration on the as-assembled gold nanowires. A representative image of a sensor assembled with a phage concentration of 1 × 108 pfu µl−1 and an electroless deposition time of 3 min is shown in figure 2(a). Gold nanowires slightly less than 1 µm in length, composed of well-defined nanoparticles were seen randomly distributed on the substrate in addition to a few individual gold nanoparticles. The number of isolated nanoparticles was small in comparison to those incorporated in the nanowires. As shown in the high magnification SEM image in

2.4. Sensor performance analysis

Devices selected for gas sensor measurements were wirebonded (West-bond Inc. 7499D) at room temperature to a copper printed circuit board (PCB) with 1% Si/Al wire before sensing analysis. Wire-bonded sensors were placed in a flow 3

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Figure 3. Morphology and connectivity of viral-templated gold nanowires. TEM image shows a fragment of a viral-templated gold nanowire that was removed from the substrate with ultrasonication. Scale bar is 100 nm. High magnification TEM image (inset) shows fused, polydisperse gold nanoparticles within a different nanowire fragment. Scale bar is 20 nm.

figure 2(b), the width and connectivity varied along individual nanowires, as well as from nanowire to nanowire. Further SEM analysis revealed that the number of gold nanoparticle seeds per template ranged from 31 to 61 with an average of 42. We, therefore, attributed the largest deviations in nanowire width and connectivity to differences in the density and arrangement of gold nanoparticle seeds along the gold-binding phage prior to electroless gold deposition. The size and morphological changes, which accompanied increased electroless deposition time, can be seen in figures 2(b)–(d). As the electroless deposition time increased from 3 to 12 min, the overall width and connectivity of the gold nanowires also increased. The average width of the resulting nanocrystals on nanowires for 3, 7, and 12 min of gold deposition were 29 ± 7 nm, 60 ± 13 nm, and 82 ± 16 nm, respectively. No difference in the morphology, structure, or distribution of nanowires on the substrate surface was observed with SEM after template removal by ethanol treatment as shown in the supplementary data (available at stacks.iop.org/Nano/25/135205/mmedia), figure S1. The TEM image in figure 3 revealed the detailed structure of the nanowires. Mostly shorter fragments (140 ◦ C. The sensing behaviors of as-assembled and ethanoltreated sensors were notably different. As-assembled devices, in which the viral template and gold-binding peptides were intact, exhibited a slightly decreased lower detection limit (3×), decreased dynamic range (20×), and a substantial sensitivity increase (100×) compared to ethanol-treated devices. Moreover, the analyte adsorption and desorption rates of the as-assembled sensors were markedly faster than the ethanol-treated sensors. This behavior suggests that, although the viral template with the gold-binding peptide was intended primarily for structural assembly of nanowires, it also played an active role in device–analyte interaction. Biological molecules incorporate a range of chemical moieties which enable extraordinary diversity and specificity for in vivo processes. These same attributes have proven useful in discrete sensor and electronic nose applications. Biological molecules including proteins [40, 41], peptides [42–44], antibodies [45], and DNA [46] have been successfully integrated into gas or vapor phase sensors to impart analyte specificity. Of particular relevance to these studies is the use of peptides. For example, piezoelectric-based sensors have utilized molecular modeling in conjunction with oligopeptide mimics of human olfactory [41] and dioxin [42] receptors to detect vapor phase acetic acid [41], ammonia [41], and dioxin [42]. The same oligopeptides have also been used to sensitize silicon nanowire-based chemiresistive sensors [44]. Furthermore, peptides identified with a combinatorial phage display library [47], in a process very similar to that used to select the gold-binding peptide found in these studies, have been used for detection of trinitrotoluene (TNT) with both fluorescence quenching [48] and conductance-based field effect transistor (FET) [49] device platforms. In the former, the entire virus with high copy peptide fusions was incorporated into the device [48]. Indirect evidence exists that, indeed, the gold-binding peptide may have an affinity for sulfur found in H2 S gas. Specifically, the pVIII major coat protein of the unmodified or wild-type M13 virus has been recently reported to display an affinity for sulfur [50]. The carboxyl groups associated with acidic amino acids such as aspartate (D) and glutamate (E) found within the wild-type pVIII coat donate

4. Conclusion

We have demonstrated viral-directed assembly of very sensitive, nanocrystalline gold H2 S gas sensors which operate at room temperature. The M13 bacteriophage template enabled facile control over device morphology, creating discrete nanowires from chains of gold nanoparticles. Electroless deposition time and phage concentration were used to adjust individual nanowire width and connectivity, as well as to manipulate the nanowire surface coverage of the device. Increased nanowire width, connectivity, and surface coverage decreased sensor resistance. As-assembled viral-templated gold nanowire sensors with template and binding peptides intact, exhibited high sensitivity near 650%/ppm, a very low limit of detection of 2 ppb, and 70% recovery within 9 min for 0.025 ppm H2 S. Upon removal of the viral template and binding peptides using O2 plasma treatment and an ethanol dip, sensor resistance dropped by several orders of magnitude, the limit of detection increased, and sensitivity fell by more than a factor of 100. Furthermore, the initial rate of sensor response to H2 S exposure was substantially reduced and recovery was lost. The presence of the bacteriophage template and gold-binding peptide clearly plays a sizable role in device resistance and is critical to H2 S sensing. Bio-templated materials not only have the potential to generate high surface area-to-volume nanostructured architectures desirable for gas sensing, but may exhibit additional functionality which facilitates and even enhances device performance. 7

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Acknowledgments

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Highly sensitive hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) gas sensors from viral-templated nanocrystalline gold nanowires.

A facile, site-specific viral-templated assembly method was used to fabricate sensitive hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas sensors at room temperature. A gold...
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