Dadich and Hosseinzadeh BMC Health Services Research 2013, 13:490 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/13/490

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Open Access

Healthcare reform: implications for knowledge translation in primary care Ann Dadich* and Hassan Hosseinzadeh

Abstract Background: The primary care sector represents the linchpin of many health systems. However, the translation of evidence-based practices into patient care can be difficult, particularly during healthcare reform. This can have significant implications for patients, their communities, and the public purse. This is aptly demonstrated in the area of sexual health. The aim of this paper is to determine what works to facilitate evidence-based sexual healthcare within the primary care sector. Methods: 431 clinicians (214 general practitioners and 217 practice nurses) in New South Wales, Australia, were surveyed about their awareness, their use, the perceived impact, and the factors that hindered the use of six resources to promote sexual healthcare. Descriptive statistics were calculated from the responses to the closed survey items, while responses to open-ended item were thematically analyzed. Results: All six resources were reported to improve the delivery of evidence-based sexual healthcare. Two resources – both double-sided A4-placards – had the greatest reach and use. Barriers that hindered resource-use included limited time, limited perceived need, and limited access to, or familiarity with the resources. Furthermore, the reorganization of the primary care sector and the removal of particular medical benefits scheme items may have hampered clinician capacity to translate evidence-based practices into patient care. Conclusions: Findings reveal: (1) the translation of evidence-based practices into patient care is viable despite reform; (2) the potential value of a multi-modal approach; (3) the dissemination of relatively inexpensive resources might influence clinical practices; and (4) reforms to governance and/or funding arrangements may widen the void between evidence-based practices and patient care. Keywords: Knowledge translation, Healthcare reform, Evidence-based practice, Primary care, Sexual healthcare

Background Internationally, health systems with a stronger primary care sector are relatively more effective and efficient, and generate better patient outcomes [1]. This is particularly important given contemporary challenges – like ‘increased rates of chronic and preventable disease, new treatments becoming available and rising health care costs’ [2], para. 1. For these (and perhaps other) reasons, many Western governments have endeavored to reform, and ultimately strengthen their nation’s primary care sector [3-7]. They have vied for ways to improve the organization, management, and delivery of healthcare [8]. For instance, Australia is currently witnessing ‘the single biggest health * Correspondence: [email protected] School of Business, University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Parramatta, NSW, Australia 2751

reform in a quarter of a century’ [9], p. 2, the essence of which is healthcare that is ‘funded nationally and run locally’ [10], p. 25. Towards this aim, the national government is working with state and territory governments to reinforce the primary care sector as the linchpin of the health system [11,12]. This is epitomized by the establishment of Medicare Locals – independent primary care organizations with a mandate to provide locallyresponsive, planned, and coordinated primary care services. Since 2011, 61 Medicare Locals have been established across Australia, all of which aim to: improve the patient journey by developing integrated and coordinated services; support clinicians and other practitioners to improve patient care; address local health needs; ensure the effective implementation of primary care initiatives; as well as ensure efficiency and

© 2013 Dadich and Hosseinzadeh; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Dadich and Hosseinzadeh BMC Health Services Research 2013, 13:490 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/13/490

accountability [13]. This broader remit of the primary care sector – whereby health promotion, prevention, and early intervention are provided in tandem with treatment and disease management – is expected reduce Australia’s hospital-centric health system. Prior to these current healthcare reforms, Australia witnessed many others [14-19]. The nation’s relatively short and recent history includes the establishment of the Hospitals and Health Services Commission and the Health Insurance Commission in the 1970s, which were accompanied by the introduction of Medibank – the government-owned private health insurer. This history also includes the launch of Medicare in the 1980s – a universal health insurance scheme to make healthcare affordable for all Australians. Following the turn of the century, Medical Indemnity Acts were introduced to curb the rise in negligence and malpractice claims – furthermore, Medicare Australia was formed to increase access to multidisciplinary health services coordinated by general practitioners (GPs), particularly for people with complex or chronic conditions. Given its rate of recurrence, it might be argued that healthcare reform is now routine [20]. As an exercise in change – euphemisms for which include reorganization, rationalization, and restructuring [20] – healthcare reform is likely to be associated with volatility and instability [21,22]. This includes uncertainty [23-25], diminished morale [26,27], and staff turnover [28]. Such an environment may distract healthcare organizations from their core business [29-31] including the delivery of quality healthcare through the use of evidence-based practices. Optimizing clinician use of evidence-based practice represents a significant challenge within healthcare services [32] – this includes primary care. One of the key issues within primary care is to effectively and efficiently translate evidence from empirical research into patient care [33-36]. Although research focused solely on primary care is limited, research suggests that clinician use of evidence-based practice is problematic [37,38]. For instance, a recent Australian study concluded that the delivery of evidence-based care is less than ideal. The authors stated, ‘Compliance with indicators of appropriate care at condition level ranged from 13%… for alcohol dependence to 90%… for coronary artery disease… Although there were pockets of excellence… the consistent delivery of appropriate care needs improvement’ [39], p. 100. There are a myriad of reasons that contribute to this ‘quality chasm’ [40-42] – these include doctor-related, patient-related, and organizational factors. For instance, in Australia following a cluster randomized controlled trial on chlamydia screening in general practice, Bowden and colleagues [43] concluded that limited time, limited

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clinician understanding of associated benefits, and clinician concern about broaching sexual health with patients hindered clinician capacity to deliver evidence-based sexual healthcare. The limited use of evidence-based practice has significant consequences for patients, their communities, and the public purse [41]. This is largely because evidence-based practice is said to enhance quality patient care (at least at the individual level) and optimize the allocation of limited resources [44-46]. This might partly explain current government and academic interest in knowledge translation [47]. Despite the myriad of terms coined to refer to knowledge translation – including research utilization, implementation, dissemination, and diffusion, among others [48] – the term might be understood as ‘any activity or process that facilitates the transfer of high-quality evidence from research into effective changes in health policy, clinical practice, or products’ [49]. Although the ultimate aim of knowledge translation is to use (near) irrefutable evidence to improve patient care, this translation (translation being the operative word) is a complex, dynamic, and an evolving process [50]. To facilitate this process effectively and efficiently, international scholars have called for broad approaches [47] and innovative methods [51], lessons for which might be garnered from extant research. For instance, a comprehensive review of extant literature suggests that most methods to help clinicians and practitioners to adopt evidence-based practices have the capacity to effect change – however, robust evidence of their effectiveness (and methods of action) is lacking [45]. Although the evidence for effective methods remains inconclusive, it does not suggest that particular methods be discontinued [52]. Rather, there are ‘no “magic bullets” for improving the quality of health care’ [53], p. 1423. Bridging the divide between evidence-based practice and patient care appears to require a multimodal approach. As Grol and Grimshaw concluded, ‘Different types of changes seem to need discrete types of interventions… research so far shows that none of the approaches is superior for all changes in all situations; we probably need them all’ [54], pp. 1227–1229. Therefore, different methods are likely to be required for different audiences, for different purposes, and at different times – this includes times of significant organizational change. To better understand what works when facilitating knowledge translation – particularly during a time of considerable healthcare reform [55] – this study presents findings from a recent survey of GPs and practice nurses (PNs) in Australia about their awareness, their use, the perceived impact, and the factors that hindered the use of six resources to promote sexual healthcare. Sexual healthcare in the Australian primary care sector

Dadich and Hosseinzadeh BMC Health Services Research 2013, 13:490 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/13/490

constitutes an appropriate context for three key reasons. First, despite the prevalence of sexually transmissible infections [56-59], the delivery of sexual healthcare is limited, particularly within primary care [60-63]. This can have serious implications as some STIs remain asymptomatic and have long-term effects if left untreated [64,65]. Second, the Australian primary care sector is experiencing significant reform, the aim of which is to ‘shift the centre of gravity of the health system from hospitals to primary health care’ [66], p. 1. Third, primary care clinicians are being called to alleviate the strain on public sexual health clinics [67]. As stated in a government sexual health strategy, ‘The size of some priority population groups is such that a strategic objective for specialist clinics and Area-based sexual health programs must be to work with general practice to reduce barriers to access’ [68], p. 2. These three reasons lend sexual healthcare in the Australian primary care sector as an appropriate context for this study. GP Project

The New South Wales (NSW) Sexually Transmissible Infections Programs Unit (STIPU) developed and deployed the GP Project (in collaboration with key stakeholders) to enhance evidence-based sexual healthcare within general practice in NSW. Its objectives were to increase clinician access to STI information, education, and resources; promote their understanding of contact tracing; and clarify referral pathways. To meet these objectives, seven resources were developed for GPs and two for PNs, all of which were informed by clinical guidelines [69]. Given their similarities as educational aides (particularly in content), this paper reports on findings pertaining to six of these resources – namely, the STI Testing Tool, the Online STI Testing Tool GP Training, the Active Learning Module, the Check Booklet, the Practice Nurse Postcard, and the Online STI Practice Nurse Training. The STI Testing Tool is a double-sided A4 placard that guides sexual health consultations (see Figure 1). This includes the identification of at-risk patients; appropriate screening tests and the specimens required; appropriate ways to initiate and manage a sexual health consultation; a guide to documenting a brief sexual history; appropriate ways to broach contact tracing; as well as referral information. Following its development, the STI Testing Tool was promoted and disseminated via key professional bodies that support NSW GPs and promote general practice, and distributed to NSW GPs. Developed and distributed by an independent provider of online education to healthcare providers, the Online STI Testing Tool GP Training is an interactive course, which takes approximately sixty minutes to complete (see Figure 2). It includes seven clinical cases offering participants an opportunity to apply their skills and

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knowledge; these abilities are tested through the completion of questions after each clinical case, answers for which are also provided. Following its development, the Online STI Testing Tool GP Training was promoted electronically to GPs via website postings and email. It was delivered online by the independent provider as part of its training program [70]. The Active Learning Module is a face-to-face program comprised of three interactive educational modules to improve knowledge of, and clinical skills in STI management. Each two-hour module has a particular focus and builds on the preceding module. Although participants are awarded four continuing professional development (CPD) points for completing one module, forty CPD points are awarded following the completion of all three modules. The Active Learning Module was designed to foster interagency collaboration – more specifically, it aimed to encourage the 33 NSW Divisions of General Practice to work with the Australasian Society of HIV Medicine (ASHM), which delivered the modules. Divisions of General Practice are professional bodies that support members through the provision of training, resources, and opportunities to collaborate with other health professionals [71]. Following its development, the Active Learning Module was promoted via key stakeholders, including the Divisions, and at time of study, it was delivered on six occasions. The Check Booklet on STIs was developed in accordance with the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners Quality Improvement and Continuing Professional Development program [72]. Check is an independent learning program published monthly by the RACGP on different health topics. This particular issue addresses: documenting a sexual history; STI testing; dealing with feelings of discomfort around sex; STI screening; contact tracing; and cultural sensitivities. The booklet includes seven clinical cases accompanied by questions and answers, and concludes with additional GP resources. As part of the RACGP Check program [73], the Check Booklet was promoted and delivered by the RACGP to GP members as part of their membership package. The Practice Nurse Postcard was designed to help PNs undertake a preventative women’s health check, including a pap smear. Akin to the STI Testing Tool, it is designed as a double-sided A4 placard, which provides information on the health check, including medical benefits scheme (MBS) item numbers; prompts to document a brief sexual history; information to support the management of chlamydia with information on priority populations, screening tests, treatment, and prevention; and contact details for further resources. The postcard was promoted by relevant professional bodies, including the Australian Practice Nurses Association (APNA), and was disseminated as a paper-based postcard to general

Dadich and Hosseinzadeh BMC Health Services Research 2013, 13:490 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/13/490

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Figure 1 STI testing tool.

practices and clinicians. To expedite distribution, particularly to rural and remote areas, the postcard was also available online. As part of the APNA Online Training program [74], the Online STI Practice Nurse Training is an interactive course that focuses on understanding and managing STIs, blood borne viruses (BBVs), human immunodeficiency

Figure 2 Practice nurse postcard.

virus (HIV), as well as viral hepatitis. This information is conveyed and reinforced via text, illustrations, graphs, charts, clinical cases, and hyperlinks to additional resources, including academic journal articles and websites. The training was promoted by relevant professional bodies, including ASHM, and was delivered by APNA in an online environment.

Dadich and Hosseinzadeh BMC Health Services Research 2013, 13:490 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/13/490

Following the development of these six resources, this study was conducted to determine GP and PN awareness, use, perceived impact on clinical practices, as well as factors that hindered use.

Methods Following clearance from the University of Western Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee (approval number: H8886), GPs and PNs practicing in NSW were recruited with the assistance of relevant professional bodies, as well as an independent provider of online education. These organizations included project information in its communications to GPs and PNs, which included email, facsimiles, website postings, and newsletters. GPs and PNs were invited to complete an anonymous and a confidential online survey, comprised of closed and open-ended items. In addition to demographic information (about the respondent and their primary workplace), survey items pertained to resources within the GP Project. The purpose of the survey was to determine the degree of awareness; use of the resources; perceived impact on clinical practice; perceived value of the resources; perceived capacity to promote sexual health; and preferred learning styles. In recognition of their contribution to this project, respondents were offered hard copies of clinical guidelines. Data were collected for five months (August 2011 to January 2012). Data collected through the closed survey items were cleaned. Descriptive statistics were then calculated using only valid responses – this includes the calculation of percentages and means. Akin to first-level coding [75], the second author initially reviewed the responses to each open-ended item to identify key elements and concepts; these were then discussed with the lead author and there were no discrepant views during this process. Both authors then distilled the elements and concepts into constructed themes, akin to axial coding [76]. Given the scope of this paper, only findings pertaining to awareness, use, perceived impact on clinical practices, and factors that hindered resource use are reported. Results Participants

A total of 431 primary care clinicians practicing in NSW completed the online survey – this includes 214 GPs and 217 PNs (see Table 1). Most respondents were female (GPs: 54.1%, PNs: 93.9%) and most graduated in Australia (GPs: 57.2%, PNs: 86.9%). The highest proportion of GPs was between 36 and 45 years of age (31.8%), and collectively they had an average of 15.4 years of GP experience (SD = 12.1). The highest proportion of PNs was between 41 and 50 years of age (35.5%), and together they had an average of seven years of PN experience (SD = 7.6).

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Table 1 Respondent socio-demographic characteristics (n = 431; GPs = 214; PNs = 217) GP characteristics

%

Sex

PN characteristics

%

Sex

Male

45.9

Female

54.1

Age (yrs)

Male Female

6.1 93.9

Age (yrs)

26-35

15.4

20-30

12.4

36-45

31.8

31-40

18.5

46-55

29.4

41-50

35.5

>56

23.4

51-60

28.6

>60 Country of graduation

5.1

Country of graduation

Australia

57.2

Australia

86.9

Overseas

42.8

Overseas

13.1

Patients

Healthcare reform: implications for knowledge translation in primary care.

The primary care sector represents the linchpin of many health systems. However, the translation of evidence-based practices into patient care can be ...
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