312 must be quite clear that the role of the factory inspectorate in relation to decisions on whether persons are &dquo;exposed to risk in health or safety&dquo; is surely an advisory role and one where consultation must be the order of the day. It is inconceivable that the factory inspectorate responsible not to the electorate could be involved in carrying out detailed monitoring and survey work in a community. A vast new field of co-operation between the vari-
types of inspectorate is now opened up. This should help to overcome many difficulties which have been experienced in the past by environmental health officers and the factory inspectorate and those appointed under the Alkali etc. Works Regulations Act.
ous
The views expressed in this paper are the personal opinions of the author and should not be attributed to the Birmingham City Council.
(b) ASPECTS OF SAFETY IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY G. H. SPRACKLING, M.B.E., C.ENG., M.I.MECH.E., F.I.MAR.E., F.I.I.S.O.
Formerly Chief Safety Officer, Department of the Environment
N
of safety in any construction work it is for us to apply our minds to three specific
thinking
necessary aspects:
Can it be safely built? Can it be Can it be
safely operated? safely maintained?
It is obvious that these are matters which should be considered in the design stage and they naturally lead to the next two points which immediately become easy to deduce, namely that everyone from the designer downwards has a duty towards safety, and that to achieve a satisfactory result there must be active co-operation between the professions involved (e.g. architects and engineers), and with the people who carry out the work. In considering the question whether a project can be safely built, there is a tendency to dismiss this on the grounds that building has been carried out for thousands of years and therefore the problems must be well known. There are two factors which upset this attitude, one of which is that we are now using new techniques, new materials and new methods of erection; the other is that in our original question we introduced a relatively new dimension, namely the safety aspects. As an example of the foregoing one may give system building, which has many advantages such as speed of construction, use of standard sections, ability to fabricate under works conditions and the fact that in most cases there is no requirement for scaffolding. These are positive advantages, but against this must be offset the new hazards which may be introduced and for which positive action must be taken in the design stage. Some of the items in this category would include (i) arrangements for the fitting of guardrails or other suitable means of preventing persons falling as required by the Construction (Working places) Regulations due to the fact that we do not now have the protection of the scaffold; (ii) provision in the design for adequate lifting arrangements; (iii) in the case of complex shaped
components,
the centre ot balance to be shown
on
the
drawings and arrangements made for it to be marked on
the components; (iv) if at any time during the construction, the building would be unstable, this fact should be known to the designer and transmitted in the drawings to all who would be involved in the construction together with the means to be used to give adequate temporary support. Provision must be made for the supply of the necessary equipment to give this temporary support and means of attaching it to ensure that when fitted it does what is required. It may seem odd that in a paper on safety in building the question should be asked whether what we build can be safely operated; but it is a fact that in many cases we build-in hazards for operators by not allowing sufficient space for the equipment we are installing; by not providing adequate access to places where they have continually to reach; by obstructing gangways with ,
fittings, pipework
etc.;
by
not
providing adequate
illumination or ventilation and many related items. In fairness it must be stated that the majority of these items relate to the engineering services of the building, they may stem from a lack of sufficient space or change in the client’s requirements. The latter point emphasizes the need for co-ordination and co-operation in the design
stage.
We now look at the third of our criteria which asks if the building can be safely maintained. Although the building of any structure is a prime function, this building is expected to last for many years, during which time routine maintenance and repairs will be required; this is an operation on which many millions of pounds are spent every year and it is obviously worthy of consideration. Designers can help in this matter, by using as far as practicable, materials and items which require little maintenance and by making provision for routine maintenance to be safely undertaken. This may mean specifically designing with ease of maintenance in mind or a provision of additional items which woul allow the maintenance to be safely undertaken. It i realized that this may in some cases increase the capita cost, but the additional cost will be easily recouped in th reduction of maintenance expenditure and within th context of this paper, in the reduction of hazard to th person concerned.
Downloaded from rsh.sagepub.com at Bobst Library, New York University on May 18, 2015
THE SIZE OF THE PROBLEM BEFORE GOING into the details of other aspects of safety on site, it is necessary to know the scale of the problem with which we are dealing. Every year in the construction industry there are approximately 200 men killed and nearly 40,000 men injured; in comparison with other employment under the existing Factories Act the industry employs less than one sixth of the labour force and has more than one third of the fatalities. The actual figures for the past five years are given in the table
below.
Analysis of these figures indicates that year by year same principal causes of accidents occur and that they cause the same patterns of injury. These may be briefly stated as: the
Falls of persons
Handling goods and materials Stepping or striking against objects Objects falling
The use of hand tools No mention is made in this list of a number of other causes such as machinery, transport, electricity, etc., but it is worth noting that the first two items in the list above account for over half the injuries. Looking further into the problem, we find that as far as fatalities are concerned the prime causes are falls of persons and objects. By this means we have isolated a number of facets of site work in which special attention to safety will provide the greatest benefits.
all the bodies concerned - employers and employees for the improvement of standards.
FALLS OF PERSONS AND OBJECTS TURNING NOW to the causes of accidents already mentioned and endeavouring to find in what operations they are most likely to occur, a number if items can be isolated which are worthy of comment. In this connection falls of persons take place mainly from scaffolds, ladders, unfenced openings and through fragile roofs; those in which falls of material are prime cause occur mainly in excavations and tunnels, with lifting appliances or from overhead work; these will be dealt with in some detail.
the
SCAFFOLDING THE FIRST thing that comes to mind in this context is the collapse of scaffolding. Although this can be very costly and there are a considerable number of these cases, caused mainly by inadequate erection, insufficient ties, lack of bracing or subsequent damage, they do not cause many injuries or fatalities. The main causes of falling from scaffolding are by the inadequacies of the scaffolding at the time of the incident. These inadequacies are often apparently minor as far as the men on the site are concerned, and with adequate training and a little effort they can be easily observed and rectified. Failure to do so may result in tragedy. A few examples of this sort of defect are given below and all have been the causes of falls that have proved fatal: (i) Sections of guardrail and toeboard are removed to facilitate hoisting of material and not
(ii)
LEGISLATION ETC.
-
replaced. An
ladder is removed and re-sited. The is not closed; with the result that an unobservant person fails to notice that the ladder which he expects to be in that position is no longer there. Someone wants a small platform elsewhere on a scaffold not yet boarded out and borrows boards from another platform, thereby creating two unsafe situations. Boards moved on bearers as the result of gale damage leaving a long cantilever, what was originally the centre and has now become the last support. This is a good example of where use should be made of both Construction (Working places) Regulations which give the maximum permitted overhang and BSCP 97 which gives a recommended minimum overaccess
original opening
MUCH WORK has already been done to improve safety on sites by the provision of legislation and codes of practice. The principal Act under which we were working was the Factories Act 1961; we now have the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, which looks at the problem from a different angle and is a genuine attempt to improve the situation by regulation, instruction, co-operation and self-help. This new Act does not in any way diminish the requirement for safety on site. It will, however, change the method by which it is achieved, and for the time being we still have to conform to the Regulations made under the Factories Act, those which most affect our work being the Construction Regulations of 1961 and 1966. Although the Regulations are mandatory they cannot cover many aspects of our work, in addition they are written in legal language which sometimes means little to the man who has to do the job. In order to assist in providing a good standard to which work can be done there are a number of British Standards Codes of Practice covering a variety of items such as scaffolding and demolition. The industry has helped itself, and the National Federation of Building Trades Employers in conjunction with the Factory Inspectorate and other interested bodies has produced its own manual Construction Safety, which deals with the many sides of site work and which quite rightly begins with &dquo;Policy, Organization and Administration&dquo;. In addition to the foregoing the Health and Safety Executive has its Joint Advisory Committee on Safety and Health in the Construction Industry with a number of sub-committees dealing with specific subjects, whose object is to use the expertise of
(iii)
(iv)
hang.
Whilst dealing with scaffolding in general, mention must be made of mobile scaffold towers; these are extensively used inside large buildings as well as being frequently used for maintenance work both inside and outside the building. They are also often the cause of injury by overturning. These towers may be erected from standard units supplied by specialist manufacturers or be constructed from ordinary scaffold tube and fitting. In the former case it is essential to see that the items are erected in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations and that all the necessary braces etc., are included. In the latter case the normal scaffolding procedures should be followed, making sure that all scaffold fittings used for the main frames are of the load-bearing type. With both types it is essential to prevent overturning by
Downloaded from rsh.sagepub.com at Bobst Library, New York University on May 18, 2015
that the height to base ratio is not excessive; the recommended heights for internal use being 31 times the minimum base dimension and for external use 3 times the minimum base dimension. If it is necessary to exceed this ratio adequate precautions must be taken by either fitting outriggers, adding counterweights to the base section or securing the scaffold by ties or guys. Access to the top of the mobile tower should be by means of an internal ladder, or by a ladder secured vertically to the side of the tower and never by a ladder leaning against it.
ensuring
LADDERS THESE ARE used for access to scaffolding and for many other uses in the building industry. The two types of use have been stated separately because in the first case the ladders are usually installed by the men who erect the scaffolding; they are experienced and in general it can be expected that the ladder will be in good condition, or the right length, properly erected and secured. It is under the second method of use that the majority of accidents occur and it is essential that all site staff should be encouraged to get into the habit of correct ladder usage by following the requirements of the regulations relating to the ladder itself and the recommendations of the various safety bodies with regard to its erection and use. On the subject of ladders, it is worth noting that nearly half the falls of persons are caused by falling from ladders and of this number about half the injuries and occasionally a fatality is caused by falling less than 6 ft. 6 in. EXCAVATIONS IN THE
construction of modern large buildings it is
for large excavations to be made for the foundations. These usually have their sides well battered for safety unless supported by diaphragm walling, but it is in the excavation for deep drains and services that the greater danger exists. The major hazard is from the falling of materials due to the collapse of trench walls. In these unfortunate occurrences there is a high fatality rate. The regulations are explicit in their requirements for timbering any excavations where there is a danger of men being covered by falls of material. The most common causes of collapse of trench walls are: (i) simple mechanical failure of the soil because it cannot support its own weight; (ii) breakdown of the strength of the soil by moiscommon
ture or
(iii) (iv) (v)
(vi)
a
(vii)
frost;
failure caused by vibration from movement of vehicles nearby; failure due to weight of loads placed near the edge of the excavations; failure due to variations in the nature of the soil, such as pockets of sand; failure due to excavation on or near the site of
previous excavation;
failure due to the sides of the excavation being struck by heavy loads, pipes, etc., when they are lowered into it. Having decided that there is a necessity for timbering an excavation, it must be ensured that this is carried out efficiently and safely as well as at the earliest possible moment; this means adequate pre-planning to ensure that the necessary materials are on site. With modern excavating equipment it is possible to
make
a deep cut by machine and it is the timof the first section which is the most hazardous ; this should be done either from outside a trench or by men inside the trench working from protective cages. A number of companies are now producing proprietary systems of trench shoring which can be inserted from the surface, thereby eliminating the necessity for men to enter the trench until it is adequately supported. Although the initial cost of these items is relatively high, they are easily removable and re-usable on other sites. It is of course essential to see that they are adequately maintained and properly fitted.
quite
bering
HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK etc. ACT 1974 HAVING DEALT with some of the principal causes of accidents on site and it should be mentioned here that they were by no means exhaustive and were only introduced to give an appreciation of the subject attention will now be directed to the effects of the Health and Safety at Work Act. As is now becoming well known this is an Act which endeavours to promote health and safety by focusing attention on the need for partnership and co-operation between all persons engaged in the management and those actually carrying out the various operations, and much of what follows is equally applicable in manufacturing industries as well as building. Although it is mainly an enabling Act, probably the most important sections from our point of view are the early ones and Section 2 (1) which lays down the general duty of the employer to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees. Although it would be true to say that in the past this has been the aim of all good employers and indeed was required under the common law &dquo;duty of care&dquo;, it is now a statutory -
-
requirement. The Act proceeds by indicating areas
enlarge upon the general duty which require special attention; among those which have application to building work is the requirement for the provision and maintenance of plant and systems of work that are safe. With the large amount of new and more sophisticated plant now being brought into use to facilitate work, efficient maintenance and correct use become very important both from the point of view of safety and cost effectiveness. I This leads to the next most important requirement,I namely the provision of instruction and training in allI the operations and use of equipment. It is an astonishing fact and one which is exercising the minds of many people concerned with safety that prior to this Act there were no statutory requirements which ensured that the operator of a large piece of equipment such as an earth mover or tower crane was adequately trained and certificated for his job; it is true that many of the more progressive construction companies operated their own internal system, but there was no national requirement. The new Act endeavours to overcome this with its training requirement, but there is still no requirement for proof that the operator is satisfactorily trained. The Act requires adequate supervision of the work, it does not spell out how this should be done and this is one of the items which leaves the company to make its own decision on the degree of supervision to
required. There is
a
Downloaded from rsh.sagepub.com at Bobst Library, New York University on May 18, 2015
duty
to
maintain the
workplace
in
a
315
condition which is reasonably safe and also has adequate means of access and egress. On a construction site this is a continuing task, by virtue of the work in hand the situation is changing daily and is something which must be kept under constant review. It also reflects the requirement for the maintenance of a tidy site and on a large construction site with many subcontractors this is something which must be conscientiously organized. In this connection it might be mentioned that untidy sites are the main reason for the high number of injuries caused by stepping on or striking against objects and this naturally leads to the nest requirement of the Act which calls for the provision and maintenance of a working environment which is safe and without risk to health, there must be adequate facilities and arrangements for the welfare of the employees at work; this covers the provision of sanitary and washing facilities, means of dry-
ing clothes,
etc.
In all the foregoing, the Act uses the words &dquo;so far as is reasonably practicable&dquo;; this is not a mere form of words or an escape door. It means that every case must be considered on its merits. Another section of the Act defines what is meant by &dquo;reasonably practicable&dquo; and incidentally completely reverses the old interpretation. In the past there was a requirement for the plaintiff to prove that the defendant (employer) could have done more than he actually did to prevent an accident; the situation now is that it will be for the employer to prove that he could not reasonably have done more than he actually did. This may seem to be a harsh change, but the injured person is often someone whose knowledge and resources of proving that the employer could have done more are probably much less than those of the employer, who may well be able to call on expert advice. One particular section of the Act requires employers to prepare written statements of their policy with respect to Health and Safety at Work and this policy must be made known to the employees, together with the means proposed for implementing the policy. The employer is also required to consult with his employees on the means of implementing the policy; the employer is also required to consult with his employees in making the arrangements for implementation. This is not a once for all requirement, but must be modified and up-dated as required, the employees being kept informed as
before.
Although the Act quite rightly places considerable on employers, it also places a duty on the employees to play their part by taking reasonable care for themselves and others who may be affected by their acts or omissions, and requires their co-operation with the employer in the operation of the requirements for health and safety. At a later stage there may be requirements for the appointment of Safety Representatives and Safety Committees. When these come into operation it is hoped that the requirements for co-operation between employer and employee will be fully effective. On construction sites this is likely to pose quite a problem due mainly to the continuing changing conditions, the fact that there is usually not a stable workforce, the large number of contractors and sub-contractors who may be working on the site and the multiplicity of trades unions to which they belong. Although the difficulties are great and the effort required to overcome them correspondingly large it should not diminish the desire or the necessity to achieve a satisfactory solution. duties
The Act introduces two items of particular importance to the construction industry; for the first time it places a statutory duty on a self-employed person to conduct his operations so as to prevent risks to health
and safety. On a building site there may be a large number of men in this category working either in a specialist function or as part of the &dquo;lump&dquo;. The second feature is a requirement for both employers and self-employed persons to take care that other people are not placed at risk by their operations. On a site, as has already been mentioned, there may be numerous employees. This section covers all of them, but in particular it can be taken to represent a duty to protect the public. Many of our operations occur near or over public highways or other places to which the public have access, some of the accidents which may occur on site could affect them; examples of these being: collapses of scaffolding, collapses of tower cranes, objects falling from heights, etc. A further section lays duties on designers, manufacturers, and suppliers to ensure that safety is considered ; the subject of designers was dealt with in some detail at the beginning of this paper and plant has already been mentioned. Under the heading of suppliers, we can consider hirers and this is an important feature in building work, where it is common practice to hire specialist equipment for certain functions. Although there is still an onus on the user for safe operation, the new requirement should ensure that when the plant comes to site it is fully fit for the job it has to do; and if the operator is supplied as well, that he is adequately trained to use that equipment.
BUILDING REGULATIONS PART III of the Health and Safety at Work Act deals with Building Regulations; this part of the Act will not be operated by the Health and Safety Commission, but by the Department of the Environment and may well be considered as an act within an act. Although the rest of the Act came into force on 1 April 1975, this part is not yet operative. From our knowledge of the previous Building Regulations 1972 with the amendments of 1973 and 1974, it may seem strange that this subject should come within the scope of an act on health and safety; but Part III of the new Act replaces sections 61 and 62 of the Public Health Act 1936 and provides for the making of Building Regulations for the following purposes: (i) Securing the health, safety, welfare and convenience of persons in or about buildings and of others who may be affected by buildings or matters concerned with buildings. (ii) Furthering the conservation of fuel and power. (iii) Preventing waste, undue consumption, misuse or contamination of water. (iv) Alterations and extensions of buildings and of services, fittings and equipment in or in connection with buildings. (v) New services, fittings, or equipment provided in or in connection with buildings. (vi) Buildings and services, fittings and equipment in or in connection with buildings where they are affected by alterations; or extension or by new, altered or extended services, fittings or equipment in or in connection with building. In this connection the term &dquo;building&dquo; has been given a very wide meaning as described in Section 74
Downloaded from rsh.sagepub.com at Bobst Library, New York University on May 18, 2015
Continued
on
page 321
types of inspectorate is now opened up. This should help to overcome many difficulties which have been experienced in the past by environmental health officers and the factory inspectorate and those appointed under the Alkali etc. Works Regulations Act.
ous
The views expressed in this paper are the personal opinions of the author and should not be attributed to the Birmingham City Council.
(b) ASPECTS OF SAFETY IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY G. H. SPRACKLING, M.B.E., C.ENG., M.I.MECH.E., F.I.MAR.E., F.I.I.S.O.
Formerly Chief Safety Officer, Department of the Environment
N
of safety in any construction work it is for us to apply our minds to three specific
thinking
necessary aspects:
Can it be safely built? Can it be Can it be
safely operated? safely maintained?
It is obvious that these are matters which should be considered in the design stage and they naturally lead to the next two points which immediately become easy to deduce, namely that everyone from the designer downwards has a duty towards safety, and that to achieve a satisfactory result there must be active co-operation between the professions involved (e.g. architects and engineers), and with the people who carry out the work. In considering the question whether a project can be safely built, there is a tendency to dismiss this on the grounds that building has been carried out for thousands of years and therefore the problems must be well known. There are two factors which upset this attitude, one of which is that we are now using new techniques, new materials and new methods of erection; the other is that in our original question we introduced a relatively new dimension, namely the safety aspects. As an example of the foregoing one may give system building, which has many advantages such as speed of construction, use of standard sections, ability to fabricate under works conditions and the fact that in most cases there is no requirement for scaffolding. These are positive advantages, but against this must be offset the new hazards which may be introduced and for which positive action must be taken in the design stage. Some of the items in this category would include (i) arrangements for the fitting of guardrails or other suitable means of preventing persons falling as required by the Construction (Working places) Regulations due to the fact that we do not now have the protection of the scaffold; (ii) provision in the design for adequate lifting arrangements; (iii) in the case of complex shaped
components,
the centre ot balance to be shown
on
the
drawings and arrangements made for it to be marked on
the components; (iv) if at any time during the construction, the building would be unstable, this fact should be known to the designer and transmitted in the drawings to all who would be involved in the construction together with the means to be used to give adequate temporary support. Provision must be made for the supply of the necessary equipment to give this temporary support and means of attaching it to ensure that when fitted it does what is required. It may seem odd that in a paper on safety in building the question should be asked whether what we build can be safely operated; but it is a fact that in many cases we build-in hazards for operators by not allowing sufficient space for the equipment we are installing; by not providing adequate access to places where they have continually to reach; by obstructing gangways with ,
fittings, pipework
etc.;
by
not
providing adequate
illumination or ventilation and many related items. In fairness it must be stated that the majority of these items relate to the engineering services of the building, they may stem from a lack of sufficient space or change in the client’s requirements. The latter point emphasizes the need for co-ordination and co-operation in the design
stage.
We now look at the third of our criteria which asks if the building can be safely maintained. Although the building of any structure is a prime function, this building is expected to last for many years, during which time routine maintenance and repairs will be required; this is an operation on which many millions of pounds are spent every year and it is obviously worthy of consideration. Designers can help in this matter, by using as far as practicable, materials and items which require little maintenance and by making provision for routine maintenance to be safely undertaken. This may mean specifically designing with ease of maintenance in mind or a provision of additional items which woul allow the maintenance to be safely undertaken. It i realized that this may in some cases increase the capita cost, but the additional cost will be easily recouped in th reduction of maintenance expenditure and within th context of this paper, in the reduction of hazard to th person concerned.
Downloaded from rsh.sagepub.com at Bobst Library, New York University on May 18, 2015
THE SIZE OF THE PROBLEM BEFORE GOING into the details of other aspects of safety on site, it is necessary to know the scale of the problem with which we are dealing. Every year in the construction industry there are approximately 200 men killed and nearly 40,000 men injured; in comparison with other employment under the existing Factories Act the industry employs less than one sixth of the labour force and has more than one third of the fatalities. The actual figures for the past five years are given in the table
below.
Analysis of these figures indicates that year by year same principal causes of accidents occur and that they cause the same patterns of injury. These may be briefly stated as: the
Falls of persons
Handling goods and materials Stepping or striking against objects Objects falling
The use of hand tools No mention is made in this list of a number of other causes such as machinery, transport, electricity, etc., but it is worth noting that the first two items in the list above account for over half the injuries. Looking further into the problem, we find that as far as fatalities are concerned the prime causes are falls of persons and objects. By this means we have isolated a number of facets of site work in which special attention to safety will provide the greatest benefits.
all the bodies concerned - employers and employees for the improvement of standards.
FALLS OF PERSONS AND OBJECTS TURNING NOW to the causes of accidents already mentioned and endeavouring to find in what operations they are most likely to occur, a number if items can be isolated which are worthy of comment. In this connection falls of persons take place mainly from scaffolds, ladders, unfenced openings and through fragile roofs; those in which falls of material are prime cause occur mainly in excavations and tunnels, with lifting appliances or from overhead work; these will be dealt with in some detail.
the
SCAFFOLDING THE FIRST thing that comes to mind in this context is the collapse of scaffolding. Although this can be very costly and there are a considerable number of these cases, caused mainly by inadequate erection, insufficient ties, lack of bracing or subsequent damage, they do not cause many injuries or fatalities. The main causes of falling from scaffolding are by the inadequacies of the scaffolding at the time of the incident. These inadequacies are often apparently minor as far as the men on the site are concerned, and with adequate training and a little effort they can be easily observed and rectified. Failure to do so may result in tragedy. A few examples of this sort of defect are given below and all have been the causes of falls that have proved fatal: (i) Sections of guardrail and toeboard are removed to facilitate hoisting of material and not
(ii)
LEGISLATION ETC.
-
replaced. An
ladder is removed and re-sited. The is not closed; with the result that an unobservant person fails to notice that the ladder which he expects to be in that position is no longer there. Someone wants a small platform elsewhere on a scaffold not yet boarded out and borrows boards from another platform, thereby creating two unsafe situations. Boards moved on bearers as the result of gale damage leaving a long cantilever, what was originally the centre and has now become the last support. This is a good example of where use should be made of both Construction (Working places) Regulations which give the maximum permitted overhang and BSCP 97 which gives a recommended minimum overaccess
original opening
MUCH WORK has already been done to improve safety on sites by the provision of legislation and codes of practice. The principal Act under which we were working was the Factories Act 1961; we now have the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, which looks at the problem from a different angle and is a genuine attempt to improve the situation by regulation, instruction, co-operation and self-help. This new Act does not in any way diminish the requirement for safety on site. It will, however, change the method by which it is achieved, and for the time being we still have to conform to the Regulations made under the Factories Act, those which most affect our work being the Construction Regulations of 1961 and 1966. Although the Regulations are mandatory they cannot cover many aspects of our work, in addition they are written in legal language which sometimes means little to the man who has to do the job. In order to assist in providing a good standard to which work can be done there are a number of British Standards Codes of Practice covering a variety of items such as scaffolding and demolition. The industry has helped itself, and the National Federation of Building Trades Employers in conjunction with the Factory Inspectorate and other interested bodies has produced its own manual Construction Safety, which deals with the many sides of site work and which quite rightly begins with &dquo;Policy, Organization and Administration&dquo;. In addition to the foregoing the Health and Safety Executive has its Joint Advisory Committee on Safety and Health in the Construction Industry with a number of sub-committees dealing with specific subjects, whose object is to use the expertise of
(iii)
(iv)
hang.
Whilst dealing with scaffolding in general, mention must be made of mobile scaffold towers; these are extensively used inside large buildings as well as being frequently used for maintenance work both inside and outside the building. They are also often the cause of injury by overturning. These towers may be erected from standard units supplied by specialist manufacturers or be constructed from ordinary scaffold tube and fitting. In the former case it is essential to see that the items are erected in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations and that all the necessary braces etc., are included. In the latter case the normal scaffolding procedures should be followed, making sure that all scaffold fittings used for the main frames are of the load-bearing type. With both types it is essential to prevent overturning by
Downloaded from rsh.sagepub.com at Bobst Library, New York University on May 18, 2015
that the height to base ratio is not excessive; the recommended heights for internal use being 31 times the minimum base dimension and for external use 3 times the minimum base dimension. If it is necessary to exceed this ratio adequate precautions must be taken by either fitting outriggers, adding counterweights to the base section or securing the scaffold by ties or guys. Access to the top of the mobile tower should be by means of an internal ladder, or by a ladder secured vertically to the side of the tower and never by a ladder leaning against it.
ensuring
LADDERS THESE ARE used for access to scaffolding and for many other uses in the building industry. The two types of use have been stated separately because in the first case the ladders are usually installed by the men who erect the scaffolding; they are experienced and in general it can be expected that the ladder will be in good condition, or the right length, properly erected and secured. It is under the second method of use that the majority of accidents occur and it is essential that all site staff should be encouraged to get into the habit of correct ladder usage by following the requirements of the regulations relating to the ladder itself and the recommendations of the various safety bodies with regard to its erection and use. On the subject of ladders, it is worth noting that nearly half the falls of persons are caused by falling from ladders and of this number about half the injuries and occasionally a fatality is caused by falling less than 6 ft. 6 in. EXCAVATIONS IN THE
construction of modern large buildings it is
for large excavations to be made for the foundations. These usually have their sides well battered for safety unless supported by diaphragm walling, but it is in the excavation for deep drains and services that the greater danger exists. The major hazard is from the falling of materials due to the collapse of trench walls. In these unfortunate occurrences there is a high fatality rate. The regulations are explicit in their requirements for timbering any excavations where there is a danger of men being covered by falls of material. The most common causes of collapse of trench walls are: (i) simple mechanical failure of the soil because it cannot support its own weight; (ii) breakdown of the strength of the soil by moiscommon
ture or
(iii) (iv) (v)
(vi)
a
(vii)
frost;
failure caused by vibration from movement of vehicles nearby; failure due to weight of loads placed near the edge of the excavations; failure due to variations in the nature of the soil, such as pockets of sand; failure due to excavation on or near the site of
previous excavation;
failure due to the sides of the excavation being struck by heavy loads, pipes, etc., when they are lowered into it. Having decided that there is a necessity for timbering an excavation, it must be ensured that this is carried out efficiently and safely as well as at the earliest possible moment; this means adequate pre-planning to ensure that the necessary materials are on site. With modern excavating equipment it is possible to
make
a deep cut by machine and it is the timof the first section which is the most hazardous ; this should be done either from outside a trench or by men inside the trench working from protective cages. A number of companies are now producing proprietary systems of trench shoring which can be inserted from the surface, thereby eliminating the necessity for men to enter the trench until it is adequately supported. Although the initial cost of these items is relatively high, they are easily removable and re-usable on other sites. It is of course essential to see that they are adequately maintained and properly fitted.
quite
bering
HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK etc. ACT 1974 HAVING DEALT with some of the principal causes of accidents on site and it should be mentioned here that they were by no means exhaustive and were only introduced to give an appreciation of the subject attention will now be directed to the effects of the Health and Safety at Work Act. As is now becoming well known this is an Act which endeavours to promote health and safety by focusing attention on the need for partnership and co-operation between all persons engaged in the management and those actually carrying out the various operations, and much of what follows is equally applicable in manufacturing industries as well as building. Although it is mainly an enabling Act, probably the most important sections from our point of view are the early ones and Section 2 (1) which lays down the general duty of the employer to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees. Although it would be true to say that in the past this has been the aim of all good employers and indeed was required under the common law &dquo;duty of care&dquo;, it is now a statutory -
-
requirement. The Act proceeds by indicating areas
enlarge upon the general duty which require special attention; among those which have application to building work is the requirement for the provision and maintenance of plant and systems of work that are safe. With the large amount of new and more sophisticated plant now being brought into use to facilitate work, efficient maintenance and correct use become very important both from the point of view of safety and cost effectiveness. I This leads to the next most important requirement,I namely the provision of instruction and training in allI the operations and use of equipment. It is an astonishing fact and one which is exercising the minds of many people concerned with safety that prior to this Act there were no statutory requirements which ensured that the operator of a large piece of equipment such as an earth mover or tower crane was adequately trained and certificated for his job; it is true that many of the more progressive construction companies operated their own internal system, but there was no national requirement. The new Act endeavours to overcome this with its training requirement, but there is still no requirement for proof that the operator is satisfactorily trained. The Act requires adequate supervision of the work, it does not spell out how this should be done and this is one of the items which leaves the company to make its own decision on the degree of supervision to
required. There is
a
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duty
to
maintain the
workplace
in
a
315
condition which is reasonably safe and also has adequate means of access and egress. On a construction site this is a continuing task, by virtue of the work in hand the situation is changing daily and is something which must be kept under constant review. It also reflects the requirement for the maintenance of a tidy site and on a large construction site with many subcontractors this is something which must be conscientiously organized. In this connection it might be mentioned that untidy sites are the main reason for the high number of injuries caused by stepping on or striking against objects and this naturally leads to the nest requirement of the Act which calls for the provision and maintenance of a working environment which is safe and without risk to health, there must be adequate facilities and arrangements for the welfare of the employees at work; this covers the provision of sanitary and washing facilities, means of dry-
ing clothes,
etc.
In all the foregoing, the Act uses the words &dquo;so far as is reasonably practicable&dquo;; this is not a mere form of words or an escape door. It means that every case must be considered on its merits. Another section of the Act defines what is meant by &dquo;reasonably practicable&dquo; and incidentally completely reverses the old interpretation. In the past there was a requirement for the plaintiff to prove that the defendant (employer) could have done more than he actually did to prevent an accident; the situation now is that it will be for the employer to prove that he could not reasonably have done more than he actually did. This may seem to be a harsh change, but the injured person is often someone whose knowledge and resources of proving that the employer could have done more are probably much less than those of the employer, who may well be able to call on expert advice. One particular section of the Act requires employers to prepare written statements of their policy with respect to Health and Safety at Work and this policy must be made known to the employees, together with the means proposed for implementing the policy. The employer is also required to consult with his employees on the means of implementing the policy; the employer is also required to consult with his employees in making the arrangements for implementation. This is not a once for all requirement, but must be modified and up-dated as required, the employees being kept informed as
before.
Although the Act quite rightly places considerable on employers, it also places a duty on the employees to play their part by taking reasonable care for themselves and others who may be affected by their acts or omissions, and requires their co-operation with the employer in the operation of the requirements for health and safety. At a later stage there may be requirements for the appointment of Safety Representatives and Safety Committees. When these come into operation it is hoped that the requirements for co-operation between employer and employee will be fully effective. On construction sites this is likely to pose quite a problem due mainly to the continuing changing conditions, the fact that there is usually not a stable workforce, the large number of contractors and sub-contractors who may be working on the site and the multiplicity of trades unions to which they belong. Although the difficulties are great and the effort required to overcome them correspondingly large it should not diminish the desire or the necessity to achieve a satisfactory solution. duties
The Act introduces two items of particular importance to the construction industry; for the first time it places a statutory duty on a self-employed person to conduct his operations so as to prevent risks to health
and safety. On a building site there may be a large number of men in this category working either in a specialist function or as part of the &dquo;lump&dquo;. The second feature is a requirement for both employers and self-employed persons to take care that other people are not placed at risk by their operations. On a site, as has already been mentioned, there may be numerous employees. This section covers all of them, but in particular it can be taken to represent a duty to protect the public. Many of our operations occur near or over public highways or other places to which the public have access, some of the accidents which may occur on site could affect them; examples of these being: collapses of scaffolding, collapses of tower cranes, objects falling from heights, etc. A further section lays duties on designers, manufacturers, and suppliers to ensure that safety is considered ; the subject of designers was dealt with in some detail at the beginning of this paper and plant has already been mentioned. Under the heading of suppliers, we can consider hirers and this is an important feature in building work, where it is common practice to hire specialist equipment for certain functions. Although there is still an onus on the user for safe operation, the new requirement should ensure that when the plant comes to site it is fully fit for the job it has to do; and if the operator is supplied as well, that he is adequately trained to use that equipment.
BUILDING REGULATIONS PART III of the Health and Safety at Work Act deals with Building Regulations; this part of the Act will not be operated by the Health and Safety Commission, but by the Department of the Environment and may well be considered as an act within an act. Although the rest of the Act came into force on 1 April 1975, this part is not yet operative. From our knowledge of the previous Building Regulations 1972 with the amendments of 1973 and 1974, it may seem strange that this subject should come within the scope of an act on health and safety; but Part III of the new Act replaces sections 61 and 62 of the Public Health Act 1936 and provides for the making of Building Regulations for the following purposes: (i) Securing the health, safety, welfare and convenience of persons in or about buildings and of others who may be affected by buildings or matters concerned with buildings. (ii) Furthering the conservation of fuel and power. (iii) Preventing waste, undue consumption, misuse or contamination of water. (iv) Alterations and extensions of buildings and of services, fittings and equipment in or in connection with buildings. (v) New services, fittings, or equipment provided in or in connection with buildings. (vi) Buildings and services, fittings and equipment in or in connection with buildings where they are affected by alterations; or extension or by new, altered or extended services, fittings or equipment in or in connection with building. In this connection the term &dquo;building&dquo; has been given a very wide meaning as described in Section 74
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Continued
on
page 321
