The
Psychological
Clinic
Copyright, 1910, by Lightner Witmer, Editor.
Vol. IV.
April
No. 2.
HEALTH
15,
1910.
AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF CALIFORNIA. By George L.
Leslie,
Director in fJharge of Psychological Clinic and Development Work, Los
Angeles,
Gal.
legislature of California passed a law1 estabDevelopment Supervision in the public schools of the state, the term "Health and Development Supervision" was chosen instead of "Medical Supervision/' or "School Hygiene," because that term expressed most clearly the purpose of the When the
lishing
recent
Health and
work in the schools.
education
or
The California law authorizes boards of
boards of school trustees:
(1) To establish annual physical examinations of school pupils, with a follow-up service to secure the correction of defective development, thus maintaining continuous supervision of the health and growth of children and youths. (2) To require physical examination of all candidates for teachers' positions in the public schools, to determine their vitality and efficiency; to make such further examination of teachers as may be advisable to determine their continued fitness for work; and to determine what amount of work shall be required of the teaching force of the schools, consistent with efficiency and con-
tinued service. and
(3) To adjust school activities to health and growth needs development processes of pupils. (4) To study mental retardation and deviation of pupils in
the schools.
(5) (6)
To exercise To organize
expert sanitary supervision. a corps of educators, experts
^he complete text of this law Vol. Ill, No. 4, June, 1909, p. 117.
was
in
physiology,
published in The Psychological Clihic,
(33)
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC.
34
practical psychology, who can skilfully diagnose growth and development, and take more intelligent steps The law provides for the coto conserve children and youths. with skilled physicians. of this class of educators operation law leaves The to city boards of health by implication (7) all matters pertaining to contagious and infectious diseases as a matter of public health. It implies the close cooperation of boards
hygiene,
and
defective
of health and education. The law is permissive, not
legislature
amendment two years of show to be advisable. It order that
mandatory. Undoubtedly the next compulsory, and add whatever practical application of the law may was intentionally made permissive in period should precede its compulsory
will make this law
an
enactment.
educational
The
state laws of
this character thus far enacted
are
experience in their application will sooner or later demonstrate what provisions are most helpful. The California law emphasizes the need of this work and gives power to accomplish it. The physical examinations specified are complete or may be made complete. A skilled and careful examiner is not restricted, more or
less
excellent,
and
but is left free to uncover any and all causes which interfere with the health, growth, and efficiency of pupils and teachers. That these examinations should be given in all schools under the control of boards of education, is self-evident. To establish time and the education of the public. While annual examination is advisable and sufficient for the majority of pupils, yet in many cases these examinations need to be more frequent, and in other instances may be less so.
them
simply requires
an
The department carrying on this work in California is given the power not only to examine and diagnose, but also to adjust school activities to health and growth needs and to development processes. This adjustment should be a part of the educational work of the
teaching force; but as schools are generally conducted, adjustment is either most unskilfully made, or not made at all. Educational work has been done too largely with the purpose of conveying information, and not of developing the pupils. There is very great need of placing the supervision of such adjustment in the hands of skilled experts, who will help the schools to be more nearly equal to the oversight of growing children and youths. It is agreed by everyone that health and growth examinations' of pupils, wherever they have been well conducted, have shown the presence of many pathological conditions of developthe
HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION.
*
35
merit, both in activities and in environment, which
deplete the health, growth, youths, making easy vigor the destructive work of the microbes of disease, and bringing about more or less inefficiency and degeneracy in adult life. To quote from a paper by Mr. George E. Johnson, Superintendent of the Playground Association of Pittsburgh,2 of children and
and
"It would take four disasters like that at Cleveland every school day in the year to keep pace with the march of death among And this loss, inconceivably school children of our land. .
great
as
it
is
is,
largely
within
.
our
.
power to
prevent."
"More than one-half of all the children born into the world die before they have reached man's estate; and seventy per cent of school children suffer some physical handicap, more or less
serious,
at the very threshold of life's opportunities." not the death rate during the school age, however
"It is or
small, that
is the
significant thing
for
thing
is whether in these years of Nature's weakness is being laid by for future years."
great
The
significant smiles, strength or
us.
What the schools are doing to conserve the efficiency of school children who in a few years will become adult citizens, may be judged from Mr. Ayres' discussion of "repeaters" in fifty-five American cities,3 in which he shows that out of 1,900,000 pupils, for the second, third, or even $14,000,000 annually, an expenditure which is largely wasteful. One may well add to this report that while repetition, elimination, and retardation are good barometers of school efficiency, they do not measure at all the failure
300,000
are
fourth time,
passing through at
of the schools to
to
a
bring
possible ignored in the It is not
grade
the health and
maximum.
a
a
total cost of
vigor
These conditions
and
efficiency
are too
of
youth
serious to be
future work of the schools. physical defects alone which cause all the retardation pupils in the schools. A more far-reaching cause is
exhibited by the wrong adjustment of school work
to health and
growth needs development processes. Physical and mental activities sire poorly proportioned, and there is a lack of sufficient motor exercise and sense training to develop normally the nervous centers. Special development periods are little heeded. Our system of education does not take into adequate account the inherited powers and tendencies of pupils. Nascent periods, Nature's develand to
Thb Psychological Clinic, Vol. Ill, No. 1, March, 1909, p. 14. ?Ayres, Leonard P. The Money Cost of the Repeater. The Psychological Clinic, Volume III, No. 2, April, 1909, p. 49.
36
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC.
opmient opportunities,
neglected. Physiological age, upon weight, height, strength, endurance, and scholarship primarily depend, is largely disregarded by our educational programme, which takes into consideration chronological age solely. In most high schools the pupils are treated most unintelligently at the age of puberty in the adjustment of school work to their physical and mental endurance. At a time when physical and functional development is the most urgent need of the pupil, the high schools draw too largely upon the strength and vitality reserved by 1STature for growth, and apply it to forced intellectual advancement. By this short-sighted course of action they limit the future intellectual and moral possibilities of many young lives. Pupils who have inherited tendencies to weakness are too little guarded at transition periods, when any undue stress and strain The large amount of juvenile crime and may bring disaster. which makes its appearance between twelve and fifteen insanity of is full of years age significance to educators. Prom the standpoint of building a sound nervous system, pupils are not treated with sufficient intelligence by the schools. It makes no practical difference whether the pupil knows a little more or a little less of the informational subjects of the curricuare
which,
lum.
It makes all the difference in the world whether the school
activities are building a sound nervous system and a normal mind, whether the routine of home and school is such as to call forth the best possible development in youth and prepare for the highest efficiency in adult life. When we do this well, we will not only attend to defective physical development, but will adapt physical and mental activities to meet development needs. In order that the schools may be equal to their opportunity to "grow" boys and girls intelligently, educators must be trained to make careful physical examinations and such mental examinations and tests
as
may be
practical, utilizing
the results of these
examinations for their guidance in a more intelligent handling of the pupils. The services of skilled physicians are, of course, most valuable in the schools, and can be made still more effective by the cooperation of trained educators. Why should a physician, whose work necessitates the highest skill in surgery and in the treatment of diseases where life and death hang in the balance, be expected to spend his entire time in making physical examinations at school, when in fact a large part of his technical knowledge is needed only in special phases of the work and in special cases? It may
37
HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION.
be held that this is a field of prophylaxis in medicine. It is also a field of prophylaxis in education, and is common to education,
sociology,
and medicine. It would be far more economical of human effort for educators skilled in this work to occupy this field jointly with physi-
taking charge of special cases where a more knowledge of disease is called for, and the educators conducting all the other examinations of growth and development necessary for the intelligent treatment of children and youths. Educators who do this work must be thoroughly trained in physical and mental diagnosis, "in physiology and applied hygiene and in clinical psychology. Such training would not necessarily lead to the degree of M.D. Indeed, the best training in this regard would prepare, not for the practice of medicine, but for the practice of essential and vital work in education. To this end special courses of training at universities and normal schools should be cians, the
latter
extensive
which will meet the need of the hour. It is often contended that educators can not acquire the skill essential for physical and mental diagnosis in this field of physiology, hygiene and practical psychology, and at the same time
inaugurated
acquire
the
pedagogical qualifications
of
an
Then let
educator.
those educators who hold such views take for all time a position of inferiority to physicians, who stand ready not only to take possession of this
field,
but also at the
same
time to render their
ser-
vices in the field of technical medicine.
Why
should
educators,
of whom the
public
has
a
right
to
demand skill in training boys and girls, be largely unequipped in this essential branch of work? Not all grade teachers, nor all principals and even superintendents, may be able with the informational and executive work required of them, to attain to special skill in this larger field,?the field of child psychology in its most useful form,?but the way should be opened to those who choose to develop in this direction. Until this ideal state of affairs is to occupy this field in the will continue attained, physicians
schools, giving such help and time as may be practical to superintendents, principals, and teachers, whose ability, however great in other ways, is markedly deficient in this essential field of educa-
tion.
certainly important that educators skilled in these by the state, with the same legal right of examination and diagnosis as is accorded to physicians, so that the educator and the physician may work on an equal footing in It is
matters
should be licensed
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC.
38 the
prevention
of disease and
of
inefficiency
in
so
also, development
far
can
as
serve
and
and to some extent and examinations diagnoses of growth The educator's field would this end.
degeneracy
hygiene of instruction and environment, that of the physician surgery and the expert treatment of diseases. So far as the writer knows, California is the first state in the Union to give legal recognition to this function of the skilled educa-
be the
tor, thereby extending and making more effective the work of experts in education, and bringing about a heartier cooperation between educators and
physicians.
The third clause under "purposes of health and development supervision" in the California law provides for the study of mental This special study retardation and deviation in the schools. a complete physical examination of the retarded pupil,
with
begins giving
basis upon which to adjust school activities to the health and growth needs and development processes of the individual child. It emphasizes the fact that the school room is a psychological a
where the
of retardation and
degeneration are prevention and cure of retardation and degeneration must be undertaken by the teaching force of the schools. Much of the sickness, untimely death, defect, and inefficiency, degeneracy in the world, is unquestionably due to unfortunate inheritance, but childhood is a period of latency in which hygienic environment and hygienic activity can overcome heredity and make possible a useful and normal adult life. It is the opportunity of the schools to deal skilfully with this problem, and to educate parents to cooperate with them in removing the barriers to normal development of the young. By the enactment of the law under discussion the California legislature has emphasized the value of this work. The California law further provides for all work generally included in sanitation, for expert supervision in the construction In the wording of the law the term of school buildings, etc. "Health and Development Supervision" represents a broader interpretation of school hygiene. The law throws a safeguard around the work by requiring both educators and physicians to take out health and development certificates. These certificates are issued by county boards of education to educators who hold life diplomas, and to physicians who Both educators are authorized to practice medicine and surgery. and physicians must hold in addition a recommendation of special fitness, issued by the state board of education. Discretionary
laboratory, to be
causes
found and remedied.
The
HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION.
39
power lies with the state board of education, upon whom rests the responsibility of molding the type of men and women who shall
conduct the work specified by the law in the schools of the state. The work is administrative and directive for all departments of education. A department of health and development is an
administrative body essential to every city county schools, the county superintendent's
headquarters of the it undoubtedly will
work. in
school
system.
For
office should be the
When the law becomes
mandatory,
as
few years, a state department must be under the immediate control of the state superintendent
organized of public instruction, tendents carry
out the
a
who will
see
provisions
that
city
and
county superin-
of the law.
Departments of health and development have been established Angeles, Pasadena, Berkeley, Oakland, Pomona, Redlands, Hollywood, Monrovia and probably by this time in other cities. It is but fair to Los Angeles to mention that the enactment of the present law was largely due to the initiative of the educators and physicians who make up the department in this city. A special course of training for educators in the subjects indicated in this paper is now in preparation by the department of education of the University of Southern California. Work of a similar character but less extensive, has been undertaken by the State Normal School at Los Angeles, and also by the Cumnock School of Expression in the same city, for the training of teachers, but not for the training of expert examiners. Stanford University is ready to give a thorough training to those who wish to become examiners, and the State University of California has inaugurated an admirable course of lectures on school hygiene. In the past, while universities everywhere have been offering courses in education, in psychology, and in medicine, it is nevertheless true that these courses have not been organized in such a way as to give adequate training for practical work in this most at
Los
vital field of education. The work of universities and normal schools must be recast and so directed as to turn out men and women who are competent to establish and carry on the work of
growth
and
development supervision.
Psychological
Clinic
Copyright, 1910, by Lightner Witmer, Editor.
Vol. IV.
April
No. 2.
HEALTH
15,
1910.
AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF CALIFORNIA. By George L.
Leslie,
Director in fJharge of Psychological Clinic and Development Work, Los
Angeles,
Gal.
legislature of California passed a law1 estabDevelopment Supervision in the public schools of the state, the term "Health and Development Supervision" was chosen instead of "Medical Supervision/' or "School Hygiene," because that term expressed most clearly the purpose of the When the
lishing
recent
Health and
work in the schools.
education
or
The California law authorizes boards of
boards of school trustees:
(1) To establish annual physical examinations of school pupils, with a follow-up service to secure the correction of defective development, thus maintaining continuous supervision of the health and growth of children and youths. (2) To require physical examination of all candidates for teachers' positions in the public schools, to determine their vitality and efficiency; to make such further examination of teachers as may be advisable to determine their continued fitness for work; and to determine what amount of work shall be required of the teaching force of the schools, consistent with efficiency and con-
tinued service. and
(3) To adjust school activities to health and growth needs development processes of pupils. (4) To study mental retardation and deviation of pupils in
the schools.
(5) (6)
To exercise To organize
expert sanitary supervision. a corps of educators, experts
^he complete text of this law Vol. Ill, No. 4, June, 1909, p. 117.
was
in
physiology,
published in The Psychological Clihic,
(33)
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC.
34
practical psychology, who can skilfully diagnose growth and development, and take more intelligent steps The law provides for the coto conserve children and youths. with skilled physicians. of this class of educators operation law leaves The to city boards of health by implication (7) all matters pertaining to contagious and infectious diseases as a matter of public health. It implies the close cooperation of boards
hygiene,
and
defective
of health and education. The law is permissive, not
legislature
amendment two years of show to be advisable. It order that
mandatory. Undoubtedly the next compulsory, and add whatever practical application of the law may was intentionally made permissive in period should precede its compulsory
will make this law
an
enactment.
educational
The
state laws of
this character thus far enacted
are
experience in their application will sooner or later demonstrate what provisions are most helpful. The California law emphasizes the need of this work and gives power to accomplish it. The physical examinations specified are complete or may be made complete. A skilled and careful examiner is not restricted, more or
less
excellent,
and
but is left free to uncover any and all causes which interfere with the health, growth, and efficiency of pupils and teachers. That these examinations should be given in all schools under the control of boards of education, is self-evident. To establish time and the education of the public. While annual examination is advisable and sufficient for the majority of pupils, yet in many cases these examinations need to be more frequent, and in other instances may be less so.
them
simply requires
an
The department carrying on this work in California is given the power not only to examine and diagnose, but also to adjust school activities to health and growth needs and to development processes. This adjustment should be a part of the educational work of the
teaching force; but as schools are generally conducted, adjustment is either most unskilfully made, or not made at all. Educational work has been done too largely with the purpose of conveying information, and not of developing the pupils. There is very great need of placing the supervision of such adjustment in the hands of skilled experts, who will help the schools to be more nearly equal to the oversight of growing children and youths. It is agreed by everyone that health and growth examinations' of pupils, wherever they have been well conducted, have shown the presence of many pathological conditions of developthe
HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION.
*
35
merit, both in activities and in environment, which
deplete the health, growth, youths, making easy vigor the destructive work of the microbes of disease, and bringing about more or less inefficiency and degeneracy in adult life. To quote from a paper by Mr. George E. Johnson, Superintendent of the Playground Association of Pittsburgh,2 of children and
and
"It would take four disasters like that at Cleveland every school day in the year to keep pace with the march of death among And this loss, inconceivably school children of our land. .
great
as
it
is
is,
largely
within
.
our
.
power to
prevent."
"More than one-half of all the children born into the world die before they have reached man's estate; and seventy per cent of school children suffer some physical handicap, more or less
serious,
at the very threshold of life's opportunities." not the death rate during the school age, however
"It is or
small, that
is the
significant thing
for
thing
is whether in these years of Nature's weakness is being laid by for future years."
great
The
significant smiles, strength or
us.
What the schools are doing to conserve the efficiency of school children who in a few years will become adult citizens, may be judged from Mr. Ayres' discussion of "repeaters" in fifty-five American cities,3 in which he shows that out of 1,900,000 pupils, for the second, third, or even $14,000,000 annually, an expenditure which is largely wasteful. One may well add to this report that while repetition, elimination, and retardation are good barometers of school efficiency, they do not measure at all the failure
300,000
are
fourth time,
passing through at
of the schools to
to
a
bring
possible ignored in the It is not
grade
the health and
maximum.
a
a
total cost of
vigor
These conditions
and
efficiency
are too
of
youth
serious to be
future work of the schools. physical defects alone which cause all the retardation pupils in the schools. A more far-reaching cause is
exhibited by the wrong adjustment of school work
to health and
growth needs development processes. Physical and mental activities sire poorly proportioned, and there is a lack of sufficient motor exercise and sense training to develop normally the nervous centers. Special development periods are little heeded. Our system of education does not take into adequate account the inherited powers and tendencies of pupils. Nascent periods, Nature's develand to
Thb Psychological Clinic, Vol. Ill, No. 1, March, 1909, p. 14. ?Ayres, Leonard P. The Money Cost of the Repeater. The Psychological Clinic, Volume III, No. 2, April, 1909, p. 49.
36
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC.
opmient opportunities,
neglected. Physiological age, upon weight, height, strength, endurance, and scholarship primarily depend, is largely disregarded by our educational programme, which takes into consideration chronological age solely. In most high schools the pupils are treated most unintelligently at the age of puberty in the adjustment of school work to their physical and mental endurance. At a time when physical and functional development is the most urgent need of the pupil, the high schools draw too largely upon the strength and vitality reserved by 1STature for growth, and apply it to forced intellectual advancement. By this short-sighted course of action they limit the future intellectual and moral possibilities of many young lives. Pupils who have inherited tendencies to weakness are too little guarded at transition periods, when any undue stress and strain The large amount of juvenile crime and may bring disaster. which makes its appearance between twelve and fifteen insanity of is full of years age significance to educators. Prom the standpoint of building a sound nervous system, pupils are not treated with sufficient intelligence by the schools. It makes no practical difference whether the pupil knows a little more or a little less of the informational subjects of the curricuare
which,
lum.
It makes all the difference in the world whether the school
activities are building a sound nervous system and a normal mind, whether the routine of home and school is such as to call forth the best possible development in youth and prepare for the highest efficiency in adult life. When we do this well, we will not only attend to defective physical development, but will adapt physical and mental activities to meet development needs. In order that the schools may be equal to their opportunity to "grow" boys and girls intelligently, educators must be trained to make careful physical examinations and such mental examinations and tests
as
may be
practical, utilizing
the results of these
examinations for their guidance in a more intelligent handling of the pupils. The services of skilled physicians are, of course, most valuable in the schools, and can be made still more effective by the cooperation of trained educators. Why should a physician, whose work necessitates the highest skill in surgery and in the treatment of diseases where life and death hang in the balance, be expected to spend his entire time in making physical examinations at school, when in fact a large part of his technical knowledge is needed only in special phases of the work and in special cases? It may
37
HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION.
be held that this is a field of prophylaxis in medicine. It is also a field of prophylaxis in education, and is common to education,
sociology,
and medicine. It would be far more economical of human effort for educators skilled in this work to occupy this field jointly with physi-
taking charge of special cases where a more knowledge of disease is called for, and the educators conducting all the other examinations of growth and development necessary for the intelligent treatment of children and youths. Educators who do this work must be thoroughly trained in physical and mental diagnosis, "in physiology and applied hygiene and in clinical psychology. Such training would not necessarily lead to the degree of M.D. Indeed, the best training in this regard would prepare, not for the practice of medicine, but for the practice of essential and vital work in education. To this end special courses of training at universities and normal schools should be cians, the
latter
extensive
which will meet the need of the hour. It is often contended that educators can not acquire the skill essential for physical and mental diagnosis in this field of physiology, hygiene and practical psychology, and at the same time
inaugurated
acquire
the
pedagogical qualifications
of
an
Then let
educator.
those educators who hold such views take for all time a position of inferiority to physicians, who stand ready not only to take possession of this
field,
but also at the
same
time to render their
ser-
vices in the field of technical medicine.
Why
should
educators,
of whom the
public
has
a
right
to
demand skill in training boys and girls, be largely unequipped in this essential branch of work? Not all grade teachers, nor all principals and even superintendents, may be able with the informational and executive work required of them, to attain to special skill in this larger field,?the field of child psychology in its most useful form,?but the way should be opened to those who choose to develop in this direction. Until this ideal state of affairs is to occupy this field in the will continue attained, physicians
schools, giving such help and time as may be practical to superintendents, principals, and teachers, whose ability, however great in other ways, is markedly deficient in this essential field of educa-
tion.
certainly important that educators skilled in these by the state, with the same legal right of examination and diagnosis as is accorded to physicians, so that the educator and the physician may work on an equal footing in It is
matters
should be licensed
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC.
38 the
prevention
of disease and
of
inefficiency
in
so
also, development
far
can
as
serve
and
and to some extent and examinations diagnoses of growth The educator's field would this end.
degeneracy
hygiene of instruction and environment, that of the physician surgery and the expert treatment of diseases. So far as the writer knows, California is the first state in the Union to give legal recognition to this function of the skilled educa-
be the
tor, thereby extending and making more effective the work of experts in education, and bringing about a heartier cooperation between educators and
physicians.
The third clause under "purposes of health and development supervision" in the California law provides for the study of mental This special study retardation and deviation in the schools. a complete physical examination of the retarded pupil,
with
begins giving
basis upon which to adjust school activities to the health and growth needs and development processes of the individual child. It emphasizes the fact that the school room is a psychological a
where the
of retardation and
degeneration are prevention and cure of retardation and degeneration must be undertaken by the teaching force of the schools. Much of the sickness, untimely death, defect, and inefficiency, degeneracy in the world, is unquestionably due to unfortunate inheritance, but childhood is a period of latency in which hygienic environment and hygienic activity can overcome heredity and make possible a useful and normal adult life. It is the opportunity of the schools to deal skilfully with this problem, and to educate parents to cooperate with them in removing the barriers to normal development of the young. By the enactment of the law under discussion the California legislature has emphasized the value of this work. The California law further provides for all work generally included in sanitation, for expert supervision in the construction In the wording of the law the term of school buildings, etc. "Health and Development Supervision" represents a broader interpretation of school hygiene. The law throws a safeguard around the work by requiring both educators and physicians to take out health and development certificates. These certificates are issued by county boards of education to educators who hold life diplomas, and to physicians who Both educators are authorized to practice medicine and surgery. and physicians must hold in addition a recommendation of special fitness, issued by the state board of education. Discretionary
laboratory, to be
causes
found and remedied.
The
HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT SUPERVISION.
39
power lies with the state board of education, upon whom rests the responsibility of molding the type of men and women who shall
conduct the work specified by the law in the schools of the state. The work is administrative and directive for all departments of education. A department of health and development is an
administrative body essential to every city county schools, the county superintendent's
headquarters of the it undoubtedly will
work. in
school
system.
For
office should be the
When the law becomes
mandatory,
as
few years, a state department must be under the immediate control of the state superintendent
organized of public instruction, tendents carry
out the
a
who will
see
provisions
that
city
and
county superin-
of the law.
Departments of health and development have been established Angeles, Pasadena, Berkeley, Oakland, Pomona, Redlands, Hollywood, Monrovia and probably by this time in other cities. It is but fair to Los Angeles to mention that the enactment of the present law was largely due to the initiative of the educators and physicians who make up the department in this city. A special course of training for educators in the subjects indicated in this paper is now in preparation by the department of education of the University of Southern California. Work of a similar character but less extensive, has been undertaken by the State Normal School at Los Angeles, and also by the Cumnock School of Expression in the same city, for the training of teachers, but not for the training of expert examiners. Stanford University is ready to give a thorough training to those who wish to become examiners, and the State University of California has inaugurated an admirable course of lectures on school hygiene. In the past, while universities everywhere have been offering courses in education, in psychology, and in medicine, it is nevertheless true that these courses have not been organized in such a way as to give adequate training for practical work in this most at
Los
vital field of education. The work of universities and normal schools must be recast and so directed as to turn out men and women who are competent to establish and carry on the work of
growth
and
development supervision.
