Arch Sex Behav DOI 10.1007/s10508-014-0456-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Gender Differences in Object of Desire Self-Consciousness Sexual Fantasies Anthony F. Bogaert • Beth A. Visser • Julie A. Pozzebon

Received: 26 October 2013 / Revised: 8 April 2014 / Accepted: 12 October 2014  Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Abstract In a recent review article, Bogaert and Brotto (2014) discussed‘‘object of desire self-consciousness,’’a perception that oneisromanticallyandsexuallydesirableinanother’seyes.They argued that this perception is more relevant to women’s sociosexual functioning than it is to men’s. In the present study, we attempted to find direct evidence that object of desire themes are linked more to women’s sexual desire and arousal than they are to men’s by examining the differences in content between men’s and women’s sexual fantasies. A total of 198 men and women reported on arousing themes in sexual fantasies using three methodologies: endorsement of items on a sexual fantasy questionnaire, sentence completion of sexually-charged scenarios, and open-ended sexual fantasies. The men and women also rated their attractiveness and were rated for attractiveness by two female experimenters. On all three fantasy composites, women endorsed more object of desire themes than did men, and these effectsoccurredindependent ofthesubjectiveand observer-rated attractiveness measures. The results were discussed in relation to theorizing that object of desire self-consciousness can function as part of many women’s self-schemata or scripts related to romance and sexuality.

A. F. Bogaert (&) Departments of Health Sciences and Psychology, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Ave., St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada e-mail: [email protected] B. A. Visser Psychology Department, Trent University, Oshawa, ON, Canada J. A. Pozzebon Toronto, ON, Canada

Keywords Object of desire self-consciousness  Sexual fantasies  Attractiveness  Gender differences

Introduction Bogaert and Brotto (2014) recently introduced and reviewed evidence for ‘‘object of desire self-consciousness’’ (ODSC), an integrative construct that builds on observations made by scholars in a variety of disciplines (e.g., Berger, 1972; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Meana, 2010; Money & Ehrhardt, 1972; Symons, 1987). ODSC refers to the perception that one is romantically and sexually desirable in another’s eyes. ODSC may take the form of phrases like‘‘he wants me’’or‘‘she thinks I am hot’’in self-talk. Although overt self-talk of this nature is not a necessity for object of desire perceptions to occur, such phrases capture the (often implicit) cognitions and meanings underlying the ODSC construct. ODSC is a type of reflected appraisal (e.g., Felson, 1985); thus, how we believe others perceive us is a defining characteristic of the construct. As a perception, however, ODSC may not reflect an accurate assessment of another’s views. A person may, for example, inaccurately perceive that others find him or her desirable. In addition, a person may imagine that others find him or her as desirable in a sexual or romantic fantasy. In both cases, these perceptions—as in the case of an accurate perception of one’s desirability—are still relevant to a person’s social-sexual functioning according to ODSC theory (Bogaert & Brotto, 2014). ODSC can occur as a perception independent of existing schemata,but a key featureof ODSC theory isthat it often functions as part of a cognitive structure related to body image, romance, and/ or sexuality. In particular, Bogaert and Brotto (2014) posited that ODSC often forms part of an ‘‘event schema’’ or script related to romance and sexuality. Thus, when someone experiences

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ODSC, this may activate, in a relatively automatic or seamless way, a series of cognitive and behavioral responses associated with romantic and/or sexual events. Bogaert and Brotto provided the example of a woman who experiences ODSC when an attractive man gazes at her attentively. Her ODSC activates a series of responses related to romance and sexuality, including a hair-flip, an (unconscious) sign that she finds his attention flattering and is potentially interested in romantic/sexual activities (e.g., Givens, 1978). If ODSC is important in romantic and sexual functioning, including forming part of a romance or sexual script, it is often likely an arousing and pleasing perception, particularly if it occurs within an idyllic sexual/romantic sequence of events. Thus, ODSC should operate beyond‘‘cold’’cognitive processes andinclude‘‘hot’’oraffective(e.g.,pleasure,excitement,arousal) processes. ODSC’s linkage to arousal and other affective states is consistent withthenotion that sexuality/romanceis alarge source of arousal and pleasure for many people. It is also consistent with social cognitive theorists who posit that cognitive processing, including schemata, often respond to affective primes and are tied to emotion (e.g., motivated cognition) (e.g., Dunning, 1999; Kruglanski, 1996; Kunda, 1990). As ODSC is hypothesized to operate schematically as part of sexual and/or romantic scripts, it should be partly independent of related individual difference constructs such as subjective or selfrated physical attractiveness. To illustrate this point, Bogaert and Brotto (2014) provided an example of a teenage girl schematic for ODSC but whose subjective attractiveness was low. Thus, despite perceiving herself as low in attractiveness, she was preoccupied with beauty and object of desire concerns. She was very attentive to men’s looks at her, and was preoccupied with beautiful female models/actresses in the media. She regularly dreamt about being a beautiful and sexy object of desire in both her romantic and sexual fantasies, and these were arousing perceptions in her fantasies. She also regularly psychically‘‘projected’’ herself onto the female models/actresses in fashion magazines or other media, fantasizing that she too was an object of desire. Thus, for this teenager, her subjective attractiveness—whether low or high—may not play a large role in the production of object of desire perceptions in her sexual fantasies per se; rather, ODSC plays a large role in her fantasies because it forms an important event in her sexual schemata (i.e., sexual/romantic scripts). Gender Differences in ODSC Bogaert and Brotto (2014)arguedthat bothmenand women have instances of ODSC and both can have ODSC as an integral cognitive event within their sexual and romantic scripts. However, Bogaert and Brotto argued that ODSC is more relevant to women’s sociosexual development (e.g., forming part of their scripts) than it is to men’s. There are a number of interrelated reasons for this putative gender difference in ODSC. First, men’s attractiveness (relative to women’s) is more related to external

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factors such as behavior (e.g., social dominance) or resources and less related to physical appearance (e.g., Buss, 1989; Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Thus, men’s body image perceptions and ODSC themes are less likely to develop as part of their self-concept and sexual scripts. In addition, men’s sexuality, relative to women’s, is often more attuned to visual stimuli (e.g., as evidenced by the consumption of visually-based pornography) (Salmon, 2012; Symons, 1979) and is less receptive/responsive and more proceptive (or initiating) in nature (e.g., Basson, 2002; Meana, 2010; Wallen, 1995). It is also less self-focused (Meana, 2010) and more prone to objectification of their prospective sexual partners (e.g., Bossio, Spape, Lykins, & Chivers, 2013; Janssen, Carpenter, & Graham, 2003; Money & Erhardt, 1972). As a result, heterosexual men, relative to heterosexual women, are more likely to initiate sexual activity and are more likely to visually attend to and objectify the bodies of the other sex. Such attention from men, even if unwanted, may make adolescent girls and young women prone to internalize the notion—and form sexual/ romantic scripts consistent with it—that romantic/sexual activity often begins with women as objects of desire. Bogaert and Brotto (2014) reviewed literature from diverse disciplines and found that ODSC plays a strong role in many heterosexual women’ssexual/romanticscriptsandoverall sexual functioning. This review included studies on sexual preferences, sexual behaviors, sexual dysfunctions, response and consumption of the media, and sexual fantasies. For example, in a qualitative study, Graham, Sanders, Milhausen, and McBride (2004) reported on young women’s sexual desires and preferences. An important theme that emerged was that a woman’s body often needs to feel attractive to her before she desires sexual activity. A woman reported:‘‘My hair is just right and everything is working and it’s much easier for me to feel aroused…’’(p. 532). Related, evidence for the importance of ODSC in women’s sociosexuality exists in the literature on sexual dysfunctions. For example, Basson (2002) has formulated a model of women’s desire in the context of sexual dysfunctions. In her model, she emphasized women’s receptivity/responsivity in sexual activities, arguing that women’s sexual desire often emerges in the context of their ‘‘…heightened sense of attraction and attractiveness’’ (p. 18). Supportive of this notion, sex therapists have found in clinical interviews that middle-aged women’s sexual desire is significantly enhanced if they perceive their husbands have desire for them (Brotto, Heiman, & Tolman, 2009). Additional support for ODSC in women’s romantic and sexual functioning is observed in their consumption and response to the media. For example, women’s arousal to standard pornography has been found to be partly a reflection of positive projective identification (Janssen et al., 2003; cf. Money & Ehrhardt, 1972), i.e., identifying with female actors who are visual objects of men’s desire and the targets of their sexual actions. Thus, women viewers are often turned on by projecting themselves onto the female characters portrayed as objects of men’s desire. Conversely, men’s arousal to pornography is often derived from

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other elements of its content, including the attractiveness of the bodies of the female actors (e.g., Janssen et al., 2003). Some additional evidence for heterosexual men’s arousal to ‘‘objectifying’’femaleactorsandtheirbodiesinheterosexual couplesexis found in recent research on observational stance by Bossio et al. (2013). The general media has long been noted for its portrayal of women as objects of men’s romantic and sexual desires. For example, Berger (1972; see also Fowles, 1996; Goffman, 1979; Messaris, 1997; Mulvey, 1975) noted that female models and actresses are often portrayed as if they‘‘were aware of being seen by a [male] spectator’’(p. 49). For example, they may be shown adopting a coy look while staring at the camera as if it is a (male) viewer. This phenomenon has been termed the‘‘male gaze.’’The ubiquity of these images in the media (and hence women’s exposure to it) suggests that ODSC is likely to develop as a relevant theme in many women’s romantic and sexual functioning. It also suggests that these images in the media, much of which is consumed by women (e.g., in fashion magazines and other women’s media forums), portray for many women ODSC themes that resonate with their sexual/romantic scripts. The appeal of these images to women, like their arousal to pornography, may operate in part through positive projective identification, although in a less explicit and more romantic manner (see Bogaert & Brotto, 2014). Sexual Fantasies The most compelling evidence for ODSC playing a larger role in women’s (versus men’s) sociosexual functioning should emerge from sexual fantasies. This is so because sexual fantasies usually reflect an individual’s true desires and not a compromise of desires between people, as is often the case in partnered sexual behavior (Ellis & Symons, 1990; Leitenberg & Henning, 1995). Fantasies are also less restricted than behavior by social norms. Thus,ifobjectofdesirethemestrulyplayalargerroleinwomen’s sociosexual functioning than they do in men’s, then gender differences in ODSC should appear in fantasy content. In addition, fantasies often have elaborate story-lines or script-like properties (i.e., roles/characters and a plot), and this is particularly so for women’s fantasies (e.g., Leitenberg & Henning, 1995; Maltz & Boss, 1997). Thus, fantasies should offer some of the best evidence of ODSC in women’s sexual scripts. In a large qualitative study of women’s sexual fantasies, Maltz and Boss (1997) reported that women’s fantasies often contained object of desire themes. They indicated that the most common story-line follows a‘‘pretty maiden’’script. In these scripts, women portray themselves as beautiful objects of desire for a powerful and (more) experienced man. Although not directly stated by Maltz and Boss in at least three other common fantasy scripts there was strong evidence that object of desire themes are evident and enhance women’s sexual arousal/pleasure. For example, another relatively common script is the‘‘beloved’’form. In the

fantasy chosen by Maltz and Boss (1997) to represent this script, a woman writes about her imaginary lover: ‘‘He has spent the day showering me with attention, listening to me over lunch, looking at me with a burning desire as we walked (p. 38).’’Maltz and Boss also noted that a common script in women’s fantasies was‘‘the victim.’’ These victimization/coercion narratives may too reflect ODSC themes, in particular, an ‘‘irresistibility’’ theme. In the context of a woman’s sexual fantasy, if a man uses force against her, it may be seen by her as a sign of her irresistible beauty (see also Bivona & Critelli, 2009; Bivona, Critelli, & Clark, 2012; Bond & Mosher, 1986; Hariton, 1973). The literature reviewed above, including that on common sexual scripts in women’s fantasies, is supportive of the notion that women’s sociosexual functioning includes a relatively high level of object of desire themes. However, this research is largely anecdotal. For example, to our knowledge, there has never been a direct comparison between men’s and women’s fantasies for the prevalence of object of desire themes. The Present Study Here we attempted to find direct evidence that object of desire themes are linked more to women’s sexuality than they are to men’s by examining content in three types of sexual fantasies. Specifically, we assessed ODSC content in men and women’s fantasies. We predicted that more ODSC themes would occur in women’s versus men’s sexual fantasies. As mentioned, ODSC is argued to play an important role in women’s sociosexual functioning, including forming part of their sexual scripts, often occurring as an arousing perception in their fantasies, but this arousing perception (e.g., in one’s fantasies) may be independent of their (subjective) attractiveness. To demonstrate that object of desire perceptions often occur (e.g., in arousing fantasies) without necessarily being linked to one’s own attractiveness, we also assessed men’s and women’s physical attractiveness, both subjective (self-rated) and observer-rated attractiveness. Thus, we expectedthatODSCshouldbepartiallyindependentoftherelated construct of (subjective) attractiveness and, consequently, evidence of elevated ODSC themes in women’s fantasies should occur with and without controlling for subjective attractiveness.

Method Participants and Procedure Participants were 98 men and 100 women affiliated with a Canadian university. The mean age of the participants was 19.80 (SD = 2.17). The majority of participants were White (82 %), 4.5 % were Asian, 3.5 % were Black, and the remainder (6 %) reported an ‘‘other’’ (or did not report their) ethnicity. For descriptive statistics for the entire sample, see Table 1.

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Arch Sex Behav Table 1 Descriptive statistics for ODSC and attractiveness variables by gender, and results from gender comparisons Women (n = 100) M (SD) Subjective attractiveness

4.88 (0.97)

Men (n = 98) M (SD)

t

d

p

5.09 (.89)

-1.52

-.23

ns

\1

-.11

ns

Observer attractiveness

3.89 (1.17)

4.03 (1.29)

ODSC (SFQ)

1.85 (0.53)

1.49 ( 0.86)

3.55

.53

.001

11.04 (2.84)

6.49 (3.10)

10.23

1.53

.001

3.04 (2.57)

2.13 (1.94)

2.81

.40

.005

ODSC (scenarios) ODSC (open)

ODSC object of desire self-consciousness, SFQ sexual fantasy questionnaire (ipsitized values, reflecting an ODSC score controlling participant’s endorsement of total SFQ), Open Open-ended fantasy narratives

Advertising occurred on the university’s psychology research participation website. Posters advertising volunteer participation were also placed throughout the school for recruitment. Participants received either two research participation credits or $20. After reading and signing a consent form, participants received the research package, which took approximately 1 h to complete. Participants were tested in groups of 3–20. Although group testing occurred, separate cubicles with curtains were provided for each participant to increase privacy. Upon completion of the study, participants were debriefed. Measures The questionnaire package consisted of general demographics (e.g., age, race/ethnicity, gender) and the following measures. Attractiveness Subjective or self-rated physical attractiveness level was assessed with three questionnaire items:‘‘How physically attractive do you think you are?’’,‘‘How sexually appealing do you think you are?’’, and‘‘How do you think a stranger would rate your physical attractiveness?’’ The responses were rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = well below average, 7 = well above average). The overall attractiveness score was the mean of the three items, with a higher score indicating a higher subjective physical attractiveness rating. The Cronbach alpha for these three items was .92. The attractiveness data used in this study have been previously reported in other studies unrelated to ODSC (Pozzebon, Visser, & Bogaert, 2012; Visser, Pozzebon, Bogaert, & Ashton, 2010). Observer ratings of physical attractiveness were conducted independently by two female Ph.D.-level research associates. As in the subjective or self-ratings, these were completed according to a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (well below average) to 7 (well above average). Assessment of these independent ratings showed a high inter-rater reliability among the researchers, r(141) = .82, p\.001. The mean of the two ratings were used. The observer and subjective self-ratings of attractiveness were moderately related, r(198) = .28, p\.001, suggesting that they are not completely overlapping constructs (see Pozzebon et al., 2012).

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Sexual Fantasies Sexual fantasies were assessed using three methodologies: endorsement of items on a sexual fantasy questionnaire (SFQ), sentence completion of sexually-charged scenarios, and openended sexual fantasies. Scales reflecting object of desire themes were constructed on these three measures of sexual fantasies (see below). The creation of the SFQ and the sexually-charged scenarios, along with the coding for the open-ended fantasies, were guided by literature suggesting that certain themes (e.g., irresistibility themes, evidence of others wanting to touch my body see Bogaert & Brotto, 2014) were relevant to ODSC. Sexual Fantasy Questionnaire (SFQ) Aside from ODSC, other themes (e.g., commitment vs. non-commitment, explicitness, roughness/coercion, romantic gestures/situations, and dominance/submission) were included on the SFQ. The SFQ was created for the purposes of this study and for future research by the second and third authors, who have training and experience in test construction and psychological measurement. The scale was developed by these authors using a rational test construction strategy (e.g., Ashton, 2013; Knudson & Golding, 1974), and by the first author, who articulated the original ODSC construct, and who reviewed all ODSC-relevant items for theoretical relevance. In total, this questionnaire contained 62 fantasy items (see Appendix). The participants indicated their arousal to these items on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all exciting to 7 = extremely exciting). Of the 62 items on the SFQ, 23 were deemed by the authors (prior to analyses) to be relevant to ODSC theory. Examples of items with an object of desire theme were:‘‘Showing off mybodytoteaseandarouseonlookers’’and‘‘Mypartnershowing me how much he/she desires my body.’’ To control for overall endorsement of all items on the SFQ, ipsatized (means-centered) scores were used. Thus, each participant received an ODSC score relative to his or her total score on the SFQ. Cronbach’s alpha for the 23 items relevant to ODSC was .76. Scenarios Four sexually charged scenarios (noticing/meeting attractivepersonduringclass; romantic getaway; goingtoaparty; one-night stand) were created for this study (see Appendix). Each had a set-up sentence or two that introduced the scenario. For example, in the romantic getaway scenario, the following sentences introduced the scene: My partner has planned a special

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weekend getaway for just the two of us. We have a romantic candlelight dinner and linger over our drinks. After reading the set-up, participants were asked to complete various plot-related sentences in the way that he/she would find sexually arousing. Three scenarios (i.e., romantic getaway; going to a party; onenight stand) had 6 sentences while the other scenario (noticing/ meeting attractive person during class) had 5 sentences that the participants completed with one of two or three options. There were a total of 23 sentences, 22 of which were deemed by the authors (prior to analyses) to be relevant to ODSC theory. In the romantic getaway scenario, an example object of desire theme occurred when a participant completed the sentence‘‘I’m becoming increasingly turned on’’ with the option of ‘‘the desire I am arousing in my partner’’(versus the option of‘‘the desire for my partner’’). Another ODSC example in this scenario occurred when the participant completed the sentence‘‘I begin to get aroused by’’with the option of‘‘the way my partner looks at my body’’(versus‘‘the sight of my partner’s body’’). In each of the 21 sentences relevant to ODSC, if the participant chose the option corresponding to ODSC, he/she was coded as 1 for that sentence; if the participant chose another, non-ODSC option, they received a 0 for that sentence. Cronbach’s Alpha for the 22 sentence completions relevant to ODSC was .71. Open-ended Fantasies For the open-ended fantasies (see also Visser, DeBow, Pozzebon, Bogaert, & Book, 2014), the following instructions were provided to the participants: Most men and women experience sexual fantasies. Please take a moment to imagine a sexual fantasy that you find particularly arousing or pleasurable. Describe the fantasy including your feelings, desires, and activities at each stage of the fantasy—that is, what events and feelings led up to the encounter and what events and feelings occurred during the encounter? Please include any and all information that is important in making your fantasy sexually arousing. Just remember: your responses are completely anonymous. Take your time. Note that we highlighted to participants that they should provide detail relevant to their own arousal (‘‘…include any and all information that is important in making your fantasy sexually arousing.’’). ODSC themes, 16 in total, were coded for in the open-ended fantasies (see Appendix). Examples of ODSC

themes coded in the open-ended fantasies were self showing off body and what self is doing is irresistible. Each participant received a score ranging from 0 to 16 reflecting the number of ODSC themes evident in his/her fantasy. The Cronbach’s alpha for these 16 ODSC themes was .74. The coding of the fantasies was performed by a M.A.-level student naive to the hypothesis; however, a small portion (50) of the fantasies was also coded by an Honours’ psychology student to assess inter-rater reliability. There was moderately high agreement between the two raters, r(50) = .69, p\.01.

Results To test for gender differences in ODSC themes on the three composite measures of fantasies (SFQ, sentence completion of sexually-charged scenarios, and open-ended sexual fantasies), independent t-tests were conducted. As shown in Table 1, on all three fantasies measures, women exceeded men in their frequency/endorsement of ODSC themes (all ps\.01). The effect sizes using Cohen’s d ranged from small/medium (.40) to large (1.53) in magnitude. Zero-order correlations were calculated among the attractiveness and ODSC composite measures. As shown in Table 2, subjective and observer-rated attractiveness predicted ODSC themes on the SFQ, but not on the other two measures of fantasies. In addition, three multiple regression analyses were conducted, one for each of the ODSC scores from the three sexual fantasy measures. Gender (women = 0; men = 1), subjective attractiveness, and observer-rated attractiveness were used as predictors. Also, product terms were formed between the gender and attractiveness measures to examine if there were any Gender X Attractiveness interactions predicting ODSC themes. These product terms were entered after the main effect measures of gender and the two attractiveness measures. On all three fantasy composites, gender main effects occurred, with women exhibiting more object of desire themes than men (betas ranged from -.20 to -.63; all ps\.01; see Table 3). Observer rated attractiveness did not predict ODSC themes, but subjective attractiveness did predict ODSC themes on one of the sexual fantasy measures:SFQ(beta = .23,p\.01).Therealsowassomeevidence

Table 2 Correlations among attractiveness and ODSC measures Subjective attractiveness Subjective attractiveness Observer attractiveness ODSC (SFQ) ODSC (scenarios)

Observer attractiveness .28*

ODSC (SFQ)

ODSC (Scenarios)

ODSC (Open)

.22*

.04

.04

.13

.06

-.01

.30*

.06 .20*

ODSC (open) N = 176–198. ODSC object of desire self-consciousness, SFQ sexual fantasy questionnaire, Open open-ended fantasy narratives * p\.05

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Arch Sex Behav Table 3 Multiple regression analyses of gender and attractiveness predicting ODSC measures (SFQ, scenarios, and open-ended fantasies) Predictor

ODSC (SFQ) b

ODSC (scenarios) b

ODSC (open) b

Gender

-.28*

-.63*

-.20*

Subjective attractiveness

.23*

.08

.06

Objective attractiveness

.08

.10

-.01

R2

.13

.39

.04

N = 100 women, 98 men. Men were coded 1, women were coded as 0. ODSC object of desire self-consciousness, SFQ sexual fantasy questionnaire. Open Open-ended fantasy narratives * p\.01. No significant interactions between gender and the attractiveness measures occurred, although a Gender 9 Subjective attractiveness interaction effect was marginally significant (p = .08), predicting open-ended fantasies (see Fig. 1) 12

Men Women

ODSC

10 8 6 4 2 0

2

3

4

5

6

7

Subjective Attractiveness

Fig. 1 The prediction of ODSC (open-ended fantasies) from subjective attractiveness and gender

of moderation (marginally, p\.09) by subjective attractiveness in the open-ended fantasies only. Women high in subjective attractiveness were more likely to exhibit these themes relative to women low in subjective attractiveness and to men regardless of their subjective attractiveness (Fig. 1). However, given that this interactive effect was marginal, this result should be interpreted with caution.

Discussion As predicted, gender differences emerged in ODSC on all three measures of sexual fantasies. Thus, relative to men, women included ODSC themes with a high degree of frequency in their fantasies and reported such themes in their fantasies as relatively arousing. These findings support Bogaert and Brotto’s (2014) ODSC theory, along with their review of literature on ODSC and sociosexual functioning. For example, it was consistent with qualitative research on the importance of object of desire themes in women’s sexual fantasies (Maltz & Boss, 1987). These themes likely form part of many women’s sexual scripts and thus emerge frequently as arousing content in the storylines of their fantasies.

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There was also some evidence for subjective (self-rated) attractiveness predicting object of desire themes. For example, in one regression analysis, subjective attractiveness predicted ODSC themes in sexual fantasies (on the SFQ) and, in another, subjective attractiveness (marginally) interacted with gender to predict ODSC themes in the open-ended fantasies. Thus, one’s own perception of one’s ability to attract romantic/sexual interest may be partially relevant to creating object of desire themes in one’s fantasies. Subjective attractiveness is a complex construct. Along with some overlap with more ‘‘objective’’ (or observer-rated) attractiveness, also observed in the present study (r = .28, p\.001), subjective attractiveness likely reflects individual differences in such constructs as self-esteem and narcissism (e.g., BleskeRechek, Remiker, & Baker, 2008; Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994). It would beinteresting to assess these constructs (e.g., narcissism) in future research on sexual fantasies, as the overlap of subjective attractiveness with‘‘objective’’(observer-rated) attractiveness is likely not driving the production of ODSC themes in sexual fantasies. For narcissists, ODSC themes may emerge in their sexual scripts less as an important element contributing to their desire/ arousal per se and more as an expectation that the veneration of one’s self is (or should be) the center of any story, sexual or otherwise. Verification of such a speculation, however, requires testing in future research. It is unclear why subjective attractiveness predicted ODSC on the SFQ but did not significantly predict ODSC on the other measures (e.g., only a marginal interaction on another measure, the open-ended fantasies). One possible reason is that the SFQ and subjective attractiveness measures shared method variance; i.e., both were responded to on 7-point Likert scales, and thus potentially evoked similar response tendencies for some participants. Given that this explanation is speculative, however, and subjective attractiveness is, as noted above, a complex construct, more research is needed on subjective attractiveness and its possible relation to ODSC in fantasies. In contrast to subjective attractiveness’s modest relations to ODSC, gender was a consistent predictor of ODSC on all three fantasy measures, and occurred with or without controlling for subjective attractiveness. Clearly, women are creating (and potentially turned on) by these themes more than are men, even independent of their own tendency to view themselves as attractive or not. Thus, even if women view themselves as unattractive (realistically or not), ODSC themes can still play a large role in their sociosexual functioning. As mentioned in the Introduction, for many women, subjective attractiveness—whether low or high—may not play a large role in the production of object of desire perceptions in their sexual fantasies because these (fantasy) perceptions are often still important events in their sexual schemata (i.e., sexual/romantic scripts). We also expect that women who are not subjectively attractive, yet have these ODSC fantasies, are similar to anyone who wishes/fantasizes for something that is highly valuable but is

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(potentially) beyond their reach in reality. For example, one woman wrote in her open-ended fantasy:‘‘I am usually thinner in my fantasies.’’ Such fantasies may be unrealistic (e.g., include improbable notions of sexiness/beauty/irresistibility) but, of course, they reflect the partly unrealistic nature of all fantasies. Thus, these ODSC fantasies may stem from the understandably strong interest/desire to be attractive on the part of these women (given its importance in the mating marketplace), along with the strong objectifying influences on many women, attractive and not attractive alike. As a consequence, object of desire themes may still appear in their sexual fantasies (and form an event in their sexual scripts) regardless of the woman’s attractiveness. It is of note that the gender effects ranged from small/medium to large, suggesting that the differences in ODSC fantasy content are not trivial. Interestingly, the largest gender difference occurred in the scenarios, which had a forced choice format. The choices in this format were likely construable as clear and unambiguous, often posing options between being an object of desire and viewing one’s partner as an object of desire. Thus, ODSC themes/imagery may have readily become a salient (or not a salient) fantasy theme for participants. In this study, we did not attempt to provide evidence for developmental processes underlying gender differences in ODSC. As mentioned,genderdifferencesintheproductionofODSCthemes, particularlyastheyrelatetosexualscripts,likelyemergeinresponse to a number of factors, including women’s (versus men’s) responsivity/receptivity of sexual functioning (e.g., Basson, 2002) and their internalization of strong socio/cultural influences on objectifying women’s bodies (e.g., Berger, 1972; Frederickson, Roberts,Noll,Quinn,&Twenge1998;McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Mulvey, 1975; for a review, see Bogaert & Brotto, 2014). In their review, Bogaert and Brotto (2014) also suggested that ODSC may be an evolved psychological mechanism.Inthe same way that humans evolved mate recognition mechanisms directing us to desirable mates (e.g., sexual orientation is likely one of these mechanisms), we likely have evolved mechanisms allowing us to detect that others find us sexually and romantically desirable (e.g., Ellis, 1992; Symons, 1987). ODSC may be one of these mechanisms. Other mechanisms may be relevant as well, suchassocial comparisonprocesses(e.g.,Gilbert,Price, &Allen, 1995). Such knowledge of one’s own desirability affords a tactical perspective on one’s mate value (cf. Buss & Shackelford, 2008; Ellis, 1992; Schmitt & Buss, 1996). This knowledge may be particularly important in women’s (versus men’s) sociosexual functioning as it makes them competitive in the sexual market place (e.g., Baumeister & Vohs, 2004), given that men place a high value on physical attractiveness in their romantic/sexual partners (see Bogaert & Brotto, 2014). If ODSC is an evolved mechanism, it raises the question about whether object of desire themes in one’s fantasies in modern contexts are adaptive or at least ‘‘useful’’in some way. As mentioned, ODSC fantasies may include improbable notions of sexiness/beauty/irresistibility and, hence, may be distortions of

reality. As such, in realistic moments, these fantasies may lead to negative self-evaluations because one’s own real-life desirability maynotliveuptothesefantasyideals(cf.Fredrickson& Roberts, 1997; McKinley & Hyde, 1996). Related, it is important to remember that ODSC may have been adaptive in ancestral environments, but it may be less than useful in modern societies where the media bombards women with extreme, unrealistic, and supernormal imagery of feminine beauty. On the other hand, there may be some‘‘usefulness’’to these fantasies for some women, as the discrepancy between their subjective reality and their fantasy world may motivate a drive to change their appearance to increase their attractiveness. However, this possibility is speculative and needs research to evaluate its validity. Although there were a number of strengths to our study, including the use of diverse measures of sexual fantasies and the inclusion of both observer and self-rated attractiveness, this study also had its limitations. First, we used a university sample, and thus our participants were restricted to a relatively young, White, and well-educated group of men and women. More research is needed in demographically diverse samples. For example, there is some evidence that different cultures put more focus on women’s bodies vs. faces in media advertisements (e.g., Frith, Shaw, Cheng, 2005); thus, such cultural differences in media portrayals may vary the degree of women’s internalization of ODSC within their sexual scripts. Second, there was only a modest correspondence of ODSC themes among the three fantasy measures (i.e., r = .27 or below), largely due to the open-ended fantasies. To some degree, this is understandable because the fantasy measures had different methodologies (and hence do not share this source of variation), and the open-ended fantasies, although a rich source of information, are limited by a number of factors such as language ability, willingness to provide details, self-censorship, etc. Despite these issues, we think it is notable that there were gender differences in ODSC themes on all three measures, including the open-ended fantasies. This study presented evidence that women report ODSC themes as arousing fantasy content and that they include them in their sexual fantasies at a relatively high rate. Future research should study physical arousal responses to ODSC themes in the laboratory (e.g., using vaginal photoplethysmography). Given the discordance that sometimes occurs between subjective and physical sexual arousal in women (e.g., Chivers, Rieger, Latty, & Bailey, 2004), it would be interesting to assess whether women’s self-reported sexual arousal to ODSC themes aligns with physiological measures of sexual arousal to such themes. Also, given the partial independence of subjective attractiveness and ODSC, future research could examine whether (subjectively) unattractive women often place themselves into a role of an attractive woman in their fantasies and/or fantasy material to achieve a heightened sense of ODSC. One way of examining this possibility might be to manipulate experimentally the attractiveness of female characters in fantasy material to examine the degree of

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identification (and degree of arousal) for women of different levels of subjective attractiveness.

Appendix Sexual Fantasy Questionnaire

Conclusions In summary, the current research provided empirical support for Bogaert and Brotto’s (2014) ODSC theory. Using three methods of evaluating ODSC themes in men’s and women’s sexual fantasies, we found evidence that perceiving oneself as an object of desire is more relevant to women’s than men’s sexuality. This research represents an important step in investigating how ODSC operates in women’s sociosexual functioning. Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank Carolyn Hafer and Luanne Jamieson for their help at various stages of this research.

The instructions and 62 items appear below (male participant version), with items that were identified (a priori) as indicative of ODSC italicized. In the female participant version, where applicable, male terms and pronouns were employed. ‘‘Most men and women have sexual fantasies. Using the following scale, please evaluate how sexually exciting each of the items would be to you in the context of a sexual fantasy. Write the number that best represents your level of excitement in the space beside the item. Note that these scenarios specify a partner of the opposite sex. If you are more sexually attracted to a partner of the same sex, please mentally substitute male terms and pronouns.’’ 1 2 3 Not at all Exciting

4 5 6 Somewhat Exciting

7 Extremely Exciting

1. Having sex with a very attractive stranger.

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2. My partner telling me how good-looking and sexy I am.

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3. Having sex with two or more very attractive partners at the same time.

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4. Imagining that I observe myself or others having sex.

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5. Having casual sex with a person who I just met and who finds me irresistible. 6. I imagine that an older, experienced partner is attracted to me because of my youthful appearance.

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7. Being forced to surrender to someone who is overcome with lust for me.

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8. Dating an exotic dancer.

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9. A special woman is devoted to me and showers me with love and attention.

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10. Overpowering or forcing another to surrender because she is so irresistible.

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11. My partner tells me what she wants me to do to her during sex.

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12. Lusting after a hot woman who is teasing and arousing me with her body.

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13. Being passive and submissive to someone who wants my body.

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14. Being a promiscuous person who has many irresistible sexual partners.

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15. Exerting dominance and control over a partner who I am highly attracted to.

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16. Showing off my body to tease and arouse onlookers who lust after me.

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17. Using force or humiliating a person who desires me.

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18. Pleasuring many other people while having group sex.

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19. My partner showing me how much she desires my body.

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20. I sweep a woman off her feet and teach her all about romance and sex. 21. Having sex with a stranger who is very attracted to me.

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22. Being overpowered or forced to surrender because I am so irresistible.

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23. Dressing in sexy, transparent underwear for my partner.

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24. Having sex with two or more partners, who are very attracted to me, at the same time.

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25. Giving sexual pleasure to many people.

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26. Talking dirty to my partner.

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27. Revealing my body to an attractive stranger.

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28. Exerting dominance and control over a partner who is highly attracted to me.

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1 2 3 Not at all Exciting

4 5 6 Somewhat Exciting

7 Extremely Exciting

29. Teasing a woman (or women) until I can no longer contain my sexual desire for her/them.

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30. Being the centre of attention while having group sex.

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31. Being passive and submissive to someone whose body I want.

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32. Having sex with many women, all of them overcome with lust for my body.

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33. Being forced to surrender to someone while I’m overcome with lust for her. 34. Being a promiscuous person who attracts the attention of many partners with my irresistibility.

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35. Undressing for my partner.

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36. Using force or humiliating a person who I desire.

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37. Being an exotic dancer.

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38. Having sex in a different place like a car, hotel, beach, woods.

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39. Exerting dominance and control over a very desirable partner.

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40. I am devoted to a special woman and shower her with love and devotion.

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41. Having casual sex with a person I just met and find irresistible.

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42. Receiving sexual pleasure from many people.

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43. My partner tells me what she wants to do to me during sex.

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44. I imagine that I am attracted to a sexual partner because of her greater age and experience.

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45. Women talk about how sexy and irresistible I am before forcing me to sexually pleasure them.

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46. Showing my partner how much I desire her body.

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47. Having sex with many women, all of whom are very attractive.

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48. Teasing a woman (or women) until she is consumed with sexual desire for me. 49. Having an attractive stranger reveal her body to me.

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50. A woman sweeps me off my feet and teaches me all about romance and sex.

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51. Having anal intercourse.

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52. Having sex with my current partner.

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53. Watching my partner undress.

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54. Feeling affection and emotional connection while having sex.

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55. Exerting dominance and control over a partner who finds me very desirable.

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56. Having sex without making eye contact.

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57. Taking the initiative and dominant role while having sex.

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58. Telling my partner how good-looking and sexy she is.

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59. Reliving a previous sexual experience.

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60. Being forced to sexually pleasure attractive women.

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61. Imagining my partner in sexy underwear.

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62. Pretending that I am doing something wicked or forbidden.

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The Scenarios Instructions (male participant version) appear below, with items that were identified (a priori) as indicative of ODSC italicized. In the female participant version, where applicable, male terms and pronouns were employed. ‘‘Imagine yourself as the main character in the following stories, and when you see underlined words in bold, choose the word or phrase that would best describe your feelings, actions, and behavior in the situation. Circle the word or phrase that best suits your decision. Note that these scenarios specify a partner of

the opposite sex. If you are more sexually attracted to a partner of the same sex, please mentally substitute male terms and pronouns.’’ Scenario 1 There is a woman in one of my classes who I liked right away because she is so (smart OR funny OR good looking OR friendly) and I find it appealing that (she seems to like me OR she’s playing hard to get OR I have no idea how she feels about me). If I had to guess, I’d say she (likes my body OR likes my personality OR doesn’t like me). I’m really interested in her, so today I’m going to wear something that makes me look

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really (sexy OR rich OR stylish). I’ve been thinking about this woman all morning and now I’m feeling really (sexy OR horny).

clothes and stumble home. It was fun, but nothing more will ever come of it.

Scenario 2

ODSC Fantasy Themes

My partner has planned a special weekend getaway for just the two of us. We have a romantic candlelight dinner and linger over our drinks. The sexual tension is building for me because (she is incredibly hot OR it is obvious she thinks I’m incredibly hot). Before long, the two of us are in bed, and because I’m feeling really (hot OR turned on), I start (taking off her clothes OR taking off my clothes). I begin to get aroused by (the sight of my partner’s body OR the way my partner looks at my body). As events progress, I’m becoming increasingly turned on by (the desire for my partner OR the desire I am arousing in my partner). My partner and I have exciting sex and this makes me feel really close to her. Afterwards, I feel satisfied and (glad my partner still gets so turned on by me OR glad that I still get so turned by my partner OR glad my partner and I are still so compatible together).

ODSC-relevant responses are italicized (if present, the participant received a 1 score for that theme).

Scenario 3 My partner and I go to a party where there are several other couples and single friends we know. I know there will be some attractive women at the party so I decide to (wear clothing that shows off my body OR wear clothing that makes me look successful and rich). After having a few drinks, I begin (to notice that attractive women are checking me out OR to check out attractive women). I begin to become aroused by (how people are responding to the way I look OR how good other people look) and this makes me feel turned on because (I know I am still desirable OR I am fantasizing about having sex with someone at the party). When we leave the party I notice that I am feeling (hot OR horny). When we get home, I initiate sex. In the end, I’m glad we went to the party because (it made me feel sexy and desired OR I got to see lots of attractive people).

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Scenario 4 My guy friends and I go out to the bar for a night on the town. After probably a few drinks too many, I notice an attractive woman and (start dancing in a sexy way to get her attention OR watch how sexy she looks when she dances). I start to get really turned on by (looking at her body OR the way she’s looking at my body). We continue to flirt all night and (I make sure she gets a good look at my body OR I make sure I get a good look at her body). We go back to her place I start (removingmyclothesOR removing her clothes)toturnheron. At this point I feel so (sexy OR turned on). (I tell her how good-looking she is OR She tells me how good-looking I am) and we have lusty and exciting sex and afterwards I find all my

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7.

8.

Attractive = attractiveness mentioned? (self/other) 0 = no attractiveness mentioned 1 = self-attractiveness mentioned 2 = other attractiveness mentioned 3 = both attractiveness mentioned Attractobject = self or other as attractive as viewed by others 0 = not mentioned 1 = other sees self as attractive (e.g. I’m feeling hot) 2 = other or self sees other person as attractive (e.g.‘‘She was really hot’’) Attractself = self sees self as attractive 0 = not mentioned 1 = mentioned Body = mention of their own body; includes body parts; (e.g.‘‘her body looked great!’’) 0 = not mentioned 1 = mention of own body 2 = mention of other’s body 3 = both bodies mentioned Bodywant = some sort of implication that other wanted (e.g., to touch) self’s body; or that self-wanted (e.g., touch) other’s body 0 = not mentioned; unclear 1 = other wants self-body (e.g., to touch, etc.) 2 = self wants other’s body (e.g. to touch, etc.) 3= both; self and other want bodies (e.g., to touch, etc.) Irresistiblebod = lack of control touching self’s body (i.e. irresistible) 0 = no mention 1 = self is irresistible 2 = other is irresistible 3 = both are irresistible Irresistibleoth = general irresistibility (e.g. other than body, what self or other is doing is irresistible) 0 = no mention 1 = what self is doing is irresistible (other than body) 2 = what the other is doing is irresistible (other than body) 3 = what both are doing is irresistible (other than body) Sexycloth = sexy/revealing clothing on (self/other) 0 = not mentioned 1 = self wearing sexy clothes 2 = other wearing sexy clothes 3 = self is naked 4 = other is naked

Arch Sex Behav

5 = both are naked 6 = both wearing sexy clothes 9. Stylecloth = stylish clothing on self or other (e.g. attractive pantsuit) 0 = not mentioned 1 = self wearing stylish clothes 2 = other wearing stylish clothes 10. Reveal = revealing/showing off body 0 = not mentioned 1 = self showing off body 2 = other showing off body 3 = both showing off body 11. Teasebod = teasing someone with body 0 = not mentioned 1 = self teasing with body 2 = other teasing with his/her body 3 = both teasing 12. Teaseact 0 = not mentioned 1= teasing with actions or with what self does 2 = other teasing with actions 3 = both teasing with actions 13. Otherwatch = other watching self’s body 0 = not mentioned 1 = other watching self’s body 2 = other watching other’s body 3 = other watching both 4 = other watching multiple partner’s bodies 14. Selfwatch = self watching self 0 = not mentioned 1 = self watching own body 15. Lust = extreme lust (for me = self/ for partner = other) 0 = not mentioned 1 = self lusting for partner 2 = partner lusts for self 3 = both lustful 16. Feelsexy = phrase ‘‘feel sexy’’‘‘felt sexy’’‘‘feeling sexy’’ used? (so, search document for these exact phrases) 0 = not mentioned 1 = mentioned

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Gender Differences in Object of Desire Self-Consciousness Sexual Fantasies.

In a recent review article, Bogaert and Brotto (2014) discussed "object of desire self-consciousness," a perception that one is romantically and sexua...
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