Perceptual and Motor Skilk, 1992, 75, 1083-1091. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1992
FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS: A COMPARISON OF VIEWERS' PERCEPTUAL A N D AFFECTIVE RESPONSES T O ILLUSTRATED A N D PHOTOGRAPHED STIMULI ' PATRICIA ANNE KIMLE AND ANN MARIE FIORE Textiles and C[othing Department Iowa State University Summary.-The perceptual and affective responses of 44 women to actual illustrated and photographed fashion advertisements during focused interviews were explored. Content analysis methods identified categories of response; frequency of response categories for the two media were compared using Fisher's z tests. Significant differences in perceptual responses included greater visual interest created by the use of color in photographs, greater interest in layout and design features of the illustrations, and interest in characteristics of the models in the photographs. Affective response differences included greater preference for photographic advertisements and the garments in them. Contrary to suggestions from professionals in fashion advertising, no significant differences were found in viewers' perceptions of information about the products in the advertisements or perceptions of meaning and aesthetic response.
I n a study reviewing the form and content of fashion advertising in Vogue magazine, Kimle (1991) chronicled the decline of the use of fashion illustrations and the increase in the use of photography over the last 30 years. This shlft has been steady throughout the twentieth century (Danielson, 1986). Today, 90% of consumer and trade magazine apparel advertisements employ photography (Bride, 1990). While a few authors (e.g., Danielson, 1986; DeNeve, 1976) have tried ro explain this trend in terms of the meaning or information conveyed in each medium, no empirical research has been found which compared the responses of viewers to actual illustrated and photographic fashon advertisements which are intended to be informative as well as convey an expressive quality. Whisney, Winakor, and Wolins (1979) examined viewers' responses to stimuli consisting of photographs of garments on models and line drawings traced from the stimulus photographs, but this research did not take into account the fact that the visual images in actual advertising stimuli, both photographs and illustrations, carry meaning and artistic expression which may be as or more important than simply conveying information about a physical product. Analyses of illustrated and photographed stimuli include comparisons of the clarity of the physical information contained in advertisements, the 'This research was supported in art by the Iowa State Universit College of Family and Consumer Sciences Graduate ~ e s e a r c 1Fund and the Younkers ~ounJation.Journal Paper No. 540 of the Family and Consumer Sciences Research Institute, College of Family and Consumer Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. Address requests for reprints to P. A. Kimle, Deparcment of Textiles and Clothing, 140 LeBaron Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 500111120.
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amount of realism or abstraction and the effect of both on viewers' perceptions of and responses to the stimuli, and the meanings of the images perceived in advertisements. McCracken (1987) discussed the limitations of treating advertising solely as communication of information or as transfer of meaning. While both occur within the context of advertising perception, we should attempt to understand the integration of both processes as they affect the viewer. While the viewer takes in the information and the meaning, the processing of different media may generate various affective responses. This paper shows that, while critiques of fashion advertisements have focused on either the informational or transfer of meaning qualities of the media, both functions of advertising are experienced by viewers of photographs and illustrations. I n addition, the affective and aesthetic satisfaction derived from the artistic qualities of form and expression in dustrated and photographic stimuli are examined.
Fashion Advertisements: Perception of Information and Meaning Danielson (1986) tried to explain the predominance of photography over illustration in fashion magazine editorial art by drawing upon the views of artists and illustrators queried on trends in fashion dustration and photography. Several artists' replies suggested that the dominance of photography is due in part to the following factors: a lack of imagination to interpret artistic or stylized representations of fashions on the part of the consuming public and advertising art directors, perhaps overlooking the importance of the aesthetic component of the stimuli, the immediacy or ease of interpretation in the perception of the photographic image, and the existence of a "cameraage" in society, where photographs are part of our everyday lives (Danielson, 1986). Advertising managers and art directors for fashion retailers echoed similar perceptions (Kimle, 1990, unpublished raw data). These people believed the photograph was more easily and literally perceived and interpreted by the viewer than an illustration and so was more effective. I n addition, they felt because almost all fashion advertising used photography, they must do so to remain competitive. They pointed out that, for most retail stores, advertisements must balance communication of basic information about the physical ~ r o d u c twith creating a specific type of image for the store. Both illustration and photography have been criticized by product manufacturers because they have become stylized to the point that they can convey little information about actual garments; advertisers are more concerned with presenting a "mood" or "image." This is a recurrent complaint of manufacturers and designers who feel that information about their garments has not been given enough attention or emphasis in recent fashion art (DeNeve, 1976). There are, however, designers who take the opposite view, feeling that they have devoted fans and customers and enough name recognition so they can use advertising as more than mere documentation. I n this
VIEWERS' RESPONSES TO FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
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case, the designers were turning to illustrated work to "convey the spirit of the clothing, and an outfit's line, dimension and personality" ("Illustration: the Look," 1984, p. 51). Having an established reputation, these designers may be trying to elicit an aesthetic response from the viewers rather than providing detailed information. Most art directors who responded to an informal survey (Kimle, 1990, unpublished raw data) felt that the consumer wants to see a detailed photograph in advertisements. They felt that the consumer responds to the immel a c y of the photograph, has more trust in the photograph as a true reflection of the real garment, and believes that the photograph provides accurate information. Both illustration and photography can be used in a realistic or an abstract manner, depending on the talent and the inclination of the artist or the photographer. The main task of the illustrator is to abstract from reality, i.e., to isolate and emphasize the main elements or feeling of the garment. Illustrations are often considered art by viewers because the visual form is associated with an artist's creation. This type of belief may associate the perception of illustration more strongly with the perception of meaning than with information. Photographs in fashion advertising may be more often considered realistic because the photographic process reproduces a visual image of real human models. Our culture seems to maintain a naive view of photography, that the photograph is a neutral, uninflected and unmanipulated image (Coleman, 1989). In truth, the photograph reflects the biases of the photographer's intention and the capabilities and limitations of the photographic process (Coleman, 1989). The photographic image can be manipulated according to the photographer's talents and inclinations just as the drawn image. Therefore, one cannot simply equate photography with realism and illustration with abstraction, or one with communication of information and the other with communication of expressive quality and meaning. The purpose of this study was to explore the responses of viewers to fashion advertisements, specifically comparing perceptual and evaluative responses to the informational and meaning aspects of the two media. I n addition, we explored whether there are differences in the aesthetic response to illustrated and photographic stimuli of fashion advertisements.
METHOD Free response, stimulus driven interviews were conducted with 44 women in a midwestern city. The participants were members of several civic organizations or were university employees. The interviews were conducted in their homes or workplaces, at their request. The women were reimbursed a nominal fee which most of them requested be given to the scholarship funds of their organization. The interviews ranged from 35 minutes to more than an hour.
1086
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A . M. FIORE
The participants were asked to view and respond to eight fashion advertisements (four illustrations and four photographs) selected from recent issues of Vogue and Harper? Bazaar. Responses were analyzed using a grounded theory technique and constant comparison of emergent themes (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Two research assistants coded the data and achieved intercoder reliability of 79%. The coded themes and the frequencies of their occurrence became the variables used in the comparative analysis.
Stimuli The stimulus set consisted of eight actual advertisements selected to represent a range of examples found in fashion periodicals. Criteria for stimulus selection included media (4 photographs and 4 dustrated artists' renderings), color (including 1 black and white for each medium), garment type (women's suits, casual, and semiformal) and the amount of verbal information included. The verbal information ranged from a simple headline with the designer or store name to a complete description of the garment, size, color, and price. The two subsets of stimuli, four illustrations and four photographs, provided the main independent variable. An attempt was made to match all other criteria of selection across subsets; similar garments appeared in each subset, advertisements with similar visual formats and similar content and amount of verbal information were also found in each subset.
Interview Schedule The interview contained three parts; this study reports the findings from Parts 1 and 2. I n Part 1 participants examined each of the eight advertisements and identified the features which stimulated their visual interest; this response was generated by the question: "What catches your eye or grabs your attention in this advertisement?" The visual interest elements identified by participants were generally concrete formal elements such as the model, the garments, or the text. I n Part 2 of the interview, participants viewed the stimuli a second time and provided their affective evaluations. They responded to the questions, "Do you like this advertisement," "Why or why not," "Do you like the ensemble in it," and "Why or why not?" By explaining or justifying their evaluations, the participants provided the criteria they used to evaluate the stimuli. To compare participants' responses to illustrated and photographic stimuli, all coded responses to each medium (photographs and illustrations) were tabulated. Fisher's r was used to compare frequencies of response between the two media (Guilford & Fruchter, 1978, p. 159). Scores were computed for each response category in which the number of times the response was used was greater than 10. As data are free responses and each participant could respond in any way, the expected frequency for each category was .5.
VIEWERS' RESPONSES TO FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
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RESULTS The mean age of the participants was 51 years, with a range of 22 to 87 years. Participants who were over the age of 60 comprised 43% of the sample. The majority of the participants were college-educated, professional women in administrative and mid-level management positions, or retired from them. Less than 25% were in service or clerical occupations.
Perceptual Responses to Photographed and Illustrated Stimuli Ten elements of visual interest or attention, including references to the model, were found in the responses to photographs and illustrations. Table 1 lists the frequencies of response to each type of m e d u m . TABLE 1 FREQUENCIES OF VISUALINTEREST RESPONSES TO ILLUSTRATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHS IN
FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
Source of Visual Interest Garment Style Layout/Design of Advertisement Garment Style Detail Color Designer Name Verbal Text Accessories Setting of Advertisement Store Name Model
Photographs
LUustrations
Fisher's z
Significant differences were evident between the responses to photographed and illustrated stimuli measured as interest in visual layout and design, the details of the garment styles, the color, and the models in the advertisements. Participants mentioned aspects of the layout or design of illustrated stimuli more than twice as frequently as they did for photographic stimuli. This may be, in part, explained by the fact that this category included references to visual design elements, such as layout or graphics, which may have seemed more dominant in illustrations than in the photographs. The number of responses focusing on the graphic features were distributed across all four illustrated advertisements, indicating that no one particular advertisement can account for this difference. The difference between participants' focus on the details of garment style in the illustrated and photographed stimuli can be explained, in part, by the nature of the advertisements themselves. A black and white photographed advertisement of a jacket and skirt ensemble accounts for over onehalf of the responses to garment style details. The fabric of this ensemble
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has a large-scale polka-dot print. Responses to the polka-dot pattern, a fabric surface design, were coded as interest in the style details of the garment. Therefore, this photograph biased the comparison of interest in details of the garments. The significant difference in the attention to color, however, is not due to any one specific advertisement. The color in two photographic stimuli was the focus of attention more frequently than in any other advertisement. These two stimuli contained brightly colored jackets and the models are posed in front of bright, nearly white backgrounds that suggest the outdoor sky. This contrast made the color salient for the viewers. One illustrated stimulus also contained an equally brightly colored jacket in high contrast to the background, but the frequency of color-focused responses to that stimu. finding suggests lus was lower than that for the bright ~ h o t o ~ r a p h sThls that color in photographs may be more visually salient to viewers. Participants' responses to photographed stimuli included the model in the advertisements nearly three times as often as when they were responding to illustrated stimuli. This finding indicates that the model has more salience in the viewers' experiences of advertisements when they are photographs. Participants not only were focusing on the model, but their responses were attributing specific characteristics to the models, such as "mischievousness," " happiness," and "sexiness." The participants responded favorably to and seemed more interested in the models in the advertisements when the model was a real person. Not only were these participants interested in the "concreteness" of the photographic image as opposed to the illustration, they were projecting human characteristics on the model.
Afective Responses and Evaluative Criteria Applied to Photographs and Illustrations Among the evaluative responses to the garments and the advertisements, there were significant differences found using Fisher's z comparing frequencies of participants' statements of preference for the garments by type of stimuli and differences in preferences for the individual stimuli (see Table 2). The garments represented in the photographs were more frequently liked than garments represented in the Illustrations. This may be due to the concreteness of the garment or the perceived clarity of information in the photographs. Participants may be more likely to prefer the photograph which they feel more accurately represents the garment. ). Dislike of illustrated stimuli was statistically significant ( ~ ~ 0 . 0 5Although not statistically significant ( p < 0. lo), the converse was also a strong trend, i.e., photographs were more frequently preferred. The remaining affective responses were categorized according to the content themes of the responses. These themes included information con-
VIEWERS' RESPONSES TO FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS TABLE 2 FREQUENCIES OF EVALUATIVE RESPONSESTO ILLUSTRATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHS IN FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS Evaluative Res~onse
Photoeraohs
Illustrations
Fisher's z
Garment is liked Garment is disliked Garment fits lifestyle Garment does not fit lifestyle Advertisement is liked Advertisement is disliked Advertisement is liked due to Rarrnent Advertisement is disliked due to earment
cerns, meanings ascribed to the advertisements and the garments in them, and aesthetic responses. Table 3 shows no statistically significant differences in the frequency of participants' use of informational or meaning-oriented responses to illustrated and photographed stimuli, although five items show strong trends and bear some discussion. TABLE 3
FREQUENCIES OF INFORMATION, MEANING, A N D AESTHETICALLY ORIENTED RESPONSES TO ILLUSTRATED A N D PHOTOGRAPHED STIMULI Resoonses Information Oriented Responses Information in advertisement is uncertain Information in advertisement is dear Perceived effectiveness of advertisement as a sales tool Meaning (Including Aesthetic) Oriented Responses Assessment of garment's fashionability Garment perceived as intended for young market Garment perceived as intended for trendy market Message m advertisement is uncertain Adveri~sementhas an artistic quality Advertisement is judged unique Advertisement is perceived to express mood or feeling Viewer states aesthetic appreciation of the advertlsernent "ns.
Photoeraohs Illustrations Fisher's z*
5
18
-0.99
First, responses expressing participants' perceived certainty about information were more frequent for photographs whereas expressions of uncertainty about information were more common for illustrations. Second, participants tended to judge photographs as more effective than illustration in stimulating viewers' interest in purchasing the garments.
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Next, in assessing the intended or appropriate market for the garments in the advertisements, participants tended to judge the photographed garments appropriate for a young market more frequently than illustrated garments. This trend may also be explained by the apparent ages of the models in the photographs. The models may have been perceived to be of a specific age, whereas the illustrations may not have been perceived to convey information about age. Also, since illustrations have a longer history in advertising than photography, dustrations may have been associated with an "older" style of marketing. Another trend related to the perceived age of the intended market was that illustrations were more frequently assumed to be appropriate for a trendier market than the photographs. I n particular, two illustrated stimuli were assumed to be trendy garments, perhaps supported by their more abstract artistic qualities. One of these two advertisements was also considered to be "high fashion" and sophisticated. The fact that these advertisements were also disliked most frequently may be a function of the fashion interest and the socioeconomic status of the participants. These participants generally gave positive evaluations to garments which they felt were appropriate for themselves; they did not apparently view themselves as in a "high fashion" or part of a "trendy" market. The last trend relates to earlier discussions of illustration as perceived as art more frequently than photography. Participants made comments describing their own aesthetic appreciation for illustrations more frequently than they did for photographs. This may have implications for advertisers who want to "set a mood" and are sure that they are not concerned about communicating specific product information.
Conclusion The participants exhibited more interest in the visual qualities and design features of the dustrated advertisements, although they responded more frequently to the color in the photographs. They also seemed to show more interest in the models in the photographs. The results of the comparisons between the frequency of each response category used in reference to the two types of advertisements indicate that there are both significant and subtle differences in the ways the participants responded to illustrations and photographs. Illustrations and the garments in them were most frequently disliked by the viewers in this sample. The garments in illustrations were perceived and interpreted as trendier and more high-fashion oriented than garments in photographs. In general, the photographs were viewed as more effective in communicating information about the product and stimulating purchase interest, although the more naturalistic or realistic limitations were viewed more positively than abstract or exaggerated illustrations. These results indicate a perceived dichotomy between the level of visual garment detail information conveyed in an advertisement and
VIEWERS' RESPONSES T O FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
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the perceived level of fashionability of its garment. Advertisements with less visual garment information were perceived as promoting more high-fashion garments. Also, illustrations were more often enjoyed specifically for aesthetic characteristics. These findings support only some of the assumptions about consumers' more positive response to photography believed by many individuals in the advertising departments of major retail stores. Participants generally favored photographs, perhaps due to the "reality" of the garments in the photographs or to the participants' ability to relate positively to the model. Contrary to the views expressed in the literature and the opinions of the surveyed art directors, there were no statistically significant differences in viewers' perceptions of informational and meaning or aesthetic characteristics of illustrated and photographed stimuli. This study was exploratory in nature and used qualitative data. The responses compared were generated in free-response interviews, not forcedchoice situations. Therefore, findings should be further explored and substantiated perhaps through a more stringently controlled data collection instrument. The results of this study could be beneficial in the construction of data collection instruments for further studies of viewers' response to advertising. REFERENCES
B R ~ EB., (1990) The fashion illustration scene. The Artist's Magazine, 7(6), 43-49. COLEMAN, A. D. (1989) The image in question: further notes on the directorial mode. In R. Kostelanetz (Ed.), Esthetics contemporary. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. Pp. 331-338. DANIELSON, D. (1986) According to the artists: rofessional fashion illustrators' views about their art form. Clothing and Textiles ~esearcgJournal, 5(1), 27-33. DENEVE,R. (1976) Fashion art in a new light. (Introduction to Fashon art in a new light, Special issue) Print, 30(4), 23. GLASER, B. G., & STRAUSS,A. L. (1967) The discovery of grounded theory: ,hafegres for qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine. GUUFORD, J. P., & FRUCHTER, B. (1978) Fundamental statistics in psychology and education. (6th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. Illustration: the look of fall fashion. (1984) Art Direction, 36(6), 50-54. KIMLE, P. (1991) A content analysis of women's apparel advertising in Vogue, 1960-1989. I n Proceedings of the National Meetings of the International Textile and Apparel Association. San Francisco, CA: International Textile and Apparel Association. P. 140. [Abstract] LINCOLN,Y. S., & GUBA,E. (1985) Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly H a s , C A : Sage. MCCRACKEN, G . (1987) Advertising: meaning or information? In M. Wallendorf & l? Anderson (Eds.), Advances in consumer research. Vol. 14. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. Pp. 121-124. WHISNEY,A. J., WINAKOR, G., & WOLINS, L. (1979) Fashion preference: drawings versus photographs. Home Economics Research Journal, 8 , 138-150. Accepted September 24, 1992.
FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS: A COMPARISON OF VIEWERS' PERCEPTUAL A N D AFFECTIVE RESPONSES T O ILLUSTRATED A N D PHOTOGRAPHED STIMULI ' PATRICIA ANNE KIMLE AND ANN MARIE FIORE Textiles and C[othing Department Iowa State University Summary.-The perceptual and affective responses of 44 women to actual illustrated and photographed fashion advertisements during focused interviews were explored. Content analysis methods identified categories of response; frequency of response categories for the two media were compared using Fisher's z tests. Significant differences in perceptual responses included greater visual interest created by the use of color in photographs, greater interest in layout and design features of the illustrations, and interest in characteristics of the models in the photographs. Affective response differences included greater preference for photographic advertisements and the garments in them. Contrary to suggestions from professionals in fashion advertising, no significant differences were found in viewers' perceptions of information about the products in the advertisements or perceptions of meaning and aesthetic response.
I n a study reviewing the form and content of fashion advertising in Vogue magazine, Kimle (1991) chronicled the decline of the use of fashion illustrations and the increase in the use of photography over the last 30 years. This shlft has been steady throughout the twentieth century (Danielson, 1986). Today, 90% of consumer and trade magazine apparel advertisements employ photography (Bride, 1990). While a few authors (e.g., Danielson, 1986; DeNeve, 1976) have tried ro explain this trend in terms of the meaning or information conveyed in each medium, no empirical research has been found which compared the responses of viewers to actual illustrated and photographic fashon advertisements which are intended to be informative as well as convey an expressive quality. Whisney, Winakor, and Wolins (1979) examined viewers' responses to stimuli consisting of photographs of garments on models and line drawings traced from the stimulus photographs, but this research did not take into account the fact that the visual images in actual advertising stimuli, both photographs and illustrations, carry meaning and artistic expression which may be as or more important than simply conveying information about a physical product. Analyses of illustrated and photographed stimuli include comparisons of the clarity of the physical information contained in advertisements, the 'This research was supported in art by the Iowa State Universit College of Family and Consumer Sciences Graduate ~ e s e a r c 1Fund and the Younkers ~ounJation.Journal Paper No. 540 of the Family and Consumer Sciences Research Institute, College of Family and Consumer Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. Address requests for reprints to P. A. Kimle, Deparcment of Textiles and Clothing, 140 LeBaron Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 500111120.
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& A.
M. FIORE
amount of realism or abstraction and the effect of both on viewers' perceptions of and responses to the stimuli, and the meanings of the images perceived in advertisements. McCracken (1987) discussed the limitations of treating advertising solely as communication of information or as transfer of meaning. While both occur within the context of advertising perception, we should attempt to understand the integration of both processes as they affect the viewer. While the viewer takes in the information and the meaning, the processing of different media may generate various affective responses. This paper shows that, while critiques of fashion advertisements have focused on either the informational or transfer of meaning qualities of the media, both functions of advertising are experienced by viewers of photographs and illustrations. I n addition, the affective and aesthetic satisfaction derived from the artistic qualities of form and expression in dustrated and photographic stimuli are examined.
Fashion Advertisements: Perception of Information and Meaning Danielson (1986) tried to explain the predominance of photography over illustration in fashion magazine editorial art by drawing upon the views of artists and illustrators queried on trends in fashion dustration and photography. Several artists' replies suggested that the dominance of photography is due in part to the following factors: a lack of imagination to interpret artistic or stylized representations of fashions on the part of the consuming public and advertising art directors, perhaps overlooking the importance of the aesthetic component of the stimuli, the immediacy or ease of interpretation in the perception of the photographic image, and the existence of a "cameraage" in society, where photographs are part of our everyday lives (Danielson, 1986). Advertising managers and art directors for fashion retailers echoed similar perceptions (Kimle, 1990, unpublished raw data). These people believed the photograph was more easily and literally perceived and interpreted by the viewer than an illustration and so was more effective. I n addition, they felt because almost all fashion advertising used photography, they must do so to remain competitive. They pointed out that, for most retail stores, advertisements must balance communication of basic information about the physical ~ r o d u c twith creating a specific type of image for the store. Both illustration and photography have been criticized by product manufacturers because they have become stylized to the point that they can convey little information about actual garments; advertisers are more concerned with presenting a "mood" or "image." This is a recurrent complaint of manufacturers and designers who feel that information about their garments has not been given enough attention or emphasis in recent fashion art (DeNeve, 1976). There are, however, designers who take the opposite view, feeling that they have devoted fans and customers and enough name recognition so they can use advertising as more than mere documentation. I n this
VIEWERS' RESPONSES TO FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
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case, the designers were turning to illustrated work to "convey the spirit of the clothing, and an outfit's line, dimension and personality" ("Illustration: the Look," 1984, p. 51). Having an established reputation, these designers may be trying to elicit an aesthetic response from the viewers rather than providing detailed information. Most art directors who responded to an informal survey (Kimle, 1990, unpublished raw data) felt that the consumer wants to see a detailed photograph in advertisements. They felt that the consumer responds to the immel a c y of the photograph, has more trust in the photograph as a true reflection of the real garment, and believes that the photograph provides accurate information. Both illustration and photography can be used in a realistic or an abstract manner, depending on the talent and the inclination of the artist or the photographer. The main task of the illustrator is to abstract from reality, i.e., to isolate and emphasize the main elements or feeling of the garment. Illustrations are often considered art by viewers because the visual form is associated with an artist's creation. This type of belief may associate the perception of illustration more strongly with the perception of meaning than with information. Photographs in fashion advertising may be more often considered realistic because the photographic process reproduces a visual image of real human models. Our culture seems to maintain a naive view of photography, that the photograph is a neutral, uninflected and unmanipulated image (Coleman, 1989). In truth, the photograph reflects the biases of the photographer's intention and the capabilities and limitations of the photographic process (Coleman, 1989). The photographic image can be manipulated according to the photographer's talents and inclinations just as the drawn image. Therefore, one cannot simply equate photography with realism and illustration with abstraction, or one with communication of information and the other with communication of expressive quality and meaning. The purpose of this study was to explore the responses of viewers to fashion advertisements, specifically comparing perceptual and evaluative responses to the informational and meaning aspects of the two media. I n addition, we explored whether there are differences in the aesthetic response to illustrated and photographic stimuli of fashion advertisements.
METHOD Free response, stimulus driven interviews were conducted with 44 women in a midwestern city. The participants were members of several civic organizations or were university employees. The interviews were conducted in their homes or workplaces, at their request. The women were reimbursed a nominal fee which most of them requested be given to the scholarship funds of their organization. The interviews ranged from 35 minutes to more than an hour.
1086
l? A. KIMLE
&
A . M. FIORE
The participants were asked to view and respond to eight fashion advertisements (four illustrations and four photographs) selected from recent issues of Vogue and Harper? Bazaar. Responses were analyzed using a grounded theory technique and constant comparison of emergent themes (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Two research assistants coded the data and achieved intercoder reliability of 79%. The coded themes and the frequencies of their occurrence became the variables used in the comparative analysis.
Stimuli The stimulus set consisted of eight actual advertisements selected to represent a range of examples found in fashion periodicals. Criteria for stimulus selection included media (4 photographs and 4 dustrated artists' renderings), color (including 1 black and white for each medium), garment type (women's suits, casual, and semiformal) and the amount of verbal information included. The verbal information ranged from a simple headline with the designer or store name to a complete description of the garment, size, color, and price. The two subsets of stimuli, four illustrations and four photographs, provided the main independent variable. An attempt was made to match all other criteria of selection across subsets; similar garments appeared in each subset, advertisements with similar visual formats and similar content and amount of verbal information were also found in each subset.
Interview Schedule The interview contained three parts; this study reports the findings from Parts 1 and 2. I n Part 1 participants examined each of the eight advertisements and identified the features which stimulated their visual interest; this response was generated by the question: "What catches your eye or grabs your attention in this advertisement?" The visual interest elements identified by participants were generally concrete formal elements such as the model, the garments, or the text. I n Part 2 of the interview, participants viewed the stimuli a second time and provided their affective evaluations. They responded to the questions, "Do you like this advertisement," "Why or why not," "Do you like the ensemble in it," and "Why or why not?" By explaining or justifying their evaluations, the participants provided the criteria they used to evaluate the stimuli. To compare participants' responses to illustrated and photographic stimuli, all coded responses to each medium (photographs and illustrations) were tabulated. Fisher's r was used to compare frequencies of response between the two media (Guilford & Fruchter, 1978, p. 159). Scores were computed for each response category in which the number of times the response was used was greater than 10. As data are free responses and each participant could respond in any way, the expected frequency for each category was .5.
VIEWERS' RESPONSES TO FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
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RESULTS The mean age of the participants was 51 years, with a range of 22 to 87 years. Participants who were over the age of 60 comprised 43% of the sample. The majority of the participants were college-educated, professional women in administrative and mid-level management positions, or retired from them. Less than 25% were in service or clerical occupations.
Perceptual Responses to Photographed and Illustrated Stimuli Ten elements of visual interest or attention, including references to the model, were found in the responses to photographs and illustrations. Table 1 lists the frequencies of response to each type of m e d u m . TABLE 1 FREQUENCIES OF VISUALINTEREST RESPONSES TO ILLUSTRATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHS IN
FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
Source of Visual Interest Garment Style Layout/Design of Advertisement Garment Style Detail Color Designer Name Verbal Text Accessories Setting of Advertisement Store Name Model
Photographs
LUustrations
Fisher's z
Significant differences were evident between the responses to photographed and illustrated stimuli measured as interest in visual layout and design, the details of the garment styles, the color, and the models in the advertisements. Participants mentioned aspects of the layout or design of illustrated stimuli more than twice as frequently as they did for photographic stimuli. This may be, in part, explained by the fact that this category included references to visual design elements, such as layout or graphics, which may have seemed more dominant in illustrations than in the photographs. The number of responses focusing on the graphic features were distributed across all four illustrated advertisements, indicating that no one particular advertisement can account for this difference. The difference between participants' focus on the details of garment style in the illustrated and photographed stimuli can be explained, in part, by the nature of the advertisements themselves. A black and white photographed advertisement of a jacket and skirt ensemble accounts for over onehalf of the responses to garment style details. The fabric of this ensemble
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has a large-scale polka-dot print. Responses to the polka-dot pattern, a fabric surface design, were coded as interest in the style details of the garment. Therefore, this photograph biased the comparison of interest in details of the garments. The significant difference in the attention to color, however, is not due to any one specific advertisement. The color in two photographic stimuli was the focus of attention more frequently than in any other advertisement. These two stimuli contained brightly colored jackets and the models are posed in front of bright, nearly white backgrounds that suggest the outdoor sky. This contrast made the color salient for the viewers. One illustrated stimulus also contained an equally brightly colored jacket in high contrast to the background, but the frequency of color-focused responses to that stimu. finding suggests lus was lower than that for the bright ~ h o t o ~ r a p h sThls that color in photographs may be more visually salient to viewers. Participants' responses to photographed stimuli included the model in the advertisements nearly three times as often as when they were responding to illustrated stimuli. This finding indicates that the model has more salience in the viewers' experiences of advertisements when they are photographs. Participants not only were focusing on the model, but their responses were attributing specific characteristics to the models, such as "mischievousness," " happiness," and "sexiness." The participants responded favorably to and seemed more interested in the models in the advertisements when the model was a real person. Not only were these participants interested in the "concreteness" of the photographic image as opposed to the illustration, they were projecting human characteristics on the model.
Afective Responses and Evaluative Criteria Applied to Photographs and Illustrations Among the evaluative responses to the garments and the advertisements, there were significant differences found using Fisher's z comparing frequencies of participants' statements of preference for the garments by type of stimuli and differences in preferences for the individual stimuli (see Table 2). The garments represented in the photographs were more frequently liked than garments represented in the Illustrations. This may be due to the concreteness of the garment or the perceived clarity of information in the photographs. Participants may be more likely to prefer the photograph which they feel more accurately represents the garment. ). Dislike of illustrated stimuli was statistically significant ( ~ ~ 0 . 0 5Although not statistically significant ( p < 0. lo), the converse was also a strong trend, i.e., photographs were more frequently preferred. The remaining affective responses were categorized according to the content themes of the responses. These themes included information con-
VIEWERS' RESPONSES TO FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS TABLE 2 FREQUENCIES OF EVALUATIVE RESPONSESTO ILLUSTRATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHS IN FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS Evaluative Res~onse
Photoeraohs
Illustrations
Fisher's z
Garment is liked Garment is disliked Garment fits lifestyle Garment does not fit lifestyle Advertisement is liked Advertisement is disliked Advertisement is liked due to Rarrnent Advertisement is disliked due to earment
cerns, meanings ascribed to the advertisements and the garments in them, and aesthetic responses. Table 3 shows no statistically significant differences in the frequency of participants' use of informational or meaning-oriented responses to illustrated and photographed stimuli, although five items show strong trends and bear some discussion. TABLE 3
FREQUENCIES OF INFORMATION, MEANING, A N D AESTHETICALLY ORIENTED RESPONSES TO ILLUSTRATED A N D PHOTOGRAPHED STIMULI Resoonses Information Oriented Responses Information in advertisement is uncertain Information in advertisement is dear Perceived effectiveness of advertisement as a sales tool Meaning (Including Aesthetic) Oriented Responses Assessment of garment's fashionability Garment perceived as intended for young market Garment perceived as intended for trendy market Message m advertisement is uncertain Adveri~sementhas an artistic quality Advertisement is judged unique Advertisement is perceived to express mood or feeling Viewer states aesthetic appreciation of the advertlsernent "ns.
Photoeraohs Illustrations Fisher's z*
5
18
-0.99
First, responses expressing participants' perceived certainty about information were more frequent for photographs whereas expressions of uncertainty about information were more common for illustrations. Second, participants tended to judge photographs as more effective than illustration in stimulating viewers' interest in purchasing the garments.
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&
A. M. FIORE
Next, in assessing the intended or appropriate market for the garments in the advertisements, participants tended to judge the photographed garments appropriate for a young market more frequently than illustrated garments. This trend may also be explained by the apparent ages of the models in the photographs. The models may have been perceived to be of a specific age, whereas the illustrations may not have been perceived to convey information about age. Also, since illustrations have a longer history in advertising than photography, dustrations may have been associated with an "older" style of marketing. Another trend related to the perceived age of the intended market was that illustrations were more frequently assumed to be appropriate for a trendier market than the photographs. I n particular, two illustrated stimuli were assumed to be trendy garments, perhaps supported by their more abstract artistic qualities. One of these two advertisements was also considered to be "high fashion" and sophisticated. The fact that these advertisements were also disliked most frequently may be a function of the fashion interest and the socioeconomic status of the participants. These participants generally gave positive evaluations to garments which they felt were appropriate for themselves; they did not apparently view themselves as in a "high fashion" or part of a "trendy" market. The last trend relates to earlier discussions of illustration as perceived as art more frequently than photography. Participants made comments describing their own aesthetic appreciation for illustrations more frequently than they did for photographs. This may have implications for advertisers who want to "set a mood" and are sure that they are not concerned about communicating specific product information.
Conclusion The participants exhibited more interest in the visual qualities and design features of the dustrated advertisements, although they responded more frequently to the color in the photographs. They also seemed to show more interest in the models in the photographs. The results of the comparisons between the frequency of each response category used in reference to the two types of advertisements indicate that there are both significant and subtle differences in the ways the participants responded to illustrations and photographs. Illustrations and the garments in them were most frequently disliked by the viewers in this sample. The garments in illustrations were perceived and interpreted as trendier and more high-fashion oriented than garments in photographs. In general, the photographs were viewed as more effective in communicating information about the product and stimulating purchase interest, although the more naturalistic or realistic limitations were viewed more positively than abstract or exaggerated illustrations. These results indicate a perceived dichotomy between the level of visual garment detail information conveyed in an advertisement and
VIEWERS' RESPONSES T O FASHION ADVERTISEMENTS
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the perceived level of fashionability of its garment. Advertisements with less visual garment information were perceived as promoting more high-fashion garments. Also, illustrations were more often enjoyed specifically for aesthetic characteristics. These findings support only some of the assumptions about consumers' more positive response to photography believed by many individuals in the advertising departments of major retail stores. Participants generally favored photographs, perhaps due to the "reality" of the garments in the photographs or to the participants' ability to relate positively to the model. Contrary to the views expressed in the literature and the opinions of the surveyed art directors, there were no statistically significant differences in viewers' perceptions of informational and meaning or aesthetic characteristics of illustrated and photographed stimuli. This study was exploratory in nature and used qualitative data. The responses compared were generated in free-response interviews, not forcedchoice situations. Therefore, findings should be further explored and substantiated perhaps through a more stringently controlled data collection instrument. The results of this study could be beneficial in the construction of data collection instruments for further studies of viewers' response to advertising. REFERENCES
B R ~ EB., (1990) The fashion illustration scene. The Artist's Magazine, 7(6), 43-49. COLEMAN, A. D. (1989) The image in question: further notes on the directorial mode. In R. Kostelanetz (Ed.), Esthetics contemporary. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. Pp. 331-338. DANIELSON, D. (1986) According to the artists: rofessional fashion illustrators' views about their art form. Clothing and Textiles ~esearcgJournal, 5(1), 27-33. DENEVE,R. (1976) Fashion art in a new light. (Introduction to Fashon art in a new light, Special issue) Print, 30(4), 23. GLASER, B. G., & STRAUSS,A. L. (1967) The discovery of grounded theory: ,hafegres for qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine. GUUFORD, J. P., & FRUCHTER, B. (1978) Fundamental statistics in psychology and education. (6th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. Illustration: the look of fall fashion. (1984) Art Direction, 36(6), 50-54. KIMLE, P. (1991) A content analysis of women's apparel advertising in Vogue, 1960-1989. I n Proceedings of the National Meetings of the International Textile and Apparel Association. San Francisco, CA: International Textile and Apparel Association. P. 140. [Abstract] LINCOLN,Y. S., & GUBA,E. (1985) Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly H a s , C A : Sage. MCCRACKEN, G . (1987) Advertising: meaning or information? In M. Wallendorf & l? Anderson (Eds.), Advances in consumer research. Vol. 14. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. Pp. 121-124. WHISNEY,A. J., WINAKOR, G., & WOLINS, L. (1979) Fashion preference: drawings versus photographs. Home Economics Research Journal, 8 , 138-150. Accepted September 24, 1992.
