NIH Public Access Author Manuscript J Fam Consum Sci. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 October 17.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
Published in final edited form as: J Fam Consum Sci. 2006 November 1; 98(4): 20–26.
Extension Educators' Perceptions of Community Readiness, Knowledge of Prevention Science, and Experience with Collaboration Daniel F. Perkins, PhD [Professor], The Pennsylvania State University Claudia C. Mincemoyer, PhD [Associate Professor], and The Pennsylvania State University Catherine J. Lillehoj, PhD [Research Scientist] Iowa State University Daniel F. Perkins: [email protected]
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Abstract This investigation compared Extension educators' perceptions of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaborations with the perceptions of community human service professionals. First, Cooperative Extension System (CES) educators and human service professionals were found to hold similar perceptions of community readiness for prevention programs. Second, CES educators demonstrated less awareness of prevention programs in the community, but a greater knowledge of research-based community risk and protective factors than the human service professionals. Third, CES educators and human service professionals were similar in terms of community collaborative involvement, success, and personal effectiveness.
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“Promoting School-Community-University Partnerships to Enhance Resilience (PROSPER) is based on a collaborative model for the purpose of disseminating evidence-based prevention programs to enhance youth development, as well as reduce youth problem behaviors such as substance use and violence” (Spoth, Greenberg, Bierman, & Redmond, 2004, p. 33). To accomplish this goal, PROSPER teams select, implement, and supervise evidenced-based prevention programs (Spoth et al., 2004). PROSPER teams also recruit youth and families into prevention programs and secure resources to ensure sustainability of programming efforts. This study examined Extension educators' perception of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science (i.e., inter-disciplinary field of psychologists, sociologists, health and medical professionals, and human developmentalists who focus on theory, research, and practice of: prevention of problem behaviors in youth, dysfunctional familial behaviors, disease and illness, knowledge of evidence-based interventions, and risk and protective factors), and experience with collaborations compared with the perceptions of other human service professionals in the community. The Extension educators and human service professionals interviewed in this study are members of community PROSPER teams. PROSPER is a research initiative that links three existing infrastructure systems to provide prevention programming to youth and families. The infrastructure systems include the land
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grant university, the Cooperative Extension System (CES), and the public school system (Spoth et al., 2004).
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Perception of Community-Based Prevention According to Molgaard (1997), Extension prevention programming historically has been limited to parent education that featured preventive education promoting positive parenting strategies. The primary focus of CES educational efforts has been on agricultural, youth, and family and consumer sciences (FCS). The rural farm crisis of the mid-1980s caused CES to change its focus and incorporate prevention education. Extension educators began to address issues such as communication skills, management of stress, emotional and physical needs of dependent older persons, retirement planning, and support of local child abuse prevention efforts (Molgaard, 1997).
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Nevertheless, CES has a long-term positive reputation among various community stakeholders. For example, Mincemoyer, Perkins, and Lillehoj (2004) found that most community collaborative partners believed that CES was committed to fostering school and community-based prevention programs. Yet, the extant knowledge and experience base among Extension educators concerning community prevention education programming efforts is not known. The question addressed in this study is whether the perceptions of Extension educators are different from or similar to those of other community human service professionals. This study explored perceptions concerning community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaboration. According to Siciliano (1996), human service professionals and other community leaders might have varying perceptions of prevention-related issues based on the community sector they represent. Riggs, Feinberg, and Greenberg (2002) found that public human service providers (e.g., Safe and Drug Free School coordinators and community mental health representatives) were more likely to perceive greater effectiveness of prevention strategies than key leaders in other community sectors (e.g., law enforcement and the judicial system). Riggs et al. postulated the difference was partly due to human service professionals being more prevention-oriented, whereas those in law enforcement were more involved in and placed more emphasis on treatment-oriented services. Also human service providers who offered services to high-risk populations might increase their perception of risk compared to business people who were likely to have lower exposure to such populations.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
This investigation compared Extension educators' perceptions of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaborations with perceptions of human service professionals. The researchers hypothesized that Extension educators' engagement with high-risk audiences increases their proximity to preventionrelated issues; therefore, their perceptions of community readiness and knowledge of prevention closely resembles the perceptions of their human service counterparts. Perkins and Hoy (2004) found that many Extension educators believed that community collaborations enhanced their efficiency and credibility in working with at-risk groups. Extension educators embrace community collaboration as an effective strategy to address critical complex social issues; therefore, the hypothesis was that Extension educators would have more experience with community collaborations when compared to that of human service PROSPER team members.
Methods Twenty-eight communities (14 in Pennsylvania and 14 in Iowa) are involved in PROSPER. The communities are located in rural areas with school district size varying between 1,236 and 5,192 students. The average district size is slightly less than 3,000 students. In the spring J Fam Consum Sci. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 October 17.
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of 2002, individual interviews were conducted with Extension educators (N = 27) and human service professionals who were members of PROSPER teams (N = 148). To ensure a high rate of return, structured interviews were conducted rather than mail surveys. The variables in this study are based on these interviews. Other PROSPER team members included Safe and Drug Free School coordinators, community mental health and substance abuse agency representatives, principals, and other school personnel (e.g., teachers and guidance counselors).1 Each PROSPER team had a slightly different composition. Team members were asked questions about: (a) community readiness; (b) knowledge of prevention science; and (c) experience with community collaborations. Respondents ranged in age from 23 to 65 years (M = 44.7, SD = 9.21); and 45.1% of the respondents were male. All respondents indicated completing a minimum of a high school education or GED, and 94.1% of the respondents reported having obtained a bachelors degree. Seventy-four percent of the sample lived in or near the school district that organized the PROSPER intervention team. Measures Demographics—Background demographics including age, gender, years worked or residing in the community, and employment were collected during the interview.
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PROSPER Team Member Status—Participants were categorized by team member status and grouped as Extension educator (N = 27) (4-H Youth Development or FCS) and human service team members (N = 148). All Extension educators had been involved in CES for more than 5 years. Community Readiness—This construct involves the degree to which the community is ready to adopt youth alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATOD) prevention strategies (Meyer, Greenberg, & Feinberg, in press). Community readiness was measured with four conceptually-based scales: community attachment, community initiative, community efficacy, and community leadership. The items in each scale utilized a four-point Likert scale. Adapted from Wandersman, Florin, Friedmann, and Meier (1987), a three-item community attachment scale (α = .56) measured the level of resident investment and closeness in a community. Community initiative is a four-item scale (α = .65) modified from Feinberg, Greenberg, and Osgood (2004) measuring the level of active engagement of community members. Community efficacy is a four-item scale (α = .66) adapted from Feinberg et al. (2004) and Wandersman et al. (1987) measuring the ability of community members to work together for community benefit. Community leadership is a four-item scale (α = .81; Feinberg et al., 2004) measuring the effectiveness of community leadership.
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Knowledge and Attitudes Toward Prevention Science—This construct was defined as knowledge of prevention programs (e.g., alcohol and substance abuse and bullying), as well as youth and family risk and protective factors (Hawkins et al., 2000; Perkins & Borden, 2003). Knowledge of prevention science was measured with two scales: overall prevention knowledge and risk factor knowledge. Overall prevention knowledge was knowledge concerning community-based prevention programs. The four-item scale had a Cronbach's Alpha of .83. Risk factor knowledge represents knowledge of risk and protective factors. This scale was computed as the percent correct from an eight-item knowledge test concerning risk and protective factors.
1Because the study questions of interest were related to knowledge and experience of professional staff in community-based human service organizations, we excluded team members who were selected because they were parents and who were not also human service professionals.
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Experience with Collaboration—This construct captured involvement with partnerships, perceptions of partnerships' successes, and personal effectiveness with collaborations. This construct was measured with three scales: collaboration involvement, collaboration success, and personal effectiveness with previous collaborations. Collaboration involvement represents previous level of involvement in community partnerships and assesses both length of time in a partnership and leadership role held. Collaboration success was defined as an individual's perception of the previous partnerships' success. This was a two-item scale with the same question asked regarding two different partnerships in which the individual was a member. Personal effectiveness in collaborations assesses satisfaction with personal effectiveness in previous collaborations. As with the last scale, the same question was asked about two different partnerships. Thus, the correlation between the two questions on each of these scales was low (r = .20 and r = .06, respectively), because separate partnerships were being measured.
Results
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Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) evaluated differences between Extension educators and other human service professionals with age, gender, years worked in the community, years in the current employment position, and years lived in the community as covariates. Separate ANCOVAs were conducted for each of the subscales of the dependent variables. The results are presented in terms of major categories to be examined. Perceptions of Community Readiness In relation to the community attachment scale, Extension educators' perceptions of how connected residents felt to their community were similar to those of human service team members; no significant differences were found (see Tables 1 and 2). Similarly, for the community initiative construct, Extension educators' perceptions were not significantly different from those of human service professionals. However, years lived in the community was found to significantly relate to community initiative (see Table 1). The longer a person lived in the community the less that person perceived that residents engaged in their community. No significant differences were found for the community efficacy scale (the degree to which residents felt they were able to improve their community). For the community leadership construct, age was found to be significant. As age increased, the perception of community leaders' effectiveness increased. Prevention Knowledge
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As noted earlier, knowledge of prevention science involves an understanding of prevention programs and risk and protective factors. A significant difference was found between Extension educators and human service PROSPER team members with the ANCOVA analysis of the overall prevention knowledge construct. Extension educators' knowledge of community-based prevention programs was significantly less than that of human service professionals. However, Extension educators were significantly more knowledgeable about risk and protective factors than were human service professionals. In addition, age and years working in the community were different. Older team members, as well as those who had worked in the community longer were more knowledgeable about risk and protective factors than were younger team members or those who were newer community residents. Experience in Community Collaborations Experience with community collaborations was assessed with three scales: collaboration involvement, collaboration success, and personal effectiveness in collaborations. No significant differences were found between Extension educators and human service professionals. However, the variables of age and years lived in the community were found to J Fam Consum Sci. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 October 17.
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be significant. As age increased, the level of involvement (i.e., leadership roles) in community partnerships increased. Conversely, as years lived in the community increased, involvement in community partnerships decreased. No significant difference was found between Extension educators and human service professionals in the ANCOVA analysis of the collaboration success variable (i.e., perception of the previous collaboration's success). Age and gender were found to be significant. An increase in age was associated with an increase in perceived success of the collaborative. Female team members had a greater perception of collaboration success than did males. Only years worked in the community was significant in predicting personal effectiveness in collaborations. Those who had worked in the community longer reported greater satisfaction with personal efficacy in previous collaborations.
Discussion
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The purpose of the study was to examine whether Extension educators' perceptions of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaborations would be similar to the perceptions of community-based human service professionals on the PROSPER team. As predicted by the researchers, perceptions of Extension educators were similar to those of human service professionals concerning community readiness to implement prevention programming that would address critical issues confronting youth and families. For the construct of knowledge of prevention science, the results indicated significant differences between the reports of Extension educators and human service professionals. Extension educators were significantly more knowledgeable with regard to risk and protective factors and human service PROSPER team members were significantly more knowledgeable about specific prevention programming. Thus, although Extension educators were knowledgeable concerning risk and protective factors among community youth, they seemed to be in need of professional development opportunities to enhance their knowledge of prevention programming to address identified risk factors. The lack of prevention programming knowledge might be related to the lack of experience in the field of community-based prevention programming for youth ATOD. Many of the programs conducted by 4-H Youth Development educators have focused on positive youth development projects and activities that promote competencies and positive development; however rarely do these programs address the reduction of risk factors as prevention programs do.
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In contrast, community-based human service professionals have a history of conducting prevention and intervention programs for youth and families; thus, these professionals might have a wider knowledge-base related to specific prevention programs. Also, CES educators are often responsible for many different types of programming (e.g., nutrition and health, parent education, and volunteer leadership development) and it may be more difficult for them to focus exclusively on one type of programming. Nonetheless, prevention science is a new opportunity for Extension with high growth potential. Because of the multiple roles assumed by CES educators, collaborations with community agencies have become increasingly important. No significant differences were found between the perceptions of Extension educators and those of human service professionals concerning collaboration involvement, collaboration success, and personal effectiveness. The lack of differences in perceptions might be due to the increased emphasis from public and private funders requiring collaborative proposals and projects at the community level. To be successful in acquiring funding, community-
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based organizations (e.g., CES and nonprofit organizations) must seek partners with whom they have a shared mission. In addition, problems facing youth and families are complex, and there is an increasing realization that multiple agencies and programs are needed to address these emerging needs. Problems facing youth and families are complex, and there is an increasing realization that multiple agencies and programs are needed to address these emerging needs. Extension administrators should develop an increased awareness of the multiple roles Extension educators are asked to assume. The findings from this study point to a need for continuing education to enhance the knowledge-base of Extension educators concerning prevention programs. Professional development for Extension educators is a direct investment in promoting healthy, contributing families and vibrant communities. Some degree of specialization, especially in prevention programming, is critical for the Extension educator to remain aware of and informed by current research, funding opportunities, and programming options. Time, resources and organizational support are necessary for developing a “prevention science” expertise for Extension educators.
Acknowledgments NIH-PA Author Manuscript
This study was supported by The Penn State Agricultural Experiment Station Project Number 3826. This research was supported by a grant from the NIDA, 1 R01 DA13709–01A1.
References
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Feinberg ME, Greenberg MT, Osgood DW. Readiness, functioning, and efficacy in community prevention coalitions: A study of communities that care in Pennsylvania. American journal of Community Psychology. 2004; 33(2):163–176. [PubMed: 15212176] Hawkins JD, Herrenkohl TI, Farrington DP, Brewer D, Catalano RF, Harachi TW, et al. Predictors of youth violence. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. 2000 Apr. Meyer S, Greenberg MT, Feinberg M. Community readiness as a multidimensional construct. Journal of Community Psychology. in press. Mincemoyer C, Perkins D, Lillehoj C. Perceptions of the Cooperative Extension Service: A community resource for youth and family programs. Journal of Extension. 2004; 42(3):1–11. Available online at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004october/a5.shtml. Molgaard VK. The Extension service as key mechanism for research and services delivery for prevention of mental health disorders in rural areas. American Journal of Community Psychology. 1997; 25(4):515–544. [PubMed: 9338957] Perkins, DF.; Borden, LM. Risk factors, risk behaviors, and resiliency in adolescence. In: Lerner, RM.; Easterbrooks, MA.; Mistry, J., editors. Handbook of psychology: Vol 6 Developmental psychology. New York: Wiley; 2003. p. 373-394. Perkins, DF.; Hoy, PE. Penn State Cooperative Extension's capacity to support programs for children, youth, and families at risk: Results of the third organizational change survey. University Park, PA: Department of Agricultural and Extension Education, The Pennsylvania State University; 2004. Riggs NR, Feinberg ME, Greenberg MT. Community sector and gender differences in the perceptions of community-based prevention. Journal of Community Psychology. 2002; 30(6):708–721. Siciliano JI. The relationship of board member diversity to organizational performance. Journal of Business Ethics. 1996; 15(5):1313–1320. Spoth R, Greenberg M, Bierman K, Redmond C. PROSPER community-university model for public education systems: Capacity-building for evidence-based, competence-building prevention. Prevention Science. 2004; 5(1):31–39. [PubMed: 15058910] Wandersman A, Florin P, Friedmann R, Meier R. Who participates, who does not, and why? An analysis of voluntary neighborhood associations in the United States and Israel. Sociological Forum. 1987; 2(4):534–555.
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Table 1
Means of Extension Educators and Human Service Providers
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MEANS FOR EXTENSION EDUCATORS (STANDARD DEVIATION; N)
MEANS FOR HUMAN SERVICE PROFESSIONALS ON PROSPER TEAMS (STANDARD DEVIATION; N)
VARIABLE
SCALE
Community attachment
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
3.40 (.44; 25)
3.26 (.46; 148)
Community initiative
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
2.55 (.54; 26)
2.35 (.49; 148)
Community efficacy
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
2.65 (.48; 26)
2.66 (.52; 148)
Community leadership
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
2.46 (.61; 25)
2.51 (.59; 148)
Overall prevention knowledge
1 = Not at all true; to 4 = Very true
2.74 (.69; 26)
3.23 (.62; 142)
Risk factor knowledge
8 Items with 0–1 count; 1 = answer correct
7.08 (.94; 26)
6.55 (1.15; 140)
Collaboration involvement
6 Items; various response choices
3.31 (.97; 26)
2.37 (1.65; 142)
Collaboration success
1 = Not at all; to 4 = Completely successful
4.14 (.51; 25)
3.40 (.77; 102)
Personal satisfaction with previous collaborations
1 = Not at all satisfied; to 4 = Very satisfied
3.46 (.43; 25)
3.57 (.51; 102)
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Table 2
Results of the Mixed-model ANCOVA1
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DEPENDENT VARIABLE—INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Community initiative—Years lived in community
ESTIMATE
SE
F VALUE (DF)
p
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Published in final edited form as: J Fam Consum Sci. 2006 November 1; 98(4): 20–26.
Extension Educators' Perceptions of Community Readiness, Knowledge of Prevention Science, and Experience with Collaboration Daniel F. Perkins, PhD [Professor], The Pennsylvania State University Claudia C. Mincemoyer, PhD [Associate Professor], and The Pennsylvania State University Catherine J. Lillehoj, PhD [Research Scientist] Iowa State University Daniel F. Perkins: [email protected]
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
Abstract This investigation compared Extension educators' perceptions of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaborations with the perceptions of community human service professionals. First, Cooperative Extension System (CES) educators and human service professionals were found to hold similar perceptions of community readiness for prevention programs. Second, CES educators demonstrated less awareness of prevention programs in the community, but a greater knowledge of research-based community risk and protective factors than the human service professionals. Third, CES educators and human service professionals were similar in terms of community collaborative involvement, success, and personal effectiveness.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
“Promoting School-Community-University Partnerships to Enhance Resilience (PROSPER) is based on a collaborative model for the purpose of disseminating evidence-based prevention programs to enhance youth development, as well as reduce youth problem behaviors such as substance use and violence” (Spoth, Greenberg, Bierman, & Redmond, 2004, p. 33). To accomplish this goal, PROSPER teams select, implement, and supervise evidenced-based prevention programs (Spoth et al., 2004). PROSPER teams also recruit youth and families into prevention programs and secure resources to ensure sustainability of programming efforts. This study examined Extension educators' perception of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science (i.e., inter-disciplinary field of psychologists, sociologists, health and medical professionals, and human developmentalists who focus on theory, research, and practice of: prevention of problem behaviors in youth, dysfunctional familial behaviors, disease and illness, knowledge of evidence-based interventions, and risk and protective factors), and experience with collaborations compared with the perceptions of other human service professionals in the community. The Extension educators and human service professionals interviewed in this study are members of community PROSPER teams. PROSPER is a research initiative that links three existing infrastructure systems to provide prevention programming to youth and families. The infrastructure systems include the land
Perkins et al.
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grant university, the Cooperative Extension System (CES), and the public school system (Spoth et al., 2004).
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
Perception of Community-Based Prevention According to Molgaard (1997), Extension prevention programming historically has been limited to parent education that featured preventive education promoting positive parenting strategies. The primary focus of CES educational efforts has been on agricultural, youth, and family and consumer sciences (FCS). The rural farm crisis of the mid-1980s caused CES to change its focus and incorporate prevention education. Extension educators began to address issues such as communication skills, management of stress, emotional and physical needs of dependent older persons, retirement planning, and support of local child abuse prevention efforts (Molgaard, 1997).
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
Nevertheless, CES has a long-term positive reputation among various community stakeholders. For example, Mincemoyer, Perkins, and Lillehoj (2004) found that most community collaborative partners believed that CES was committed to fostering school and community-based prevention programs. Yet, the extant knowledge and experience base among Extension educators concerning community prevention education programming efforts is not known. The question addressed in this study is whether the perceptions of Extension educators are different from or similar to those of other community human service professionals. This study explored perceptions concerning community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaboration. According to Siciliano (1996), human service professionals and other community leaders might have varying perceptions of prevention-related issues based on the community sector they represent. Riggs, Feinberg, and Greenberg (2002) found that public human service providers (e.g., Safe and Drug Free School coordinators and community mental health representatives) were more likely to perceive greater effectiveness of prevention strategies than key leaders in other community sectors (e.g., law enforcement and the judicial system). Riggs et al. postulated the difference was partly due to human service professionals being more prevention-oriented, whereas those in law enforcement were more involved in and placed more emphasis on treatment-oriented services. Also human service providers who offered services to high-risk populations might increase their perception of risk compared to business people who were likely to have lower exposure to such populations.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
This investigation compared Extension educators' perceptions of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaborations with perceptions of human service professionals. The researchers hypothesized that Extension educators' engagement with high-risk audiences increases their proximity to preventionrelated issues; therefore, their perceptions of community readiness and knowledge of prevention closely resembles the perceptions of their human service counterparts. Perkins and Hoy (2004) found that many Extension educators believed that community collaborations enhanced their efficiency and credibility in working with at-risk groups. Extension educators embrace community collaboration as an effective strategy to address critical complex social issues; therefore, the hypothesis was that Extension educators would have more experience with community collaborations when compared to that of human service PROSPER team members.
Methods Twenty-eight communities (14 in Pennsylvania and 14 in Iowa) are involved in PROSPER. The communities are located in rural areas with school district size varying between 1,236 and 5,192 students. The average district size is slightly less than 3,000 students. In the spring J Fam Consum Sci. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 October 17.
Perkins et al.
Page 3
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
of 2002, individual interviews were conducted with Extension educators (N = 27) and human service professionals who were members of PROSPER teams (N = 148). To ensure a high rate of return, structured interviews were conducted rather than mail surveys. The variables in this study are based on these interviews. Other PROSPER team members included Safe and Drug Free School coordinators, community mental health and substance abuse agency representatives, principals, and other school personnel (e.g., teachers and guidance counselors).1 Each PROSPER team had a slightly different composition. Team members were asked questions about: (a) community readiness; (b) knowledge of prevention science; and (c) experience with community collaborations. Respondents ranged in age from 23 to 65 years (M = 44.7, SD = 9.21); and 45.1% of the respondents were male. All respondents indicated completing a minimum of a high school education or GED, and 94.1% of the respondents reported having obtained a bachelors degree. Seventy-four percent of the sample lived in or near the school district that organized the PROSPER intervention team. Measures Demographics—Background demographics including age, gender, years worked or residing in the community, and employment were collected during the interview.
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PROSPER Team Member Status—Participants were categorized by team member status and grouped as Extension educator (N = 27) (4-H Youth Development or FCS) and human service team members (N = 148). All Extension educators had been involved in CES for more than 5 years. Community Readiness—This construct involves the degree to which the community is ready to adopt youth alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATOD) prevention strategies (Meyer, Greenberg, & Feinberg, in press). Community readiness was measured with four conceptually-based scales: community attachment, community initiative, community efficacy, and community leadership. The items in each scale utilized a four-point Likert scale. Adapted from Wandersman, Florin, Friedmann, and Meier (1987), a three-item community attachment scale (α = .56) measured the level of resident investment and closeness in a community. Community initiative is a four-item scale (α = .65) modified from Feinberg, Greenberg, and Osgood (2004) measuring the level of active engagement of community members. Community efficacy is a four-item scale (α = .66) adapted from Feinberg et al. (2004) and Wandersman et al. (1987) measuring the ability of community members to work together for community benefit. Community leadership is a four-item scale (α = .81; Feinberg et al., 2004) measuring the effectiveness of community leadership.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
Knowledge and Attitudes Toward Prevention Science—This construct was defined as knowledge of prevention programs (e.g., alcohol and substance abuse and bullying), as well as youth and family risk and protective factors (Hawkins et al., 2000; Perkins & Borden, 2003). Knowledge of prevention science was measured with two scales: overall prevention knowledge and risk factor knowledge. Overall prevention knowledge was knowledge concerning community-based prevention programs. The four-item scale had a Cronbach's Alpha of .83. Risk factor knowledge represents knowledge of risk and protective factors. This scale was computed as the percent correct from an eight-item knowledge test concerning risk and protective factors.
1Because the study questions of interest were related to knowledge and experience of professional staff in community-based human service organizations, we excluded team members who were selected because they were parents and who were not also human service professionals.
J Fam Consum Sci. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 October 17.
Perkins et al.
Page 4
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Experience with Collaboration—This construct captured involvement with partnerships, perceptions of partnerships' successes, and personal effectiveness with collaborations. This construct was measured with three scales: collaboration involvement, collaboration success, and personal effectiveness with previous collaborations. Collaboration involvement represents previous level of involvement in community partnerships and assesses both length of time in a partnership and leadership role held. Collaboration success was defined as an individual's perception of the previous partnerships' success. This was a two-item scale with the same question asked regarding two different partnerships in which the individual was a member. Personal effectiveness in collaborations assesses satisfaction with personal effectiveness in previous collaborations. As with the last scale, the same question was asked about two different partnerships. Thus, the correlation between the two questions on each of these scales was low (r = .20 and r = .06, respectively), because separate partnerships were being measured.
Results
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) evaluated differences between Extension educators and other human service professionals with age, gender, years worked in the community, years in the current employment position, and years lived in the community as covariates. Separate ANCOVAs were conducted for each of the subscales of the dependent variables. The results are presented in terms of major categories to be examined. Perceptions of Community Readiness In relation to the community attachment scale, Extension educators' perceptions of how connected residents felt to their community were similar to those of human service team members; no significant differences were found (see Tables 1 and 2). Similarly, for the community initiative construct, Extension educators' perceptions were not significantly different from those of human service professionals. However, years lived in the community was found to significantly relate to community initiative (see Table 1). The longer a person lived in the community the less that person perceived that residents engaged in their community. No significant differences were found for the community efficacy scale (the degree to which residents felt they were able to improve their community). For the community leadership construct, age was found to be significant. As age increased, the perception of community leaders' effectiveness increased. Prevention Knowledge
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
As noted earlier, knowledge of prevention science involves an understanding of prevention programs and risk and protective factors. A significant difference was found between Extension educators and human service PROSPER team members with the ANCOVA analysis of the overall prevention knowledge construct. Extension educators' knowledge of community-based prevention programs was significantly less than that of human service professionals. However, Extension educators were significantly more knowledgeable about risk and protective factors than were human service professionals. In addition, age and years working in the community were different. Older team members, as well as those who had worked in the community longer were more knowledgeable about risk and protective factors than were younger team members or those who were newer community residents. Experience in Community Collaborations Experience with community collaborations was assessed with three scales: collaboration involvement, collaboration success, and personal effectiveness in collaborations. No significant differences were found between Extension educators and human service professionals. However, the variables of age and years lived in the community were found to J Fam Consum Sci. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 October 17.
Perkins et al.
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be significant. As age increased, the level of involvement (i.e., leadership roles) in community partnerships increased. Conversely, as years lived in the community increased, involvement in community partnerships decreased. No significant difference was found between Extension educators and human service professionals in the ANCOVA analysis of the collaboration success variable (i.e., perception of the previous collaboration's success). Age and gender were found to be significant. An increase in age was associated with an increase in perceived success of the collaborative. Female team members had a greater perception of collaboration success than did males. Only years worked in the community was significant in predicting personal effectiveness in collaborations. Those who had worked in the community longer reported greater satisfaction with personal efficacy in previous collaborations.
Discussion
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
The purpose of the study was to examine whether Extension educators' perceptions of community readiness, knowledge of prevention science, and experience with community collaborations would be similar to the perceptions of community-based human service professionals on the PROSPER team. As predicted by the researchers, perceptions of Extension educators were similar to those of human service professionals concerning community readiness to implement prevention programming that would address critical issues confronting youth and families. For the construct of knowledge of prevention science, the results indicated significant differences between the reports of Extension educators and human service professionals. Extension educators were significantly more knowledgeable with regard to risk and protective factors and human service PROSPER team members were significantly more knowledgeable about specific prevention programming. Thus, although Extension educators were knowledgeable concerning risk and protective factors among community youth, they seemed to be in need of professional development opportunities to enhance their knowledge of prevention programming to address identified risk factors. The lack of prevention programming knowledge might be related to the lack of experience in the field of community-based prevention programming for youth ATOD. Many of the programs conducted by 4-H Youth Development educators have focused on positive youth development projects and activities that promote competencies and positive development; however rarely do these programs address the reduction of risk factors as prevention programs do.
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In contrast, community-based human service professionals have a history of conducting prevention and intervention programs for youth and families; thus, these professionals might have a wider knowledge-base related to specific prevention programs. Also, CES educators are often responsible for many different types of programming (e.g., nutrition and health, parent education, and volunteer leadership development) and it may be more difficult for them to focus exclusively on one type of programming. Nonetheless, prevention science is a new opportunity for Extension with high growth potential. Because of the multiple roles assumed by CES educators, collaborations with community agencies have become increasingly important. No significant differences were found between the perceptions of Extension educators and those of human service professionals concerning collaboration involvement, collaboration success, and personal effectiveness. The lack of differences in perceptions might be due to the increased emphasis from public and private funders requiring collaborative proposals and projects at the community level. To be successful in acquiring funding, community-
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based organizations (e.g., CES and nonprofit organizations) must seek partners with whom they have a shared mission. In addition, problems facing youth and families are complex, and there is an increasing realization that multiple agencies and programs are needed to address these emerging needs. Problems facing youth and families are complex, and there is an increasing realization that multiple agencies and programs are needed to address these emerging needs. Extension administrators should develop an increased awareness of the multiple roles Extension educators are asked to assume. The findings from this study point to a need for continuing education to enhance the knowledge-base of Extension educators concerning prevention programs. Professional development for Extension educators is a direct investment in promoting healthy, contributing families and vibrant communities. Some degree of specialization, especially in prevention programming, is critical for the Extension educator to remain aware of and informed by current research, funding opportunities, and programming options. Time, resources and organizational support are necessary for developing a “prevention science” expertise for Extension educators.
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This study was supported by The Penn State Agricultural Experiment Station Project Number 3826. This research was supported by a grant from the NIDA, 1 R01 DA13709–01A1.
References
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Feinberg ME, Greenberg MT, Osgood DW. Readiness, functioning, and efficacy in community prevention coalitions: A study of communities that care in Pennsylvania. American journal of Community Psychology. 2004; 33(2):163–176. [PubMed: 15212176] Hawkins JD, Herrenkohl TI, Farrington DP, Brewer D, Catalano RF, Harachi TW, et al. Predictors of youth violence. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. 2000 Apr. Meyer S, Greenberg MT, Feinberg M. Community readiness as a multidimensional construct. Journal of Community Psychology. in press. Mincemoyer C, Perkins D, Lillehoj C. Perceptions of the Cooperative Extension Service: A community resource for youth and family programs. Journal of Extension. 2004; 42(3):1–11. Available online at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004october/a5.shtml. Molgaard VK. The Extension service as key mechanism for research and services delivery for prevention of mental health disorders in rural areas. American Journal of Community Psychology. 1997; 25(4):515–544. [PubMed: 9338957] Perkins, DF.; Borden, LM. Risk factors, risk behaviors, and resiliency in adolescence. In: Lerner, RM.; Easterbrooks, MA.; Mistry, J., editors. Handbook of psychology: Vol 6 Developmental psychology. New York: Wiley; 2003. p. 373-394. Perkins, DF.; Hoy, PE. Penn State Cooperative Extension's capacity to support programs for children, youth, and families at risk: Results of the third organizational change survey. University Park, PA: Department of Agricultural and Extension Education, The Pennsylvania State University; 2004. Riggs NR, Feinberg ME, Greenberg MT. Community sector and gender differences in the perceptions of community-based prevention. Journal of Community Psychology. 2002; 30(6):708–721. Siciliano JI. The relationship of board member diversity to organizational performance. Journal of Business Ethics. 1996; 15(5):1313–1320. Spoth R, Greenberg M, Bierman K, Redmond C. PROSPER community-university model for public education systems: Capacity-building for evidence-based, competence-building prevention. Prevention Science. 2004; 5(1):31–39. [PubMed: 15058910] Wandersman A, Florin P, Friedmann R, Meier R. Who participates, who does not, and why? An analysis of voluntary neighborhood associations in the United States and Israel. Sociological Forum. 1987; 2(4):534–555.
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Table 1
Means of Extension Educators and Human Service Providers
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MEANS FOR EXTENSION EDUCATORS (STANDARD DEVIATION; N)
MEANS FOR HUMAN SERVICE PROFESSIONALS ON PROSPER TEAMS (STANDARD DEVIATION; N)
VARIABLE
SCALE
Community attachment
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
3.40 (.44; 25)
3.26 (.46; 148)
Community initiative
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
2.55 (.54; 26)
2.35 (.49; 148)
Community efficacy
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
2.65 (.48; 26)
2.66 (.52; 148)
Community leadership
1 = Strongly disagree; to 4 = Strongly agree
2.46 (.61; 25)
2.51 (.59; 148)
Overall prevention knowledge
1 = Not at all true; to 4 = Very true
2.74 (.69; 26)
3.23 (.62; 142)
Risk factor knowledge
8 Items with 0–1 count; 1 = answer correct
7.08 (.94; 26)
6.55 (1.15; 140)
Collaboration involvement
6 Items; various response choices
3.31 (.97; 26)
2.37 (1.65; 142)
Collaboration success
1 = Not at all; to 4 = Completely successful
4.14 (.51; 25)
3.40 (.77; 102)
Personal satisfaction with previous collaborations
1 = Not at all satisfied; to 4 = Very satisfied
3.46 (.43; 25)
3.57 (.51; 102)
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Table 2
Results of the Mixed-model ANCOVA1
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DEPENDENT VARIABLE—INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Community initiative—Years lived in community
ESTIMATE
SE
F VALUE (DF)
p
