PsychologicalReports, 1992, 70, 1175-1183.

O Psychological Reports 1992

EXPLORATION O F T H E RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHORAL S I N G I N G A N D SUCCESSFUL AGING ' GEORGE W. WISE, DAVID J. HARTMANN, AND BRADLEY J. FISHER Southwest Missouri State Universit-j Summary.-This paper describes a retirement village community chorus of 49 with the goal of understanding the place of choral activities in the lives of these older peod to previous satisfying experiences and ple. Group musical activity provides a l serves as a preventive measure against alienation. However, the nature of the activity may be consistent with a willingness to give up some inner directedness. Additional research is recommended since the present design with a comparison group of 49 nonchoral members did not allow separation of effects of selection from those of activity.

This research project explored two topics. The first focus was to develop a description of a retirement community's 55-voice choral group-who were these people and what, if anything, made them different from their neighbors who did not sing in the chorus? This profile led to generahzations from which was formulated the second topic-to focus more closely on the relationship between choral singing and dimensions of successful aging. More specifically, was such activity related to life satisfaction, alienation, or selfactualization?

Musical Activity and Well-being The hstory and literature of mankind is replete with claims concerning the potential of music for affecting human life (Bradley, Daniels, & Jones, 1975). Educators, therapists, and social scientists have made numerous attempts to describe and explain the effects of musical activity on individual behavior, physiology, and mental states (Gibbons, 1977; Alley, 1979; Ridgeway, 1976; Williams, 1975). There is a relative paucity of research, however, concerning the effects of musical activity upon successful aging (Gibbons, 1977; Altman, 1977). Since the most obvious generalization of our profile of the choristers was that they had a history of musical participation, we based our effort to understand on the relationship of choral activity to well-being in continuity theory. As developed by Atchley (1989), continuity theory relates successful aging to the pursuit of activities which provide continuity with earlier experience and expertise. Activities change to meet the limitations and challenges of aging but continuity with earlier pursuits "allows change to be integrated into one's prior history without necessarily causing upheaval or disequilibrium" (Atchley, 1989, p. 83). 'Address correspondence to D. J. Hartmam, Center for Social Research, Southwest a s s o u r i State University, 901 South National Avenue, Springfield, MO 65804-0095.

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G. W. WISE, ET AL.

Distinguishing satisfaction, alienation, and self-actualization as dimensions of successful aging, we began with the following expectations. Among members of the chorus, we expected the continuity of musical activity from earlier life through choral singing to be associated with high satisfaction. Similarly, low abenation scores were expected. These expectations were largely borne out. While our initial expectation was for high self-actualization (Maslow, 1968), quantitative and qualitative results suggested another understanding. Given the nature of choral singing, the subordination of personal to group goals may be related to membership. While reporting high satisfaction and low alienation, it is entirely consistent to find relatively lower levels of self-actualization than in a comparison group engaged in more individualistic activities. It is important to remember that this research was exploratory and no formal tests of these hypotheses were performed. Comparisons of the choral and other groups are only suggestive, for example, since assignment to these groups was not random. At the same time, the nature and extent of group differences is helpful in understanding the lives of these musical elders.

METHOD A survey was conducted of a retirement village community chorus of 55 voices. Introduced at a special preconcert practice session, one of the researchers gave a brief explanation of the study's purposes. The questionnaires were disseminated and an appeal was made to the chorus to return them the following day prior to the concert. At the time of the survey three members were on leave; 49 of the 52 returned completed questionnaires for a 94% response rate. The questionnaire was also disseminated, via mail, to a sample of nonchoristers from the same retirement village. This comparison group was selected randomly from the community directory and stratified by gender and marital status. Fifty-three questionnaires were returned; four were eliminated because they were largely incomplete, resulting in 49 respondents who made up the comparison group. Since choral joiners might well have been different from nonjoiners, the comparison group was clearly not a control group in the classic sense. The comparison group was useful, however, to form a profile of the choral group and to help establish the level of activities for the community as a whole. The questionnaire used for both groups was composed of two parts. Part I included questions on age, sex, health status, education, social class, and types and frequencies of activities. Of particular importance for this study was the development of a subsection of the activities section inquiring 'Statistical tests are reported here to establish reliability of group differences only; this does not establish a causal basis for such hfferences.

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1177

into the respondents' musical backgrounds. The 2 1 questions included their experience in and ratings of the musical environment of their families of orientation and their history and experience in choral music. The choristers were also asked an open-ended question as to why they sang in the retirement village community chorus, i.e., what meaning it had for them. An index of the closed-ended items was compiled for each individual and called the life-long musical participation score. Part I1 of the survey included the following measures: (1) the Life Satisfaction Index A (Adams, 1969) of 18 items delineating four components associated with life satisfaction: zest for life, resolution and fortitude, congruence, and mood tone; (2) the Personal Orientation Inventory, a 150-item inventory with two main scales, Inner Direction (I) and Time Competence (Tc), which measure the two primary dimensions of self-actualization as defined by Shostrom (1964); and (3) Middleton's Alienation Scale (1963) consisting of six items, with each measuring a separate dimension of alienation (powerlessness, meaninglessness, norrnlessness, isolation, self-estrangement, and cdtural estrangement).

RESULTS

Demographic and Activity Profile As displayed in Table 1, the demographic profile of this retirement village community chorus includes good health, upper-middle class status, high school or better education, Protestant religion, relative youth (mean age 64.1 yr.), and relatively recent retirement. Table 1 also shows that on every one of these demographic variables the chorus group did not differ significantly from their neighbors who did not sing in the chorus. The chorus was slightly younger and more recently retired than the other villagers, but the differences were not statistically significant. Individuals were asked to report the various kinds of activities in which they participated as well as the frequency with which they participated. More than 91% of the chorus reported attending services of worship on a weekly or more often basis. Sixty-two percent engaged in "other church activities" at the same frequency. The village comparison group was almost as active in attending services of worship (75%, x,' = 3.9, p = .05), but only 25% engaged weekly in "church-other activities." This difference was statistically significant ( X , 2 = 12.4, p = ,002). I t is likely that choir and choir practice were a large part of this difference, however, since a large percentage of the chorus also sang in their church choirs. Both the community chorus and their neighbors were very active in informal social activities, sharing such activities as eating, drinking, parlor games, shopping, and service activities with friends. Visiting the sick and shut-ins was an important and frequent activity. Traveling was done with relatives or friends on a several-times-a-year basis. TV viewing was not a

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TABLE 1 GROWDEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS A N D TESTS OF GROUPDIFFERENCES (ns = 49) Measure Age Y e m Since Retirement

Chorus

Comparison Group

M

SD

M

SD

64.1 5.7

6.6 8.9

65.0 .1

8.8 8.3

Percent Distributions Health ExceUent Good or Fair Social Class Upper or Upper-middle Middle-middle or Lower-middle Education < 12 years High School Diploma Some College College Diploma or More Religion Protestant Other

t95

P

.61 .78

.55 .44

x2

P

39.6 60.4

34.0 66.0

.33

.57

47.8

48.9

.01

.92

52.2

51.1

10.4 22.9 33.3 33.3

14.3 24.5 24.5 36.7

1.10

.77

91.7 8.3

87.5 12.5

.45

.50

popular activity for chorus members or their neighbors. In general, preferred activities seemed to be activities involving friends and neighbors.

Musical Profile Based on the musical background questions asked in the questionnaire, an index was computed with scores ranging from 16 to 44. The items making up the scale inquired into the musical activities of childhood, youth, and adulthood. The group difference was statistically significant (t,, = -3.89, p < .001), indicating the greater richness of the over-all musical background of the community chorus members. Similarly, when the two groups were compared on the frequency of participation in current musical activities, a scale ranging from 3 to 12, a significant difference was found favoring the chorus (t,, = -6.83, p < .001). Further, 25% of the chorus reported singing around the piano with friends or relatives on at least a weekly basis while = 4.5, p = .O3). Music was and only 7.5% of the comparison group did (xL2 continued to be an integral part of the chorus members' lives. Several of the musical background questions yielded significant group differences. While 45% of chorus members reported that their fathers had sung at home regularly or often, only 17% of the comparison group so reported = 8.1, p = .005). In addition, the fathers of chorus members were three times as likely as the fathers of comparison group members (33% versus 11%) to have sung in musical groups outside the home 6.4, p =

CHORAL SINGING AND AGING

1179

.01). With regard to their previous group singing experience, 45 of the 49 chorus members reported singing previously in a community chorus and 38 reported singing in a senior church choir. More than a fourth of them had sung in elementary and junior high school choruses, a similar number had sung in barbershop groups, and almost two-thuds had sung in high school choruses. When the chorus members were asked about the major influences on their musical development, 45% reported church, 39% said school, and 31% said parents. For the comparison group, 35% said church and school but only 10% reported parents as influencing them musically. Asked if they had taken lessons on musical instruments, 79% of the chorus answered affirmatively while 55.3% of the nonchoral group had = 6.1, p = .01). When asked if their parents had played a musical instrument, 54% of the chorus but only 26% of the comparison group responded = 7.7, p = ,006). Interestingly, 41 of the 49 chorus members positively and 37 of the 49 nonchorus individuals had pianos in the homes in which they were reared, but this difference was not statistically significant (x12= 1.5, p = .22). Together, about 80% of these respondents reported pianos in the homes in which they grew up. Although there may be regional and economic factors at work here, it is striking how large a role the production of music played across this generation of respondents. One must remember that the childhoods reflected here largely predated the electronic reproduction of music in the home. Finally, 68% of the chorus rated the musical environment of their childhood homes as good or excellent. I n contrast, only 41% of the nonchoral comparison group reported that the musical environment of their family homes was good or excellent (xLZ = 10.1, p = .O2). I n summary, while the members of this retirement village chorus did not differ significantly from their neighbors on the demographic and general activities variables, they did present a significantly different musical profile. Clearly, the chorus members enjoyed a richer musical background. When asked why they were singing in the retirement village chorus, that is, what meaning it had for them, two answers were reported most often. The first response was musical-they liked music, and they liked singing. The second response was nonmusical-they liked the sense of community that came with belonging to a choral group. Both responses suggested relationships with self-actualization, alienation, and life satisfaction which are explored in the following section.

Life Satisfaction, Alienation, and Self-actualization Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, and t ratios between groups (choral and nonchoral) on life satisfaction, alienation, and self-actuallzatlon. No significant differences in mean life satisfaction scores or in mean life satisfact~oncomponent scores were found between groups. With the life satisfaction score ranging from 0 to 18, it might be noted that both groups

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G. W. WISE, ETAL. TABLE 2 MEANS,STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND P VALUESFORLIFE SATISFACTION, ALIENATION,A N D SELF-ACTUALJZATION BY GROUPS

Variable

Range

Choral

Group

n = 47

Life Satisfaction

Alienation Self-actualization I Scale Tc Scale

Actualization

Village Group n-49 M SD

P

M

SD

0-18 0-6

13.78 1.56

2.80 1.16

13.24 1.74

3.86 1.32

.28 .48

0-127 0-23 0-150

73.77 16.52 90.49

10.12 2.74 11.41

79.17 16.77 96.14

7.70 3.03 11.80

,017 .43 .03*

scored near the top 20%; however, no norms have been located on the life satisfaction scores. I t might also be noted that a significant difference in variance ( p = .03) was obtained, with the choral group showing greater homogeneity on life satisfaction than the comparison group. Similarly, no group differences were found when the mean total alienation scores were analyzed. The most interesting result is that, on two measures of self-actualization (Table 2), the primary scale, Inner-directedness and the over-all score of selfactualization, there were significant group differences ( p = .01 and p = .03, respectively), with the choral group recording lower actualization. The choral group, in fact, had mean self-actualization scores below the mean for nonactualizing adults reported by Shostrom (1964). Although a tendency for scores on the Personal Orientation Inventory to decline beyond middle age was noticed by Greely (Knapp, 1976), the choral group had self-actualization scores below those of other elders by group (both Greely's and the village comparison group). These findings are discussed below in the framework of continuity and successful aging. Based on a comparison of the demographic data and the general activities profile, the choral group was not significantly different from the random sample of their village neighbors. I n general, village residents were an active young-old group of middle to upper middle-class Protestants. They went to church regularly, shopped, and frequently engaged in having meals, drinks, and other informal activities with friends and neighbors. O n the other hand, the groups did present significantly different musical profiles. One of the striking features about the chorus members is that they have been singing across the stages of life. Their home environments were more musical, and, unlike their nonchorus neighbors, they continued to sing during the middle stages of the life cycle and into their retirement years. Clearly, these data suggesc a connection between musical experiences of the early years of life

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and continued musical participation. Whde this supports the hypothesis that home environments "profoundly shape children's cognitive and socioemotional development" (Menaghan & Parcel, 1991), research must continue to examine precisely how early home musical environments affect children's interests, motivation, and later participation in musical activities. The notion of home musical environment is provocative and deserves more research attention. The finding that these chorus members have been singing throughout their life spans is a finding that is consistent with the basic tenets of continuity as a contributor to successful aging. The early statements of this theory stressed the idea that aging persons pursue activities that provide continuity with their pasts (Atchley, 1989). In several recent revisions of continuity theory, it was emphasized that activities of older people are critical for their contemporaneous growth and development and not merely in continuing the patterns and values of their prior years (Atchley, 1989). The present study provides evidence for the revised position. Two answers were given most frequently by chorus members when asked: "Why d o you sing in the chorus? What meaning does it have for you?" One answer was musical; they love singing and making music. The second answer was that they liked associating with the members of the choral group. Both responses speak to the continuity dimension, as well as to the existential needs of these retirement village singers, and together they offer one explanation as to why these people are s t d committed to choral music. There may be many reasons for the benefit of continuity but, as has been pointed out by Atchley (1989), it probably comes from two main sources; one, the satisfaction gained from the mastery of an activity, and two, the value of preventing and minimizing the negative effects of physical and psychological aging (p. 188). I n the present context it seems reasonable to assume that both of these reasons motivated these aging singers to continue their choral music careers. Singing over many years provided a sense of achievement. Their sense of expertise was also probably reinforced by the visibihty and recognition status gained in the community from being a member of this valued and elite group. Indeed, membership in the chorus not only connoted mastery, but some robustness as well. There were weekly practices, an expectation that singers would also practice at home, and a full season of concerts to be sung. But what about mastery? Clearly there is something ephemeral about mastering singing over a lifetime insofar as it is an activity that involves a set of physical skills and techniques that can be expected to decline with age. Indeed, while attending a practice session of t h s village chorus, one of the researchers recalls the director stopping the group because the sopranos

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failed "to get on top of that high note." As she began to scold them for this failure her voice tapered off into a bit of musing: "Well, I guess the high notes are the first to go." But a missed note can result from a lack of effort or a lack of concentration, and not simply aging. Indeed, even if skills have begun to recede it is possible, under the right stimulation and conditions, to sing "above one's head." Mastery in choral music may also be thought of as a group phenomenon and not simply as an individual's ability to sing flawlessly a series of notes. I n thls sense mastery has to do with the group's capacity to produce ensemble. To achieve a holistic effect each singer must be able to subordinate himself and his behavioral agenda to the group under the direction of the director. Perhaps it is mastery in this sense that choral people enjoy, binding them to one another and motivating them to continue singing. And, it may be the desire to produce that singular musical effect that motivates people to sing well. Finally, this group form of mastery may be able to tolerate an occasional missed note or even a lapse in attention. The second most frequent response as to why these aging singers continued to pursue their singing was nonmusical: they liked to associate with choral groups. Since the response was not that they liked groups but rather choral groups, one wonders if there is something different about a choral group. To be sure, some sense of bonding occurs as individuals practice and perform together. But these data hint at something more. Perhaps it is possible to suggest that choral singing is a socializing as well as a musical experience. I n fact, choral music may require a special milieu, one that strongly promotes the notion that individuals must submit themselves to the influence of the group and conductor in their mutual pursuit of the ultimate group musical experience, ensemble. I n brief, it may be that the two reasons given by the chorus members as to why they sing in the chorus in their retirement years fit together-they like making music, and they like associating with their colleagues who share in those music-making experiences. Finally, the finding concerning self-actualization is consistent. Taken at face value the chorus members were less self-actualizing or more dependent than their neighbors. This finding can be interpreted in several ways; first, people participating in a highly structured activity were being compared with people outside this structure, and it could be argued, this measure of selfactualization is, to some extent, a reflection of the boundaries in which these people felt themselves to be operating. Second, the chorus people may indeed be less actualizing, more dependent personahies. Perhaps they were dependent youngsters who could sing and they found choral groups to be a sanctuary that provided an outlet for singing at the same time that it fostered dependency. Their double need for -

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singing and for acceptable dependency led them to gravitate to choral music participation over the years. A third interpretation is also possible. It could be argued, as suggested earlier in the discussion, that choral music requires a milieu in which participants give up their individual behavioral agendas to reach for a group goal, ensemble. Anyone who has experienced the excitement of those special moments that involve more than the correct individual rendering of notes also recognizes the sense of satisfaction that individuals can have from this experience. Indeed, the satisfaction may be especially intense insofar as it is an experience shared by many people. The problem may be, in this research, that the test yields dichotomous results only-more actualizing-less actualizing. Accordingly, it was not sensitive to the effect which results from the deliberate subordination of self in obtaining a group goal. Further research may be based on a different measure of self-actualization or the current measure may have to be adapted to measure the effects under various conditions. REFERENCES ADAMS,D. L. (1969) Analysis of a Life Satisfaction Index. Journal of Gerontology, 24, 470474. ALLEY, J. (1979) Music in the IEP: therapyleducation. Journal of Music Therapy, 16, 111-189. ALTMAN,K. (1977) The effect of a music participation program on self-concept and extraversion of senior citizens in a day treatment facility. (Unpublished manuscript, California School of Professional Psychology, San Diego, CA) ATCHLEY,R. C. (1989) A continuity theory of normal aging. The Gerontologist, 29, 183-190. BRADLEY, J., DANIELS,L., &JONES,T. (1975) The internationaldictionary of thoughts. Chicago, IL: J. G . Ferguson. GIBBONS, A. C. (1977) Popular music preferences of elderly people. Journal of Music Therapy, 4. 180-189. KNAPP,R. R. (1976) Handbook for the Personal Orientation Inventory. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service. MASLOW,A. H. (1968) Music, education and peak experiences. In R. A. Choate (Ed.), Music in American society: documentary report of the Tanglewood Symposium. Washington, DC: Music Educators National Conference. Pp. 70-73. MENAGHAN, E. G., & PARCEL,T. L. (1991) Parental employment and family life: research in the 1980's. In A. Booth (Ed.), Contemporary families: looking forward, looking back. Minneapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations. Pp. 361-380. W D L E T O NR. , (1963) Alienation, race and education. American Socio[ogical Reuiew, 28, 973977. R~DGEWAY, C. L. (1976) Affective interaction as a determinant of musical involvement. The Sociological Quarterly, 17, 414-428. SHOSTROM, E . (1964) An inventory for the measurement of self-actualization. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 24, 207-218. WWS, R. B. (1975) Music therapy: how it helps the child. Journal of the International Association of Pupil Personnel Workers, 19, 55-60.

Accepted May 11, 1992.

Exploration of the relationship between choral singing and successful aging.

This paper describes a retirement village community chorus of 49 with the goal of understanding the place of choral activities in the lives of these o...
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