Perceptual & Motor Skills: Exercise & Sport 2014, 119, 1, 42-49. © Perceptual & Motor Skills 2014
EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEX AND MOTIVATION IN TRIATHLETES1, 2 IVÁN LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ, RAFAEL MERINO-MARBÁN, AND EMILIO FERNÁNDEZ-RODRÍGUEZ University of Málaga, Spain Summary.—The present paper assesses the relationship between sex and motivation in triathletes utilising a multidimensional measurement of motivation in sports. Data were collected from 138 triathlon participants (age range 17–72 years): 95 men (M = 36.7 yr., SD = 10.7) and 43 women (M = 34.6 yr., SD = 9.9). Measures included the Sport Motivation Scale, a multi-dimensional measure to assess different types of athletes' motivations for practising their sport. Results showed a significant sex difference in amotivation, with women displaying lower scores; but amotivation scores were very low. The results were not dependent on competition level or age. Men and women competing at the international level in triathlon have similar motivational profiles.
Motivation is defined as “a process whereby goal-directed activity is energized and sustained” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 49). Because exercise requires intense activity, usually specifically directed and structured, the concept of motivation is key to understanding why people engage in exercise and what factors lead to adherence to longer-term and more intense exercise. In this regard, researchers have focused on motivational mechanisms activated before or during participation in exercise settings (Duda & Hall, 2001). One theoretical framework proposed for understanding motivation in sport is self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), which posits three types of behavioural regulation with varying extents of self-determined motivation: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. At the more self-determined end of the continuum, there are three types of intrinsic motivation as postulated by Vallerand, Pelletier, Blais, Brière, Senécal, and Vallières (1993): (a) “intrinsic motivation to know” can be explained as performing an activity for the satisfaction one experiences while learning, exploring, or trying to understand new concepts; (b) “intrinsic motivation to accomplish” refers to the satisfaction and enjoyment of creating something, developing new abilities that exceed the current ones, or attempting to reach personal objectives; and (c) “intrinsic 1 Address correspondence to Iván López-Fernández, Facultades de Psicología y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain or e-mail ([email protected]). 2 The authors wish to thank the Xterra World Championship Off-Road Triathlon 2009 organisation committee for their support during the data collection process.
DOI 10.2466/30.19.PMS.119c11z1
05-PMS_Lopez-Fernandez_140037.indd 42
ISSN 0031-5125
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motivation to experience stimulation” occurs when an individual engages in an activity to experience stimulating sensations. Further along the continuum towards less self-determination, there are three categories of extrinsic motivation. From higher to lower self-determination, these include: (a) “identified regulation,” when an individual judges the behaviour as important and therefore performs it out of choice; (b) “introjected regulation,” which is an external source of motivation that has been internalised; and (c) “external regulation,” which refers to the traditional view of engaging in the behaviour for external rewards, such as material rewards, social recognition, or the avoidance of negative consequences. At the lowest self-determined end of the continuum lies amotivation, which is lack of intention or reason for participation. Amotivation includes a feeling of powerlessness to produce any desired result through behaviour. Studies of sex differences in sport participation using the self-determination theory framework have proved contradictory. Studies are grouped below, focusing on the nature of the samples. Among Canadian athletes (M age = 19.5 yr., range = 17–25) from different sports and competition levels, including recreational athletes, women have been found to report higher intrinsic motivation and lower extrinsic motivation (especially external regulation) than men (Brière, Vallerand, Blais, & Pelletier, 1995; Fortier, Vallerand, Brière, & Provencher, 1995; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Brière, & Blais, 1995). In Spanish athletes with a wider age range (M age = 22.4; range = 14–45) from different sports and levels of competition (regional, national and international), there were lower scores on extrinsic motivation and amotivation in women, with no differences in intrinsic motivation (Nuñez, Martin-Albo, Navarro, & Gonzalez, 2006; Balaguer, Castillo, & Duda, 2007; Nuñez, Lucas, & Navarro Izquierdo, 2007). In a sample of Spanish older track and field athletes (M age = 47.6 yr., range = 35–75) at the national and regional competition levels, women scored as more intrinsically motivated than men, with no differences in amotivation or extrinsic motivation (Ruiz-Juan & Zarauz, 2012). Lower scores on intrinsic motivation in women, without differences in extrinsic motivation or amotivation, were found in Division I U.S. college athletes (M age = 19.4 yr., range = 17– 23) from six different sports (Amorose & Horn, 2000). In another sample of U.S. college athletes with similar age (M age = 20.4 yr., range = 18–27) from 13 different sports, women had lower scores on lower extrinsic motivation, but there were no sex differences in extrinsic motivation or amotivation (Kingston, Horrocks, & Hanton, 2006); a similar motivational profile was found in English youth swimmers (M age = 14 yr., range = 11–19) from various levels (Petherick & Weigand, 2002). A further study concluded that motivation profiles of English athletes (M age = 23.4 yr., range = 18–32) from 25 different sports at several competition levels were not associated with sex
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(Vlachopoulos, Karageorghis, & Terry, 2000). Finally, lower intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation scores in women compared to men were found in Brasilian athletes (M age = 24.1 yr.) from 10 different sports (Filho, Andrade, Miranda, Núñez, Martín-Albó, & Ribas, 2011). One possible explanation for these varied findings is that confounding variables such as the type of sport, level of competition, age, experience, and educational background have not always been considered when addressing sex differences in motivation profiles. The purpose of this paper was to explore sex differences in motivation among triathletes using the framework of self-determination theory, examining the influence in those differences of confounding variables such as the level of competition and age. Triathlon is a sport that combines three disciplines (swimming, cycling, and running), with competitions commonly lasting between two (short distance) and 8 hours (Ironman distance) for elite triathletes. Training for a triathlon is very demanding and requires perseverance and adherence to a high commitment during the lifespan (Bales, Bales, Deakon, & Johnson, 2012). Hypothesis. Men and women at similar levels of competition and age, in the same sport (triathlon), will have highly similar motivation scores. METHOD Participants Participants were recruited during an international triathlon competition. Of the 514 athletes who registered for the race, 342 were asked to answer the questionnaire and 40.3% (138 athletes) agreed. The resultant data set included 138 athletes (M = 36.0 yr., SD = 10.4) composed of 95 men (68.8%; M = 36.7 yr., SD = 10.7) and 43 women (31.2%; M = 34.6 yr., SD = 9.9). Participants' ages ranged from 17 to 72 years. Twenty-two respondents participated at the professional level (15.9%) and 116 at the amateur level (84.1%). The participants' years of experience in triathlon ranged from 1 to 28 years (M = 7.5 yr., SD = 6.4), with 47.1% within the range of 1 to 5 years. Regarding nationality, 43.5% were from the United States, 29.0% from European countries, and the remaining 27.5% from other countries. Finally, the sample comprised mostly university graduates (79.7%) and private sector or self-employed workers (85.5%). All triathletes were proficient in English. These triathletes were enrolled in the 2009 Xterra World Championship Off-Road Triathlon, which comprised of a 1.5 km (1 mile) swim, a 32 km (20 mile) mountain bike ride, and a 12 km (7.5 mile) trail run. The top performers finished in roughly 2½ hr. and the slowest athletes finished in about 6 hr. All participants had to qualify for this race.
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Measures Demographic information.—Each participant was asked to complete a self-report demographic questionnaire identifying his or her age, sex, nationality, experience, occupation, and level of education. Motivation.—The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS; Brière, et al., 1995) is a multi-dimensional measure of athletes' motivations. The SMS requires respondents to assess the reasons they have for practising their sport (the stem for each item was, “Why do you practise triathlon?”) and to respond to 12 items reflecting three forms of intrinsic motivation (Intrinsic motivation to know, i.e., “For the pleasure of discovering new training techniques”; Intrinsic motivation to accomplish, i.e., “For the satisfaction I experience while I am perfecting my abilities”; and Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation, i.e., “Because I like the feeling of being totally immersed in the activity”), 12 items reflecting three forms of regulation for extrinsic motivation (Identified regulation, i.e., “Because, in my opinion, it is one of the best ways to meet people”; Introjected regulation, i.e., “Because I would feel bad if I was not taking time to do it”; and External regulation, i.e., “Because it allows me to be well regarded by people who I know”) and four items reflecting amotivation, i.e., “I used to have good reasons for doing sport, but now I am asking myself if I should continue doing it”). Participants answered on a 7-point Likert-type scale, anchored by 1: Does not correspond at all and 7: Corresponds exactly. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was conducted with the present data since the factor structure has been challenged by some authors. Procedure Approval for the study was granted by the university ethics committee. The competition organisation committee was contacted to request consent and support during the data registration. Before the competition, the authors were present at a booth provided by the organisers in the area where participants registered for the race. Athletes who were registering were informed of the study's general purpose and were asked whether they would participate. They were told they did not have to complete the questionnaire but that their cooperation would be very much appreciated. Athletes who agreed were handed a questionnaire and a pen so they could complete the questionnaire at that moment. Administration took a minimum of 10 min. The athletes' participation was voluntary and there was no financial compensation. They were assured that their answers would be confidential. After completing the questionnaire, the participants were thanked verbally for their participation. Data Analysis The four items on each subscale were averaged, giving a single mean for each of the seven subscales. The univariate distributions of the vari-
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ous variables were examined for normality (i.e., via skewness and kurtosis values and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic). Confirmatory factor analyses were calculated on the seven subscale scores to evaluate the adequacy of the actual measurement to the 7-factor model of the SMS. Internal consistency of the SMS was assessed by calculating a Cronbach's α coefficient on each subscale of the questionnaire with this sample of participants, and correlation coefficients between SMS subscales were calculated to evaluate multi-collinearities between subscales. To explore potential differences in indices of motivation, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted, using sex as the independent variable and the motivation subscale scores as the dependent variables. After this, to assess possible interactions of sex × age and sex × competition level, this study carried out multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA), using sex and age separately, and sex and competition level as independent variables, the motivation subscale scores as the dependent variables, and experience as covariate. All statistical analyses were completed using SPSS Version 17.0.2 except confirmatory factor analysis, which used LISREL Version 8.80. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Correlation coefficients between SMS subscales were computed (Table 1). In the present study, the correlations among the motivation variables ranged from –.29 to .69. The majority of subscales had Cronbach's α coefficients greater than .70 (Table 1), indicating acceptable internal consistency. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed acceptable fit indices for the Sport Motivation Scale in this sample (χ2 = 565.92, df = 329, p < .001; χ2/df = 1.72; CFI = 0.95; SRMR = 0.078; RMSEA = 0.074, 90%CI RMSEA = 0.064, 0.084). TABLE 1 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AND CRONBACH'S α RELIABILITY BETWEEN THE SPORT MOTIVATION SUBSCALES Variable 1. IM to know
M
SD
α
5.17
1.17
.70
Pearson Correlations 1
2
3
4
2. IM to accomplish
5.33
1.09
.71
.65†
3. IM to experience stimulation
5.66
0.91
.72
.54†
.69†
4. Identified regulation
4.78
1.21
.67
.51†
.53†
.63†
5. Introjected regulation
4.73
1.24
.70
.41†
.34†
.38†
.57†
6. External regulation
3.60
1.38
.73
.24†
.29†
.14
.39†
7. Amotivation 2.18 1.28 Note.—IM = intrinsic motivation. †p < .01.
.83
.00
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−.21† −.29† −.01
5
6
.35† .09
.26†
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Results of the MANOVA indicated a significant difference between men's and women's amotivation scores (F1, 137 = 5.86, p = .02, partial η2 = 0.04). The mean for men was significantly higher than that for women. No other significant sex differences emerged, though the mean for external regulation was found to be nonsignificantly higher for males than for females, with a small effect size (partial η2 = 0.03). Multivariate ANCOVA showed no statistically significant interaction of sex × competition (Wilks'Λ = 0.94, F3, 135 = 1.10, p = .37, partial η2 = 0.06). No significant sex × age interaction was found either (Wilks'Λ = 0.84, F7, 137 = 1.03, p = .42, partial η2 = 0.06). The number of years of experience practising triathlon was controlled as covariate in these analyses. Results showed significant differences only in amotivation, with the mean score for men higher than that for women. There were no similar motivation score differences between men and women in previous research. For sex differences in amotivation scores, the results reported herein are similar to those of Nuñez, et al. (2006), Balaguer, et al. (2007), and Nuñez, et al. (2007), who investigated younger Spanish athletes of regional, national, and international competition level in 19 sports. However, in the latter studies, women also reported lower scores on external regulation. In the current study, external regulation scores were higher for men, but the difference was not significant. Lower amotivation scores in women, and also sex differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, were found in 399 young Canadian competitive intercollegiate and recreational athletes, who participated in badminton, basketball, volleyball, or soccer (Fortier, et al., 1995). The international competition level of all participants in Fortier, et al. and the type of sport could explain the divergences from the current study with regard to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation differences between men and women. Although there was a sex difference on amotivation scores, the means were very low for both male and female participants. This is logical, since these athletes were competing in a World Championship triathlon that required extremely intense training and then maximum exertion for several hours in a highly tense competition. In line with Vlachopoulos, et al. (2000), the median score of the SMS answer (4) is used to ascertain whether participants showed strong or weak motivation. The median score, “corresponds moderately,” indicates that there was low endorsement for amotivation among these athletes. Low amotivation is associated with positive consequences, such as high sport commitment (Zahariadis, Tsorbatzoudis, & Alexandris, 2006). Previous research found no evidence for sex differences in sport commitment in adult triathletes (Crocker & Augaitis, 2010). In spite of the sex difference mentioned, the general motivational profile was not very different for male and female triathletes. Some previous
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research has provided data suggesting there are no sex differences in motivation among athletes from different sports and competition levels (Vlachopoulos, et al., 2000; Martín-Albo, Núñez, Navarro, Leite, Almirón, & Glavinich, 2007; De Pero, Amici, Benvenuti, Minganti, Capranica, & Pesce, 2009). Competition level and age did not influence sex differences in sport motivation. Although there were professionals and amateurs in the sample, all were competing at an international level. There were no recreational athletes or participants with a low competition level, whose profiles might have shown differences on this variable (Fortier, et al., 1995). The fact that sex differences in motivation were independent of age is not consistent with a previous study, which reported an age-related decline in external regulation only for female competitive mountain runners of different competitive levels (Burtscher, Furtner, Sachse, & Burtscher, 2011). The training regimens when competing at an international level, such as those of the participants in this study, may be very demanding for both sexes during the whole lifespan at any age (Bales, et al., 2012), so the sample may be too self-selected to show any age differences. The motivationally homogeneous sample is an important limitation of this study, and thus generalisations of the results should be made with caution. Men and women of any age competing at an international level in triathlon had highly similar motivational profiles. Future research involving larger samples with athletes from different sports and varied levels of competition is needed to clarify whether the competition level and the type of sport affect sex differences in motivation. REFERENCES
AMOROSE, A. J., & HORN, T. S. (2000) Intrinsic motivation: relationships with collegiate athletes' gender, scholarship status and perceptions of their coaches' behavior. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22, 63-84. BALAGUER, I., CASTILLO, I., & DUDA, J. L. (2007) Psychometric properties of the Sports Motivation Scale in Spanish athletes. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 24, 197-207. BALES, J., BALES, K., DEAKON, R., & JOHNSON, D. (2012) The triathlon tips from the top: practical tips for racing and training for a triathlon. Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy Review, 20, 237-238. BRIÈRE, N., VALLERAND, R., BLAIS, N., & PELLETIER, L. (1995) Development and validation of a measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in sports: the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26, 465-489. BURTSCHER, J., FURTNER, M., SACHSE, P., & BURTSCHER, M. (2011) Validation of a German version of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS28) and motivation analysis in competitive mountain runners. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 112, 807-820. CROCKER, P., & AUGAITIS, L. (2010) Commitment in age class adult triathletes: examining gender differences in the Sport Commitment Model. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 41, 177-194.
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DECI, E. L., & RYAN, R. M. (1985) Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. DE PERO, R., AMICI, S., BENVENUTI, C., MINGANTI, C., CAPRANICA, L., & PESCE, C. (2009) Motivation for sport participation in older Italian athletes: the role of age, gender and competition level. Sport Sciences for Health, 5, 61-69. DUDA, J. L., & HALL, H. K. (2001) Achievement goal theory in sport: recent extensions and future directions. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology. (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley. Pp. 417-443. FILHO, M. B., ANDRADE, D., MIRANDA, R., NÚÑEZ, J. L., MARTÍN-ALBÓ, J., & RIBAS, P. R. (2011) Validación preliminar de una versión brasilera de la escala de motivación para el deporte. Universitas Psychologica, 10, 557-566. FORTIER, M. S., VALLERAND, R. J., BRIÈRE, N. M., & PROVENCHER, P. J. (1995) Competitive and recreational sport structures and gender: a test of their relationship with sport motivation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26, 24-39. KINGSTON, K. M., HORROCKS, C. S., & HANTON, S. (2006) Do multidimensional intrinsic and extrinsic motivation profiles discriminate between athlete scholarship status and gender? European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 53-63. MARTÍN-ALBO, J., NÚÑEZ, J. L., NAVARRO, J. G., LEITE, M., ALMIRÓN, M., & GLAVINICH, N. (2007) Propiedades psicométricas de la versión española de la escala de motivación deportiva en Paraguay. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 24, 43-52. NUÑEZ, J. L., MARTIN-ALBO, J., NAVARRO, J. G., & GONZALEZ, V. M. (2006) Preliminary validation of a Spanish version of the Sport Motivation Scale. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 102, 919-930. NUÑEZ, J. L., LUCAS, J. M-A., & NAVARRO IZQUIERDO, J. G. (2007) Propiedades psicométricas de la versión española de la escala de motivación deportiva. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 16, 211-223. PELLETIER, L. G., FORTIER, M. S., VALLERAND, R. J., TUSON, K. M., BRIÈRE, N. M., & BLAIS, M. R. (1995) Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35-53. PETHERICK, C. M., & WEIGAND, D. A. (2002) Relationship of dispositional goal orientations and perceived motivational climates on indices of motivation in male and female swimmers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 33, 218-237. PINTRICH, P. R., & SCHUNK, D. H. (2002) Motivation in education: theory, research, and applications. (2nd ed.) Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall. RUIZ-JUAN, F., & ZARAUZ, A. (2012) Predictor variables of motivation on Spanish master athletes. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 7, 617-628. VALLERAND, R. J., PELLETIER, L. G., BLAIS, M. R., BRIÈRE, N. M., SENÉCAL, C., & VALLIÈRES, E. F. (1993) On the assessment of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education: evidence on the concurrent and construct validity of the Academic Motivation Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 159-172. VLACHOPOULOS, S. P., KARAGEORGHIS, C. I., & TERRY, P. C. (2000) Motivation profiles in sport: a self-determination theory perspective. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71, 387-397. ZAHARIADIS, P., TSORBATZOUDIS, H., & ALEXANDRIS, K. (2006) Self-determination in sport commitment. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 102, 405-420. Accepted May 2, 2014.
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EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEX AND MOTIVATION IN TRIATHLETES1, 2 IVÁN LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ, RAFAEL MERINO-MARBÁN, AND EMILIO FERNÁNDEZ-RODRÍGUEZ University of Málaga, Spain Summary.—The present paper assesses the relationship between sex and motivation in triathletes utilising a multidimensional measurement of motivation in sports. Data were collected from 138 triathlon participants (age range 17–72 years): 95 men (M = 36.7 yr., SD = 10.7) and 43 women (M = 34.6 yr., SD = 9.9). Measures included the Sport Motivation Scale, a multi-dimensional measure to assess different types of athletes' motivations for practising their sport. Results showed a significant sex difference in amotivation, with women displaying lower scores; but amotivation scores were very low. The results were not dependent on competition level or age. Men and women competing at the international level in triathlon have similar motivational profiles.
Motivation is defined as “a process whereby goal-directed activity is energized and sustained” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 49). Because exercise requires intense activity, usually specifically directed and structured, the concept of motivation is key to understanding why people engage in exercise and what factors lead to adherence to longer-term and more intense exercise. In this regard, researchers have focused on motivational mechanisms activated before or during participation in exercise settings (Duda & Hall, 2001). One theoretical framework proposed for understanding motivation in sport is self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), which posits three types of behavioural regulation with varying extents of self-determined motivation: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. At the more self-determined end of the continuum, there are three types of intrinsic motivation as postulated by Vallerand, Pelletier, Blais, Brière, Senécal, and Vallières (1993): (a) “intrinsic motivation to know” can be explained as performing an activity for the satisfaction one experiences while learning, exploring, or trying to understand new concepts; (b) “intrinsic motivation to accomplish” refers to the satisfaction and enjoyment of creating something, developing new abilities that exceed the current ones, or attempting to reach personal objectives; and (c) “intrinsic 1 Address correspondence to Iván López-Fernández, Facultades de Psicología y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain or e-mail ([email protected]). 2 The authors wish to thank the Xterra World Championship Off-Road Triathlon 2009 organisation committee for their support during the data collection process.
DOI 10.2466/30.19.PMS.119c11z1
05-PMS_Lopez-Fernandez_140037.indd 42
ISSN 0031-5125
02/08/14 8:09 AM
MOTIVATION OF TRIATHLETES
43
motivation to experience stimulation” occurs when an individual engages in an activity to experience stimulating sensations. Further along the continuum towards less self-determination, there are three categories of extrinsic motivation. From higher to lower self-determination, these include: (a) “identified regulation,” when an individual judges the behaviour as important and therefore performs it out of choice; (b) “introjected regulation,” which is an external source of motivation that has been internalised; and (c) “external regulation,” which refers to the traditional view of engaging in the behaviour for external rewards, such as material rewards, social recognition, or the avoidance of negative consequences. At the lowest self-determined end of the continuum lies amotivation, which is lack of intention or reason for participation. Amotivation includes a feeling of powerlessness to produce any desired result through behaviour. Studies of sex differences in sport participation using the self-determination theory framework have proved contradictory. Studies are grouped below, focusing on the nature of the samples. Among Canadian athletes (M age = 19.5 yr., range = 17–25) from different sports and competition levels, including recreational athletes, women have been found to report higher intrinsic motivation and lower extrinsic motivation (especially external regulation) than men (Brière, Vallerand, Blais, & Pelletier, 1995; Fortier, Vallerand, Brière, & Provencher, 1995; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Brière, & Blais, 1995). In Spanish athletes with a wider age range (M age = 22.4; range = 14–45) from different sports and levels of competition (regional, national and international), there were lower scores on extrinsic motivation and amotivation in women, with no differences in intrinsic motivation (Nuñez, Martin-Albo, Navarro, & Gonzalez, 2006; Balaguer, Castillo, & Duda, 2007; Nuñez, Lucas, & Navarro Izquierdo, 2007). In a sample of Spanish older track and field athletes (M age = 47.6 yr., range = 35–75) at the national and regional competition levels, women scored as more intrinsically motivated than men, with no differences in amotivation or extrinsic motivation (Ruiz-Juan & Zarauz, 2012). Lower scores on intrinsic motivation in women, without differences in extrinsic motivation or amotivation, were found in Division I U.S. college athletes (M age = 19.4 yr., range = 17– 23) from six different sports (Amorose & Horn, 2000). In another sample of U.S. college athletes with similar age (M age = 20.4 yr., range = 18–27) from 13 different sports, women had lower scores on lower extrinsic motivation, but there were no sex differences in extrinsic motivation or amotivation (Kingston, Horrocks, & Hanton, 2006); a similar motivational profile was found in English youth swimmers (M age = 14 yr., range = 11–19) from various levels (Petherick & Weigand, 2002). A further study concluded that motivation profiles of English athletes (M age = 23.4 yr., range = 18–32) from 25 different sports at several competition levels were not associated with sex
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(Vlachopoulos, Karageorghis, & Terry, 2000). Finally, lower intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation scores in women compared to men were found in Brasilian athletes (M age = 24.1 yr.) from 10 different sports (Filho, Andrade, Miranda, Núñez, Martín-Albó, & Ribas, 2011). One possible explanation for these varied findings is that confounding variables such as the type of sport, level of competition, age, experience, and educational background have not always been considered when addressing sex differences in motivation profiles. The purpose of this paper was to explore sex differences in motivation among triathletes using the framework of self-determination theory, examining the influence in those differences of confounding variables such as the level of competition and age. Triathlon is a sport that combines three disciplines (swimming, cycling, and running), with competitions commonly lasting between two (short distance) and 8 hours (Ironman distance) for elite triathletes. Training for a triathlon is very demanding and requires perseverance and adherence to a high commitment during the lifespan (Bales, Bales, Deakon, & Johnson, 2012). Hypothesis. Men and women at similar levels of competition and age, in the same sport (triathlon), will have highly similar motivation scores. METHOD Participants Participants were recruited during an international triathlon competition. Of the 514 athletes who registered for the race, 342 were asked to answer the questionnaire and 40.3% (138 athletes) agreed. The resultant data set included 138 athletes (M = 36.0 yr., SD = 10.4) composed of 95 men (68.8%; M = 36.7 yr., SD = 10.7) and 43 women (31.2%; M = 34.6 yr., SD = 9.9). Participants' ages ranged from 17 to 72 years. Twenty-two respondents participated at the professional level (15.9%) and 116 at the amateur level (84.1%). The participants' years of experience in triathlon ranged from 1 to 28 years (M = 7.5 yr., SD = 6.4), with 47.1% within the range of 1 to 5 years. Regarding nationality, 43.5% were from the United States, 29.0% from European countries, and the remaining 27.5% from other countries. Finally, the sample comprised mostly university graduates (79.7%) and private sector or self-employed workers (85.5%). All triathletes were proficient in English. These triathletes were enrolled in the 2009 Xterra World Championship Off-Road Triathlon, which comprised of a 1.5 km (1 mile) swim, a 32 km (20 mile) mountain bike ride, and a 12 km (7.5 mile) trail run. The top performers finished in roughly 2½ hr. and the slowest athletes finished in about 6 hr. All participants had to qualify for this race.
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Measures Demographic information.—Each participant was asked to complete a self-report demographic questionnaire identifying his or her age, sex, nationality, experience, occupation, and level of education. Motivation.—The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS; Brière, et al., 1995) is a multi-dimensional measure of athletes' motivations. The SMS requires respondents to assess the reasons they have for practising their sport (the stem for each item was, “Why do you practise triathlon?”) and to respond to 12 items reflecting three forms of intrinsic motivation (Intrinsic motivation to know, i.e., “For the pleasure of discovering new training techniques”; Intrinsic motivation to accomplish, i.e., “For the satisfaction I experience while I am perfecting my abilities”; and Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation, i.e., “Because I like the feeling of being totally immersed in the activity”), 12 items reflecting three forms of regulation for extrinsic motivation (Identified regulation, i.e., “Because, in my opinion, it is one of the best ways to meet people”; Introjected regulation, i.e., “Because I would feel bad if I was not taking time to do it”; and External regulation, i.e., “Because it allows me to be well regarded by people who I know”) and four items reflecting amotivation, i.e., “I used to have good reasons for doing sport, but now I am asking myself if I should continue doing it”). Participants answered on a 7-point Likert-type scale, anchored by 1: Does not correspond at all and 7: Corresponds exactly. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was conducted with the present data since the factor structure has been challenged by some authors. Procedure Approval for the study was granted by the university ethics committee. The competition organisation committee was contacted to request consent and support during the data registration. Before the competition, the authors were present at a booth provided by the organisers in the area where participants registered for the race. Athletes who were registering were informed of the study's general purpose and were asked whether they would participate. They were told they did not have to complete the questionnaire but that their cooperation would be very much appreciated. Athletes who agreed were handed a questionnaire and a pen so they could complete the questionnaire at that moment. Administration took a minimum of 10 min. The athletes' participation was voluntary and there was no financial compensation. They were assured that their answers would be confidential. After completing the questionnaire, the participants were thanked verbally for their participation. Data Analysis The four items on each subscale were averaged, giving a single mean for each of the seven subscales. The univariate distributions of the vari-
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I. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ, ET AL.
ous variables were examined for normality (i.e., via skewness and kurtosis values and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic). Confirmatory factor analyses were calculated on the seven subscale scores to evaluate the adequacy of the actual measurement to the 7-factor model of the SMS. Internal consistency of the SMS was assessed by calculating a Cronbach's α coefficient on each subscale of the questionnaire with this sample of participants, and correlation coefficients between SMS subscales were calculated to evaluate multi-collinearities between subscales. To explore potential differences in indices of motivation, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted, using sex as the independent variable and the motivation subscale scores as the dependent variables. After this, to assess possible interactions of sex × age and sex × competition level, this study carried out multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA), using sex and age separately, and sex and competition level as independent variables, the motivation subscale scores as the dependent variables, and experience as covariate. All statistical analyses were completed using SPSS Version 17.0.2 except confirmatory factor analysis, which used LISREL Version 8.80. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Correlation coefficients between SMS subscales were computed (Table 1). In the present study, the correlations among the motivation variables ranged from –.29 to .69. The majority of subscales had Cronbach's α coefficients greater than .70 (Table 1), indicating acceptable internal consistency. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed acceptable fit indices for the Sport Motivation Scale in this sample (χ2 = 565.92, df = 329, p < .001; χ2/df = 1.72; CFI = 0.95; SRMR = 0.078; RMSEA = 0.074, 90%CI RMSEA = 0.064, 0.084). TABLE 1 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AND CRONBACH'S α RELIABILITY BETWEEN THE SPORT MOTIVATION SUBSCALES Variable 1. IM to know
M
SD
α
5.17
1.17
.70
Pearson Correlations 1
2
3
4
2. IM to accomplish
5.33
1.09
.71
.65†
3. IM to experience stimulation
5.66
0.91
.72
.54†
.69†
4. Identified regulation
4.78
1.21
.67
.51†
.53†
.63†
5. Introjected regulation
4.73
1.24
.70
.41†
.34†
.38†
.57†
6. External regulation
3.60
1.38
.73
.24†
.29†
.14
.39†
7. Amotivation 2.18 1.28 Note.—IM = intrinsic motivation. †p < .01.
.83
.00
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−.21† −.29† −.01
5
6
.35† .09
.26†
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Results of the MANOVA indicated a significant difference between men's and women's amotivation scores (F1, 137 = 5.86, p = .02, partial η2 = 0.04). The mean for men was significantly higher than that for women. No other significant sex differences emerged, though the mean for external regulation was found to be nonsignificantly higher for males than for females, with a small effect size (partial η2 = 0.03). Multivariate ANCOVA showed no statistically significant interaction of sex × competition (Wilks'Λ = 0.94, F3, 135 = 1.10, p = .37, partial η2 = 0.06). No significant sex × age interaction was found either (Wilks'Λ = 0.84, F7, 137 = 1.03, p = .42, partial η2 = 0.06). The number of years of experience practising triathlon was controlled as covariate in these analyses. Results showed significant differences only in amotivation, with the mean score for men higher than that for women. There were no similar motivation score differences between men and women in previous research. For sex differences in amotivation scores, the results reported herein are similar to those of Nuñez, et al. (2006), Balaguer, et al. (2007), and Nuñez, et al. (2007), who investigated younger Spanish athletes of regional, national, and international competition level in 19 sports. However, in the latter studies, women also reported lower scores on external regulation. In the current study, external regulation scores were higher for men, but the difference was not significant. Lower amotivation scores in women, and also sex differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, were found in 399 young Canadian competitive intercollegiate and recreational athletes, who participated in badminton, basketball, volleyball, or soccer (Fortier, et al., 1995). The international competition level of all participants in Fortier, et al. and the type of sport could explain the divergences from the current study with regard to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation differences between men and women. Although there was a sex difference on amotivation scores, the means were very low for both male and female participants. This is logical, since these athletes were competing in a World Championship triathlon that required extremely intense training and then maximum exertion for several hours in a highly tense competition. In line with Vlachopoulos, et al. (2000), the median score of the SMS answer (4) is used to ascertain whether participants showed strong or weak motivation. The median score, “corresponds moderately,” indicates that there was low endorsement for amotivation among these athletes. Low amotivation is associated with positive consequences, such as high sport commitment (Zahariadis, Tsorbatzoudis, & Alexandris, 2006). Previous research found no evidence for sex differences in sport commitment in adult triathletes (Crocker & Augaitis, 2010). In spite of the sex difference mentioned, the general motivational profile was not very different for male and female triathletes. Some previous
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I. LÓPEZ-FERNÁNDEZ, ET AL.
research has provided data suggesting there are no sex differences in motivation among athletes from different sports and competition levels (Vlachopoulos, et al., 2000; Martín-Albo, Núñez, Navarro, Leite, Almirón, & Glavinich, 2007; De Pero, Amici, Benvenuti, Minganti, Capranica, & Pesce, 2009). Competition level and age did not influence sex differences in sport motivation. Although there were professionals and amateurs in the sample, all were competing at an international level. There were no recreational athletes or participants with a low competition level, whose profiles might have shown differences on this variable (Fortier, et al., 1995). The fact that sex differences in motivation were independent of age is not consistent with a previous study, which reported an age-related decline in external regulation only for female competitive mountain runners of different competitive levels (Burtscher, Furtner, Sachse, & Burtscher, 2011). The training regimens when competing at an international level, such as those of the participants in this study, may be very demanding for both sexes during the whole lifespan at any age (Bales, et al., 2012), so the sample may be too self-selected to show any age differences. The motivationally homogeneous sample is an important limitation of this study, and thus generalisations of the results should be made with caution. Men and women of any age competing at an international level in triathlon had highly similar motivational profiles. Future research involving larger samples with athletes from different sports and varied levels of competition is needed to clarify whether the competition level and the type of sport affect sex differences in motivation. REFERENCES
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DECI, E. L., & RYAN, R. M. (1985) Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. DE PERO, R., AMICI, S., BENVENUTI, C., MINGANTI, C., CAPRANICA, L., & PESCE, C. (2009) Motivation for sport participation in older Italian athletes: the role of age, gender and competition level. Sport Sciences for Health, 5, 61-69. DUDA, J. L., & HALL, H. K. (2001) Achievement goal theory in sport: recent extensions and future directions. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology. (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley. Pp. 417-443. FILHO, M. B., ANDRADE, D., MIRANDA, R., NÚÑEZ, J. L., MARTÍN-ALBÓ, J., & RIBAS, P. R. (2011) Validación preliminar de una versión brasilera de la escala de motivación para el deporte. Universitas Psychologica, 10, 557-566. FORTIER, M. S., VALLERAND, R. J., BRIÈRE, N. M., & PROVENCHER, P. J. (1995) Competitive and recreational sport structures and gender: a test of their relationship with sport motivation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26, 24-39. KINGSTON, K. M., HORROCKS, C. S., & HANTON, S. (2006) Do multidimensional intrinsic and extrinsic motivation profiles discriminate between athlete scholarship status and gender? European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 53-63. MARTÍN-ALBO, J., NÚÑEZ, J. L., NAVARRO, J. G., LEITE, M., ALMIRÓN, M., & GLAVINICH, N. (2007) Propiedades psicométricas de la versión española de la escala de motivación deportiva en Paraguay. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 24, 43-52. NUÑEZ, J. L., MARTIN-ALBO, J., NAVARRO, J. G., & GONZALEZ, V. M. (2006) Preliminary validation of a Spanish version of the Sport Motivation Scale. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 102, 919-930. NUÑEZ, J. L., LUCAS, J. M-A., & NAVARRO IZQUIERDO, J. G. (2007) Propiedades psicométricas de la versión española de la escala de motivación deportiva. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 16, 211-223. PELLETIER, L. G., FORTIER, M. S., VALLERAND, R. J., TUSON, K. M., BRIÈRE, N. M., & BLAIS, M. R. (1995) Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35-53. PETHERICK, C. M., & WEIGAND, D. A. (2002) Relationship of dispositional goal orientations and perceived motivational climates on indices of motivation in male and female swimmers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 33, 218-237. PINTRICH, P. R., & SCHUNK, D. H. (2002) Motivation in education: theory, research, and applications. (2nd ed.) Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall. RUIZ-JUAN, F., & ZARAUZ, A. (2012) Predictor variables of motivation on Spanish master athletes. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 7, 617-628. VALLERAND, R. J., PELLETIER, L. G., BLAIS, M. R., BRIÈRE, N. M., SENÉCAL, C., & VALLIÈRES, E. F. (1993) On the assessment of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education: evidence on the concurrent and construct validity of the Academic Motivation Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 159-172. VLACHOPOULOS, S. P., KARAGEORGHIS, C. I., & TERRY, P. C. (2000) Motivation profiles in sport: a self-determination theory perspective. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71, 387-397. ZAHARIADIS, P., TSORBATZOUDIS, H., & ALEXANDRIS, K. (2006) Self-determination in sport commitment. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 102, 405-420. Accepted May 2, 2014.
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