Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155 Received: December 6, 2015 Accepted: December 7, 2015 Published online: February 3, 2016
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Mini-Review
Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer Chung S. Yang a
Xiaoxin Chen b, c
Shuiping Tu d
a Department
of Chemical Biology, Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, N.J., b Julius L. Chambers Biomedical/Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, N.C., and c Center for Esophageal Diseases and Swallowing, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, N.C., USA; d Department of Oncology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, PR China
Key Words Esophageal cancer · Etiology · Prevention Abstract Background: Esophageal cancer (EC) occurs commonly, especially in Asia, and is the sixth leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Recently, great progress has been made in research on the etiology and prevention of EC. Summary: The major risk factors for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) are tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking, which act synergistically. Dietary parameters, including dietary carcinogens and insufficiency of micronutrients, could also be important risk factors in certain areas. A common etiological factor for both EC and some other cancers are low levels of intake of fruits and vegetables. With improvements in diet and drinking water in developing countries, the incidence of ESCC decreased. However, in economically well-developed countries, the incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) has markedly increased in the past 40 years. The major etiological factor for EAC is gastroesophageal reflux, which is also an etiological factor for gastric cardia adenocarcinoma (GCA). In certain areas of China, the occurrence of GCA is closely related to ESCC. Susceptibility genes for EC are starting to be discovered, and this may help to identify high-risk groups that have more need for preventive measures. Mitigation of the risk factors, early detection and treatment of precancerous lesions are effective approaches for prevention. Smoking cessation, avoidance of excessive alcohol, meat and caloric consumption, increasing physical activity and frequent consumption of vegetables and fruits are prudent lifestyle modifications for the prevention of EC as well as other diseases. Key Message: The etiology of EC includes Dr. Chung S. Yang Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey 164 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854-8020 (USA) E-Mail csyang @ pharmacy.rutgers.edu
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, low levels of intake of fruits and vegetables as well as gastroesophageal reflux and susceptibility genes. Practical Implications: A healthy lifestyle including smoking cessation, increasing physical activity, consumption of vegetables as well as reduction of alcohol intake and caloric consumption are major approaches to the prevention of EC. © 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel
Introduction
ȋȌ
ȏͳȐǤ
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Ȃ ǡǤǡ
ȋȌǡǤ
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ȋȌ ͶͲ
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Ǥ
ȋ Ȍ
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ǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
Ǥ ǡ
ǡ Ǧ ǯ
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Ǥ Epidemiology and Etiology of EC
ǡ Ǥ
ǡ ǡ
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Ǥ Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma
ǡ
ǤǡǡǦ
ʹ͵ǤͳͻȀͳͲͲǡͲͲͲͳͻ͵Ȃͳͻͷͳ͵Ǥ͵ȀͳͲͲǡͲͲͲ ʹͲͲͶȂʹͲͲͷǡ
ͷͻΨȏʹȐǤ
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Ȁ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 © 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
DOI: 10.1159/000443155
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
Mean rate per 100,000 person-years
Total EC 30
30
10
1
Squamous cell carcinoma
Adenocarcinoma 30
30
10
10
10
1
1
1
Other and not specified
Whites Hispanics Blacks Asians/Pacific Islanders
0.1
1980 1990 2000
0.1
1980 1990 2000
0.1
1980 1990 2000
0.1
1980 1990 2000
Fig. 1.
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Ǣǡ
ȏ͵ȐǤ
ȏͶȂͳͲȐǤ
ͳǤ
͵ǦǦ
ȏͷȂͺȐ͵ǦͷǦ
ȏͺȂͳͲȐǢ
Ǥǡ
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ǡǦ
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Ǧ Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ
ȏͳͳȐǤ
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ǡ
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ǡǡ
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ȏͳʹȐǤ
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ȏͳͲǡͳ͵ȐǤ
ǡ
ȏͳͲȐǤ ǡ
ͶͲǤ
Ǧǡ
ȏͳͶȐ
ȏͳͷȐǡ
ǡ
Ǧ
ǡ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
Table 1.
Ǣ ʹ
ǡǤǤǡǡ
ǡǢ
ȋȌ
ͳͳͺȂ
ǡǤǤǡ
ͳǡʹͲͷͶǡͳ ʹǡ
Ǥ ȋǤǤǤȌ ͳͻͺͲ ȋȌǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ͳͻͷͻǡ ͳͻͺͲȏͳͶȐǤǡ
ǡ
ǡ εͺͲȀͳͲͲǡͲͲͲǡ ͶͲȂͺͲʹͲȂͶͲȀͳͲͲǡͲͲͲǡ
Ǥǡ
Ǣǡȋ
Ȍ ʹǤͺȀͳͲͲǡͲͲͲǤ
ȋ
ȌͳͲͺȀͳͲͲǡͲͲͲ ͻͻǤͺȀͳͲͲǡͲͲͲȋͳͻͷͻͳͻͲȌǡ
ȏͳͶȐǤͳͻͺͲ
Ǥ Ǥ
Ǣ
Ǥ
ȏͳͶǡ ͳȐǡ
ǡǡ
ȏͳȂͳͺȐǤ
Ǯ
ǯǮǦ
ǯǡ
ȏ ͳͶǡ ͳȐǤ ǡ
Ǥ
ǢǤ
Ǧ
ǡ
Ǥ
ǡͳͻͲͳͻͺͲǡǢ ǡ
ȏ ͳͶȐǤ
Ǧ
Ǥ
Ǥ ǡ
Ǧ
Ǥ
ǡǤ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
ǡ
Ǥ
ǡ ǡǦͳǦǦ
ǦǦ͵Ǧǡ
ǡ ȏ ͳ ͶȐǤ
ǡ
ȏͳͶȐǤ ǡ
Ǥ
ȏͳͶȐǡȏͳͻǡʹͲȐ
Ǥ ǡ
ǡ
ȏʹͳȐǤǦ ǡ
Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ
ǡ
ǡ
ǡ
ȏʹʹȐǤ ǢǦ
ǡ
ȏͶȐǤ
Ǥ
Ǧ
ȏʹ͵ȐǤ
ǡǡ
Ǥ
ǤǦ
ȋ Ȍ
Ǧ ʹǡ
ǡǦ
ȏʹͶȐǤ
ǡ
ͳ ȋ
ǡ ǡ Ȍ ʹͲͷͶȋȌ ȏʹͷȐǤ
Ǧ
ͳ ǤȏʹȐǤ
ͳ͵ʹʹǤͳ
ǡǦ
ȏʹȐǤ
ͷ͵ͳǤʹ ȋ ͳ͵Ȍ ͳͳ͵Ǥͳ ȋ
ͳʹǡ ͷ͵ȌǤ ǡ
ʹͳǤ͵ʹ ȏʹͺȐǤ
ǦǦ
ȋͷ͵ǡ
ͳǡ ʹǡ ͵ǡ ͳǡ ǡͳǡ ʹʹȌǡ
ǡ
͵ȏʹͻȂ͵ʹȐǤ
ǡ ȏ͵͵ȐǤ Esophageal Adenocarcinoma
ǡ
Ǥǡ
Ǧǡ
ǡ
ͶͲȏ͵ͶȂ͵ȐǤͳǡǡ
Ȃ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
Table 2.
ǡǯ ǡ
Ǣ
ǡ
Ǣ
Ȃ
Ǥ
ǡ
ȏ͵ȐǤ
Ǧ ȏ ͵ȂͶͲȐǤ
ʹǤ
ǡ
ǡ
ǡ
ǡ
ǯ ȋȌǤ Ǥ ǡ
ǡǦ
ȏͶͳȂͶͶȐǤ ǡ
Ǧ ȏͶʹȂͶͷȐǤ
Ǧ
ȏͶͶȐǤ
Ǧʹǡ ͷǦ Ͷ ǡ
Ǧ
ȋʹͶȌ ǡ ȏͶȂͶͺȐǤ ǡ
ǡ ǡȏͶȂͶͺȐǡ
Ǥ
ȏͶͻȂͷʹȐǤ ǡ
͵Ǧ
ε͵Ͳ ȏͷͲȐǤ ǡ ǡ
Ǧ
ǦǦȏͷͳȐǤ
ȏͷʹȐǤ
ǡ
Ǧ
Ǥ
ǡ
ǤǤȏͷ͵Ȑ
Ǧ
Ǧ
ǯ
Ǧ
ȏͷ͵ȐǤǦ
ǡ
Ǧ
Ǥ ǡ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
Ȁ
ǤǦȏͷͶȐ Ȁ δͳǤ
ǡ
ǡ
Ǥ Ǧ
Ǧ͵
ȏ ͷͷǡͷȐǤ
ǡ
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ʹǦǦ͵ǡͶǡͺǦȏͶǡͷǦȐǦ ǡ
ȏͷȐǤ
Ǥ
ǤǦ
Ȁ
ȏͷͺȐǤ
ȏͷͻȐǤ
ͳǡͳǡ ͳǡͳǡʹͷ͵ȏͲȂʹȐǤ ǡ
Ǧ
ȏ͵ǡͶȐǤ
ǦǦ
ȋǤǤǡͷ͵ǡʹǡͶǡ ͳ ͵Ȍ ȏͷȐǤ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ȏǡȐǤȋǤǤǡ ͷ͵ͶȌ
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ǦǦ
ȏͺȐǤ
ǡ
Ǧ Ǧ
Ǧ Ǧ
ȏͻȐǤ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡ
ȏͲȐǡͻͲȏͳȐ
ȏͺȐǤ Gastric Cardia Adenocarcinoma
Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ
ȏ͵Ȑǡ
ȏ͵ǡ͵ͷǡͷȐǤ
Ǣǡǡ
ͳͻͺǤ͵
ͳǤʹΨȏʹȐǤ
ǡ
ǡ
Ǥ Ǥ
ǡ ǡ
Ͷǣ
ǡ
ȋ Ȍ
ȋ ȌǦ
ǡȽǦ
ȾǦ
ȏ͵ȐǤ
Ǧ
ȽǦ
Ǧ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
Table 3.
ǡ
Ǣ ǡ
Helicobacterpylori
ǡ
Ǧ
ȏͳͺǡͶȐǤǡ
ǡ
ȏ ͷȐǤ ǡ
ǡ
ȏʹͷǡʹȐǤ Common Risk and Protective Factors for EC
ǡǮ
ǯǤ ǡ
͵ǦͺǦȏȐǤ
ǡ
Ǥ
ǡ
ǡǤ
ǡǡ
ȏȐǤ ǡ
ǡ
ȏȐǤ
ǡ
ǡ ȋ
Ǧ ȌǤ Prevention of Esophageal and Gastric Cardia Cancers
ǡ
ǤǦ
Ǥ
ǡ
ȋ ͵ȌǤ
ǡ
Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ
Ǥǡ
Ǧ
Ǥ
ȏͺȐǤ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 DOI: 10.1159/000443155
© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
Intervention Studies in Linxian
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ǡǦ
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ǡǣȋȌ
ǢȋȌ
ǢȋȌ
ǡȋȌȽǦ
ǡ ȾǦ
ǡ
ǣ
ǡǡǡǡǡǡ ǤʹͻǡͷͺͶȋͶͲȂͻȌǦ ͵ȋͳͻͺͷȂͳͻͻͳȌǤʹǡͳʹ Ǣ͵ʹΨ
Ǥ
ȽǦ
ȋͷͲ ɊȌǡ ȾǦ
ȋͳͷ Ȍ ȋͷͲɊȌȋεͶͲȌ͵
ȋ ȌʹͲΨ
ͳ͵Ψȏ͵ȐǤ
Ǧ
ǡ
ȽǦ
ȏͳͺǡ ͶȐǤ
ǡ ǡ
Ǥ ǦͳͲ
Ǧ ǡ
ȽǦ
ȀȾǦ
Ȁ
ǡǦ
ͳΨ
˯ͷ ͷǡ
ͳͶΨεͷͷȏͻȐǤ
ȋȌ
ǡǦ
Ǥ
ͳͶͳʹ
ȏͺͲȐǤ
ͺΨ
ͶΨǢ
Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ ȏͺͳȐǤ
Ǥ
ȋǡ
Ȍ
Ǧ
ͳͻͺͲȏͺʹȐǤͳǡ͵ͷ ǡ
ȏͺʹȐǤ ǡ
ǡ ǡ
Ǥ
Ǥ
Ǥ ȋȌ
ȏͳͶȐǡ
Ǥ
ȋȌ
ȏͺ͵ȐǤ
Ǧ
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Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
ǯǡ
Ǧǡ
ȏͺͶȐǤ Other Studies
ǤǦ
ȏͶȐ Ǥ
Ǥ ǡǡǦǦ ǡǡ
ȏͺͷȐǤǡ
Ǥ
Ǣ ǡ
ʹͲͲ
Ͷͺ ǯ
ȏͺȐǤ
ȂͺǤ
ǡ
ȏͺȐǤ
Ǧ
ǡ ǡ
ȏͺȐǤ
Ǧ
Helicobacter pyloriȏͺͺȐǤ
ǡ
ǡǦ
Ǥ
Ǧ
Ǥ
ȏͺͻȐǤǡ Ȃǡ
ȋ ȌȂ
ȏͻͲȂͻʹȐǤ Ǧ
Ǥ
ǦǦ ȏ ͻ͵ǡͻͶȐǤ
ǡͶǡͻͺʹ ǡ
ȏͻͳȐǤ
Ǧ ȏ ͻͷȐǤ ǡ
ȋȌ ȏͻȐǤ
ȏͻǡͻͺȐǤ
ȏͻͻȐǤ Concluding Remarks
ǡ
ǡ
ǡ
Ǥ Ǯ
ǯ
Ǥ
ǡ
ǡ
ǤǢ
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Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 © 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
DOI: 10.1159/000443155
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
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Ǥ Disclosure Statement
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References Ԙ ͳ ǡǡ ǣ
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ʹͲͳͷǢ ͷǣͷ ȂʹͻǤ Ԙ ʹ ǣ
ǡǡ
Ǣǡǡ ȋȌǣ
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ǡǡ
Ͳͳǣͺ ͷͷȂͺͷͻǤ ǡͳͻȂʹͲͲͷǤ
ʹͲͲͻǢͳ Ԙ Ͷ ǡǡǡǣ
Ǥ ͺǣʹ ȂͷǡǤ ʹͲͲͻǢ͵ Ԙ ͷ ǡǡǡ ǡ ǣǣͶͲǯ Ͳͻǣͻ ͲͳȂͻͳͳǤ
Ǥ ͳͻͻͶǢ͵ Ԙ
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Ǥ ʹͲͲͳǢͳ ͳ ͳ ǣ
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ͳ͵ǣͶ ͷȂͶ͵Ǥ
Ǥ
ʹͲͲͷǢͳ
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DOI: 10.1159/000443155
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ʹ Ͳ ǡ ǡ ǡ
ǡǣ
Ǧ
͵ǣ ͷͷȂͳǤ Ǥ
ͳͻͺͻǢͶ ʹ ͳ ǡǡ ǡǡǣǦ
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Ǥ
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ʹͲͳͲǢʹ ʹ ͵ ǡǡ ǡǡǣ
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ǣǦǤ ʹͲͳ͵Ǣ͵ ʹ Ͷ ǡǡǡǡǣ
ADH1BALDH2
͵ǣͳ ͺȂͳͷǤ
Ǥ ʹͲͲͻǢͳ ʹ ͷ ǡ ǡǡǡǣ Ǧ
ʹǣ ͷͻȂ͵Ǥ
PLCE1Ǥ ʹͲͳͲǢͶ ʹ ǡ ǡǡǡǣ
PLCE1ͳͲʹ͵
Ǧ ʹǣ ͶȂǤ
Ǥ ʹͲͳͲǢͶ ʹ ǡǡǡǡǣ ͳ͵ʹʹǤͳ
Ͷǣͳ ͶȂͳͺͲǤ
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ǣͷ ͻȂͳͳǤ
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ǡǡǡǣ
ǣͶ ȂͶ͵Ǥ
Ǥ ʹͲͳͶǢͶ ͵ ʹ ǡǡǡ ǡǣ
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Ǥ ͳǣ ͶͺȂͷͺǤ
ʹͲͳͷǢʹ ͵ Ͷ ǡǡǡ ǣ
ͷǣͳ ʹͺȂͳʹͺͻǤ
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͵ǣʹ ͲͶͻȂʹͲͷ͵Ǥ Ǥ
ͳͻͻͺǢͺ ͵ ǡǡǣ
ͲͲǣͳ ͳͺͶȂͳͳͺǤ ǡǡǤ
ʹͲͲͺǢͳ ͵ ǡ Ú ǡ ǡ ± ǣ
ͶͲǣͺ ʹͷȂͺ͵ͳǤ
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ͺǣͻ ͶͲȂͻͶͺǤ
Ǥ
ʹͲͲ͵Ǣͻ ͵ ͻ ǡǡǣ
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ǣ
Ǥ
ǡ Ͷǣ ʹͻȂ͵ͷǤ
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ǡǣ Ͳǣͳ ͺͲͳȂͳͺͲͺǤ
Ǥ
ͳͻͻͻǢʹ Ͷ ʹ ǡǡǡ ǡǣ
ͳǣͳ ͷ͵ͳȂͳͷ͵Ǥ
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ʹͲͲǢͳ
15
Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 © 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
DOI: 10.1159/000443155
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
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16
Gastrointest Tumors 2016;3:3–16 © 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel www.karger.com/gat
DOI: 10.1159/000443155
Yang et al.: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer
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