Ethnomedicinal plants used by the villagers of district Udhampur, J&K, India.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 1005–1018

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Ethnomedicinal plants used by the villagers of district Udhampur, J&K, India Harpreet Bhatia a, Yash Pal Sharma a, R.K. Manhas b,n, Kewal Kumar c a

Department of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu-180001, J&K, India Department of Botany, Govt. Degree College, Kathua-184104, J&K, India c Department of Botany, Govt. Degree College for Women, Udhampur-182101, J&K, India b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 30 August 2013 Received in revised form 15 December 2013 Accepted 15 December 2013 Available online 21 December 2013

Plants are an integral part of life in many indigenous communities. Besides, being the source of food, fodder, fuel, etc., the use of plants as herbal medicines in curing several ailments goes parallel to the human civilization. Ethnopharmacology involves the investigation of the plants used by the traditional communities and further understand the pharmacological basis of these culturally important medicinal plants. Present study was conducted to enlist the medicinal plants used by the local inhabitants of Udhampur district of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Material and methods: Direct interviews of the 182 informants were conducted. The data generated through interviews was analysed using quantitative tools like use-value, factor informant consensus and fidelity level. Results: A total of 166 species of flowering plants belonging to 63 families and 145 genera were observed to be medicinal and used to cure 78 ailments. Medicinal plants were mainly from Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae and Amaranthaceae families. Leaves were the most used plant part in the medicinal preparations. The most important medicinal species of the present study site as per the use-value (UV) were: Achyranthes aspera, Zanthoxylum armatum, Acorus calamus, Syzygium cumini, Phyllanthus emblica, Plumbago zeylanica etc. The important ailment categories classified on the basis of factor informant consensus (Fic) were diabetes, external parasite, liver complaints and gastrointestinal disorders. The maximum number of species was utilized to cure gastrointestinal and dermatological ailments. Important species for each ailment category were also assessed using fidelity level. It was found that the older informants provided more information about the ethnomedicinal plants, but this valuable treasure of traditional knowledge is depleting significantly with the decrease in age and increase in educational level. Conclusion: The results of present ethnobotanical survey reveal the rich wealth of indigenous knowledge associated with the villagers of Udhampur district. A number of plants with a high citation values have given some leads for the further pharmocological research. Apart from these highly cited plants, studies need to be done on some other promising plants like Anagallis arvensis, Euphorbia hirta, Ficus benghalensis, Fumaria indica, Prunus persica, Rubus ellipticus, Taraxacum officinale, Tribulus terrestris etc. & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ethnopharmacology field study Traditional medicine Use-value Factor informant consensus Fidelity level

1. Introduction Plants are an integral part of life in many indigenous communities (Sidigia et al., 1990). Besides, being the source of food, fodder, fuel, etc., the use of plants as herbal medicines in curing several ailments goes parallel to the human civilization. India is endowed with a rich wealth of medicinal plants, being perhaps the largest producer and rightly acclaimed as the Botanical garden of the world (Dubey et al., 2004). It has a strong base of many systems of medicines including

n

Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 9419158504. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.K. Manhas).

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.12.017

Ayurveda, Yunani, Sidha and other local health practices. The earliest mention of medicinal plants is found in Rigveda (67 medicinal plants), Yajurveda (81 medicinal plants) and Atharvaveda (290 medicinal plant species) with Charak Samhita (700 B.C.) and Sushruta Samhita (200 B.C) as the traditional databases (Sinha, 2002). Out of the estimated 4, 22,000 flowering plants reported from the world (Govaerts, 2001), more than 50,000 are used for medicinal purposes (Schippmann et al., 2002). In India, more than 43% of the total flowering plants are reported to be of medicinal importance (Pushpangadan, 1995). Traditional medicine based on herbal remedies has always played a key role in the health care systems of many countries. According to World Health Organization (W.H.O.), approximately

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H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 151 (2014) 1005–1018

80% of the world0 s population in developing countries depends on traditional medicines for primary health care because they are regarded as safe, cost effective and easily affordable. Besides this, modern treatment facilities do not reach aborigines or the people who live far away from the towns (W.H.O., 2002). In the developed countries, 25% of the medical drugs are based on plants and their derivatives (Principe, 1991). Indian subcontinent is being inhabited by over 54 million tribal people dwelling in about 5000 forest dominated villages spreading across the country comprising 15% of the total geographical area (Nath and Khatri, 2010). Due to constant association with forests, ethnic people have immense plantlore and folklore which they inherit and pass on from generation to generation just through oral conservation (Rao and Shanpru, 1981; Chhetri, 1994). Northern region of India is rich in medicinal floral wealth. Out of 8644 plant species reported to exist in the Indian Himalaya, 1748 species are of medicinal importance (Samant et al., 1998). J&K has a rich heritage of over 300 medicinal plants (Kaul, 1997). Several reports on the Amchi system of medicine in Ladakh enumerating the herbs used by the local medicine practitioners (Amchis) have appeared in the past (Raghunathan, 1976; Dhar, 1980; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Visvanath and Mankad, 1984; Nawchoo and Buth, 1989; Kaul et al., 1995). Other ethnomedicinal studies (Sarin and Kapur, 1984; Virjee et al., 1984; Kaul et al., 1990; Siddique et al., 1995; Kirn et al., 1999; Kant and Sharma, 2001; Kumar et al., 2009; Tantray et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012) in the State have also listed the medicinal plants of various local areas of Jammu and Kashmir. District Udhampur is a hilly terrain and many villages of the region are cut off from the frequent visits of the town. Therefore, they use the available medicinal plants for treating various ailments, and thus are the treasure trove of valuable ethnomedicinal knowledge. This knowledge-base is developed through age old experience and descends orally from one generation to another as a domestic practice. In the present scenario, however this tradition and associated knowledge is dwindling rapidly because the younger generation is either reluctant or less inclined in inheriting this legacy of ethnomedicinal wealth from their fore-fathers. This change in behavior may be due to fascination towards western lifestyle, industrialization, migration from rural to urban areas for jobs and education, allopathic medicine, deforestation etc. So, it is the paramount need to collect and systematically document this precious traditional knowledge for the interest of humanity before it is lost forever. Realizing this fact, the present study was undertaken to systematically document the precious traditional knowledge lying with the villagers of Udhampur district so that we may conserve this valuable treasure for future generations and further pharmacological studies.

2. Material and methods 2.1. Study area District Udhampur, located in Jammu division of J&K state lying between 321340 and 391300 North latitude and 741160 and 751380 East longitude, has a total area of 2380 km2. The district situated in the south-eastern part of J&K with an altitude ranging from 600 to 2900 m above mean sea level and located at a distance of 66 km from Jammu on the Jammu Srinagar national highway. The temperature varies between 1 1C (minimum) and 42 1C (maximum) and the average rainfall is 155.1 cm (Bhatia, 2011 unpublished). 2.2. Medicinal plant survey and data collection A systematic and extensive ethnobotanical survey was carried out in different villages of the district during Jan 2012 to May 2013

for collection of information on ethnomedicinal plant species being used by the locals in the study area. Information was gathered by conducting interviews and group discussions on the indigenous uses of plant species as medicine. After selecting the people, knowledge about their interests and skills in identification and utilization were obtained through informal interviews and discussion was made with the informants in their local language for their ease. The objectives of study were elaborated to the informants. A total of 182 informants (139 males and 43 females) between the age group 27–86 years were interviewed with a questionnaire. The proportion of female informants was low because of the social setup of the study area which prevents them to interact with the strangers. The male informants lower than the age of 27 cannot be interviewed because they generally leave their villages for studies or seeking jobs. All the informants were from the rural regions of the district having agriculture and animal keeping as the main occupations. The medicinal facilities, especially for animals, are far from the villages. The information collected included common conditions or ailments or diseases occurring in humans and animals which are curable by plants, local name of plant species, habit, wild/cultivated, flowering time, plant-part used, ethnomedicinal use, method of crude drug preparation, drug given individually or in combination, mode of administration, dosage, side effects if any. Sometimes specimens were taken to other areas, shown to people and information collected. All the plants were not in the flowering and fruiting stage during field visits. In such cases, information was collected and the same site was visited in the flowering season. In response to it, some herbalists provided valuable information about plants which resembled part of the body and used to cure ailments of that very part of the body. The final list of the plants was prepared following the International Plant Names Index (http://www.ipni. org) and Tropicos (2013) for the botanical nomenclature of species.

2.3. Data analysis The data collected through interview of the informants was analysed using three different quantitative indices viz. use value (UV), factor informant consensus (Fic) and fidelity level (Fl%). The relative importance was calculated employing the use-value (Phillips et al., 1994), a quantitative measure for the relative importance of species known locally: UV ¼ ΣU=n where U is the number of use-reports cited by each informant for a given species and n refers to the total number of informants. Use values are high when there are many use-reports for a plant, implying that the plant is important, and approach zero (0) when there are few reports related to its use. The use value, however, does not distinguish whether a plant is used for single or multiple purposes (Musa et al., 2011). To test homogeneity of knowledge about the medicinal plants, the factor informant consensus (Fic) was used (Heinrich et al., 1998). Before performing the analysis, all the ailments were broadly classified into various categories on the basis of Heinrich et al. (1998). The Fic was calculated as: F ic ¼

nur nt nur 1

where Nur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular use category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants. Fic values are low (near 0) if plants are chosen randomly or if there is no exchange of information about their use among informants, and approach one (1) when there is a well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or


where Np is the number of use-reports cited for a given species for a particular ailment and N is the total number of use-reports cited for any given species. High Fl value (near 100%) is obtained for plants for which almost all use reports refer to the same way of using it, whereas low Fl value is obtained for plants that are used for many different purposes (Musa et al., 2011). The Spearman Rank Correlation Test was also employed to evaluate whether there was significant (p o0.05) correlation between (i) the age of informant and the number of ethnomedicinal plant species reported; and (ii) the educational level of informant and the number of species reported.

if information is exchanged between informants (Gazzaneo et al., 2005; Sharma et al., 2012). Because many plant species may be used in the same use category, it is interesting to determine the most preferred species used in treatment of particular ailment (Musa et al., 2011), which can be done with the fidelity level (Fl%) of Friedman et al. (1986): Fl ð%Þ ¼

1007

Np 100 N

Table 1 Demographic description of the informants and Spearman rank correlation analysis.

3. Results Informants Female Male

43 (23.6%) 139 (76.4%)

Age group 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65–74 75–84 85–95

Female 1 (2.3%) 4 (9.3%) 6 (14.0%) 15 (34.9%) 12 (27.9%) 5 (11.6%) –

Male 14 (10.1%) 9 (6.5%) 24 (17.3%) 34 (24.5%) 29 (20.9%) 22 (15.8%) 7 (5.0%)

Education level Never attended school Attended school for 1–5 classes Attended school for 6–10 classes Intermediate (12th class) Graduate Postgraduate

Female 15 (34.9%) 13 (30.2%) 9 (20.9%) 4 (9.3%) 2 (4.7%) 2 (4.7%)

Male 41 (29.5%) 30 (21.6%) 23 (16.5%) 17 (12.2%) 15 (10.8%) 13 (9.4%)

r 0.27 0.21

P o 0.001n 0.005n

0.38 0.33

0.012nn 0.030nn

0.24 0.17

0.004n 0.041nn

Spearman rank correlation Overall population (n¼ 182; α ¼0.01) Age of the informant Vs no. of plants Education level Vs no. of plants Female informants (n¼ 43; α¼ 0.05) Age of the informant Vs no. of plants Education level Vs no. of plants Male informants (n¼ 139; α ¼ 0.05) Age of the informant Vs no. of plants Education level Vs no. of plants

3.1. Characteristics of informants 62.8% males and 45.4% female informants were between the age group of 55–74yrs. Most of them (65.1% females and 51.1% males) were poor in education i.e. up to 5th class education (Table 1). The Spearman rank correlation between the informants and number of plants reported was highly significant. Older informants mentioned more number of plants than younger population. The education of informants was negatively correlated with the number of plants reported i.e. as the informants were getting educated they were moving away from the traditional medicinal system (Table 1).

3.2. Floristic characteristics of medicinal plants A total of 166 species of flowering plants belonging to 63 families and 145 genera were observed to be medicinal in the study area. Out of these, 153 species (92.2%) were dicots and 13 species (7.8%) monocots. Majority of the taxa were growing in wild (119 species), 27 species were purely cultivated while as 20 species existed in both wild and cultivated forms. In terms of number of species used, Asteraceae appeared to be the most dominant family followed by Solanaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae and Amaranthaceae (Fig. 1). Thirty-two families are represented by a genus and species each.

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 (nn) and 0.01 (n) levels (two tailed).

30 Species

Genera

20

15

10

5

Fig. 1. Number of genera and species present in the families.

Cucurbitaceae

Ranunculaceae

Menispermaceae

Lythraceae

Meliaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Boraginaceae

Convolvulaceae

Moraceae

Families

Polygonaceae

Myrtaceae

Anacardiaceae

Verbenaceae

Mimosaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Brassicaceae

Liliaceae

Rutaceae

Malvaceae

Apiaceae

Apocynaceae

Acanthaceae

Rosaceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Amaranthaceae

Poaceae

Fabaceae

Lamiaceae

Asteraceae

0 Solanaceae

Number of genera/species

25

1008


Table 2 Ethnomedicinal plant species used for curing different ailments along with their use-value. Botanical name

Local name

Family

Wild (w)/ cultivated (c)

Habit

Abrus precatorius L.

Ratti

Fabaceae

w

Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Achillea millefolium L.

Khair, Katha

Mimosaceae

w

Plant part and method used (citations)

w

Achyranthes aspera L.

Dannd peerah Asteraceae di jari Puthkanda Amaranthaceae

Climber Seeds soaked in hot mustard oil are ground to a fine paste and applied topically on abscess (4). Seed (minute quantity) powdered and mixed with curd is given to rabid dog (6) and also acts as appetizer for dogs (16) Tree Heartwood extract is taken orally to cure oral ulcers (11) and pharyngitis (1) Herb Cotton soaked in fine root paste is applied on aching tooth (3)

w

Herb

Acorus calamus L.

Barian

Acoraceae

w

Herb

Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa

Bill

Rutaceae

w

Tree

Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult Ajuga bracteosa Benth.

Dhuri Bui

Amaranthaceae

w

Herb

Neel Kanthi

Lamiaceae

w

Herb

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Sirin

Mimosaceae

w

Tree

Allium cepa L.

Pyaaz, Ganda

Liliaceae

c

Herb

Allium sativum L.

Thom

Liliaceae

c

Herb

Aloe barbadensis Mill

Kuaargandal

Aloaceae

c

Herb

Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC Amaranthus viridis L.

Kandili Jari

Amaranthaceae

w

Herb

Chelari

Amaranthaceae

c

Herb

Anagallis arvensis L.

Jonkmari

Primulaceae

w

Herb

Argemone mexicana L.

Peeli Kandiari, Papaveraceae Satyanashi Ratanjot, Boraginaceae Lalmundi

w

Herb

w

Herb

Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp

Shambar

Asteraceae

w

Herb

Arundo donax L.

Naur

Poaceae

w

Grass

Asclepias curassavica L.

Rattphul

Asclepiadaceae

w

Shrub

Asparagus adscendens Roxb

Sahns Pound

Liliaceae

w

Herb

Azadirachta indica A. Juss Nimm

Meliaceae

w

Tree

Bambusa arundinacea Willd Barleria cristata L.

Baans

Poaceae

w

Grass

Latex is applied topically at alopecia affected site (1). Leaf paste along with Sesamum orientale oil is applied on burns as antiphlogistic (1) Leaves are fed to animals for expulsion of intestinal worms (8). Leaf paste is applied on animal0 s body to get rid of external parasites (11) Root decoction along with jaggery is taken orally as abortifacient (2) Decoction of tender leaves with jaggery is useful in expelling intestinal worms (4) Whole plant is finely ground and kept in water overnight. This water is used for child bath to cure weakness (6). Ground root is prescribed as galactagouge both for humans and animals (9) Leaf juice acts as blood purifier (1), cures acne (15) and expels internal parasites (6). Leaf paste is applied externally over the skin of animals for removing external parasites (5). Leaf decoction is used for washing the foot and mouth disease affected part of the animal (5). Twig is inserted in the mouth of animal if it has stopped rumination (8) Root decoction taken orally releases kidney stone (2)

Kali Brenkad

Acanthaceae

w

Herb

Leaf juice is applied at the site of snake bite (2)

Arnebia euchroma I.M. Johnston

Total Usecitations value

26

0.14

12

0.07

3

0.02

Ash obtained after burning spike is administered along with honey 117 to infants for curing cough (12) and fever (6). Decoction of whole plant is given to cattle to check anorexia (33). Cotton soaked in leaf juice is applied on aching tooth (56). Paste of spike is applied topically as anti–venom against scorpion sting (10) 83 Dried and finely powdered rhizome is taken orally with milk for expulsion of intestinal worms (32). Local application of rhizome paste checks external parasites (37). Brushing teeth with rhizome cures toothache and strengthens teeth (4). Tablets made of dried and powdered rhizome are given to children along with honey as memory enhancers (8) and for curing speech disorders (2) Decoction of seeds is used as diuretic (13). Leaf juice and crushed 42 fruits taken orally check jaundice (9) and asthma (4), respectively. Fruits are fed to animals as galactagouge (16) Decoction of whole plant is used as diuretic (2) 2

0.64

Fresh leaves ground to a fine paste are styptic (1) and also applied on forehead to soothe headache (1). Leaf juice is administered to check oral ulcers (1) Decoction of bark made with honey and Glycyrrhiza glabra is prescribed on asthma (1). Paste of dried and powdered bark is taken with water against impotency (3) Juice of bulb taken orally checks nausea and vomiting (30). Outer covering of bulb heated in mustard oil is used as dressing for abscess (9) Bulb is heated in mustard oil and this oil is used as eardrop to check otalgia (12). Curry prepared from bulbs alleviates joint pains (5). Seeds deep–fried in clarified butter are eaten to curb joint pains (8) Infusion of whole plant is taken orally as anti–diabetic (15) and aperients (12). Latex is applied on forehead to get relief from headache (9) and burns (5). Latex is taken orally for treating abscess (4) External application of leaf paste is used as anti–venom against snake bite (2) and also acts as antiphlogistic (3) Seeds fried in clarified butter are given to pregnant ladies to curb labour pains (1). Being rich source of iron, green leaves are cooked and eaten as vegetable (1) Leaf slurry is used for expulsion of leeches from nostrils of cattle (5) Leaf extract is applied topically at the ringworm affected site (3)

0.46

0.23

0.01

3

0.02

4

0.02

39

0.21

25

0.14

45

0.25

5

0.03

2

0.01

5

0.03

3

0.02

2

0.01

19

0.10

2

0.01

4

0.02

15

0.08

40

0.22

2

0.01

2

0.01


1009

Table 2 (continued ) Botanical name

Local name

Family


Habit


Barleria prionitis L.

Kali Brenkad

Acanthaceae

w

Herb

Bauhinia variegata L.

Kartair, Karar

Caesalpiniaceae

w

Tree

Berberis lycium Royle

Kamble, Kamblu

Berberidaceae

w

Shrub

Boerhavia diffusa L.

Ittsitt

Nyctaginaceae

w

Herb

Brassica campestris L.

Sarsoon

Brassicaceae

c

Herb

Brassica rapa L. Gonglu Calotropis procera (Aiton) Nikka aak, W.T. Aiton Desi aak

Brassicaceae Asclepiadaceae

c w

Herb Shrub

Cannabis sativa L.

Bhang

Cannabaceae

w

Herb

Capsicum annuum L. Carica papaya L.

Mirch Papita

Solanaceae Caricaceae

c c

Herb Tree

Carissa opaca Stapf ex Haines

Garna

Apocynaceae

w

Shrub

Cassia absus L. Cassia fistula L. Cassia tora L.

Chaasku Karangal Loki Haedma, Aayroun

Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpiniaceae

w w w

Herb Tree Herb

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Celosia argentea L. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

Sadabahar

Apocynaceae

c

Herb

Roasted and powdered roots mixed with honey are prescribed on whooping cough (2) and asthma (2) Crushed flowers added to curd check hematochezia (20) and are anti–spasmodic (5) Paste of fresh leaves is applied on blemishes (1). Powder of dried roots is consumed with water to overcome jaundice (13). Roots washed and cut into small pieces are kept in water overnight. This water is taken in the morning empty stomach to cure diabetes (2). Aqueous root extract is administered in piles (12) Leaf extract is applied topically as anti–venom against scorpion sting and snake bite (5). Whole plant is given to animal to detoxify the effect of poisonous weed intake (5) Oil extracted from seeds is given to animal to detoxify the effect of poisonous insect or weed intake (4). Oil along with salt is fed to animal for curing bloat (4) and applied over the body to get rid of external parasites (8). Residue of seeds left after extraction of oil (khal) is fed to animals as galactagouge (4) Whole plant is fed to cattle as galactagouge (14) Cotton soaked in plant latex is applied on aching tooth (2) and ringworm affected site (9). Blend of latex, clarified butter and powdered Piper nigrum seeds are topically applied on abscess (2). Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened on joints to alleviate joint pains (5) Fresh leaf paste is applied at the site of alopecia (2), scorpion sting (4) and also on the naval cavity to treat gastroenteritis (4). Crushed leaves of Cannabis sativa and Terminalia chebula are made into small tablets and taken with cow milk empty stomach to cure piles (14) Finely ground fruit mixed with dough acts as appetizer (4) Ripe and unripe fruits are administered empty stomach as remedy against stones (2) and piles (1), respectively Extract of its leaves along with leaves of Dalbergia sissoo is prescribed for curing pneumonia (2). Blend of crushed leaves with curd is taken orally against herpes (7). Plant latex is applied as dressing for abscess (3). Leaf decoction is taken orally against cough (2). Decoction of its roots along with roots of Justicia adhatoda cures fever (3) Seed paste is eaten to treat anorexia (4) Seed decoction is used as aperients (3) Leaf decoction treats dyspepsia (12). Seeds taken with water relieve side stomach pain (15). Ground seeds are heated in mustard oil and applied as paste on leucoderma affected site (9) Leaves are fastened as dressing on abscess (2)

Kukarsira Brahmi

Amaranthaceae Apiaceae

w w

Herb Herb

Centratherum anthelminticum (L.) Kuntze Cissampelos pareira L.

Banjiri

Asteraceae

w

Herb

Battal Bel

Menispermaceae w

Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.

Nimbu

Rutaceae

c

Citrus medica L.

Garghal

Rutaceae

c

Clematis grata Wall.

Total

Ranunculaceae

w

Cleome viscosa L.

Peeli Neoli

Capparaceae

w

Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith

Chitti Suaali

Lamiaceae

w

Commelina benghalensis L. Convolvulus arvensis L.

Chura

Commelinaceae

w

Hiran Padi, Hiran Khuri Jari

Convolvulaceae

Dhania

Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq. Coriandrum sativum L.


4

0.02

25

0.14

28

0.15

10

0.05

20

0.11

14 18

0.08 0.10

24

0.13

4 3

0.02 0.02

17

0.09

4 3 36

0.02 0.02 0.20

2

0.01

Leaf decoction acts as aperients (3) Leaf juice is taken orally with milk to check suffocation (4), restlessness (2) and jaundice (19). It also acts as memory enhancer (7). Leaves are ground with seeds of Papaver somniferum and almonds and administered with milk for the treatment of anorexia (2) Seed decoction is taken orally to check pneumonia (2), chest pain (2) and appendicitis (2)

3 34

0.02 0.19

6

0.03

28

0.15

17

0.09

2

0.01

2

0.01

3

0.02

21

0.12

4

0.02

w

Climber Leaf decoction is anti–spasmodic (8) and anti–dysenteric (6). Leaves deep fried in wheat are prescribed on diarrhea (14) Tree Lemon juice cures hematuria (5). Washing hair with lemon juice removes dandruff (4) and reduces hair-fall (8) Tree Leaves heated in mustard oil are fastened on throat to cure tonsillitis (2) Climber Leaf decoction is administered on jaundice (1). Leaf paste is applied on ringworm affected site (1) Herb Leaf juice is used as eardrop to treat otalgia (1). Seed powder is taken orally with milk for expelling intestinal worms (2) Shrub Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened on the affected part to relieve joint pains (5), sprain (8), abscess (5) and stomachache (3) Herb Leaf juice is used as eye-drop to treat redness and inflammation of eyes (3). Leaf paste is applied on burns as antiphlogistic (1) Climber Leaf paste is applied on acne (1)

1

0.01

Asteraceae

w

Herb

Paste of whole plant is styptic (1)

1

0.01

Apiaceae

c

Herb

Infusion of crushed seeds cures jaundice (1). Chewing young leaves and stem treats dyspepsia (3)

4

0.02

1010


Table 2 (continued ) Wild (w)/ cultivated (c)

Habit

Jangali Halian Brassicaceae

w

Herb

Kali Tareni

Asclepiadaceae

w

Aandal– Kaandal Khabbal

Cuscutaceae

w

Poaceae

Tali

Datura innoxia Mill. Datura stramonium L.

Botanical name

Local name

Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith Cryptolepis buchananii Roem. and Schult. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

Family


w

Decoction of whole plant is taken orally to curb arthralgia (1). Plant paste is applied on joint dislocation (4) Climber Milky latex is applied at the site of ringworm (1). Leaves are fastened on shoulder joint dislocation site (4) Climber Paste of whole plant is applied on the ringworm affected site (1) and also soothes inflammation and itching (1) Grass Leaf juice is poured into eyes to treat eye infection (4)

Fabaceae

w

Tree

Tatoora

Solanaceae

w

Shrub

Tatoora

Solanaceae

w

Shrub

Urticaceae

w

Acanthaceae

Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Sansaaru Don) Rendle Dicliptera bupleuroides Kalu Kaa Nees Diospyros cordifolia Roxb. Rajaan

5

0.03

5

0.03

2

0.01

4

0.02

5

0.03

3

0.02

5

0.03

Shrub

Leaf paste is applied on aching tooth. An infusion of its crushed leaves along with leaves of Azadirachta indica cures anorexia (3). Oil is messaged to alleviate arthralgia (2) Roasted and finely ground fruits are fed to animals to reduce body swelling (3) Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened at the site of swelling (3). Roots are tied on waist to prevent miscarriage (2) Juice of twig is used as ear drop to treat otalgia (1)

1

0.01

w

Herb

Decoction of leaves is administered on hematuria (1)

1

0.01

Ebenaceae

w

Tree

10

0.05

3

0.02

2

0.01

22

0.12

3

0.02

1 5

0.01 0.03

3

0.02

7

0.04

3

0.02

4 2 3

0.02 0.01 0.02

4 8

0.02 0.04

7

0.04

24

0.13

7

0.04

Seeds are fed to cattle to cure hematochezia (2). Residual portion of seed left after extraction of oil (khal) is fed to animals as galactagouge (3) Leaves are the fodder of choice for cattle and act as galactagouge (3). Paste of leaves and seeds is fed to animals post delivery to recover from general weakness (3) Decoction of flowers acts as diuretic (5). Paste of flowers prepared in mustard oil is applied at the site of alopecia (3) Seed and bark decoction checks dysentery (1). Powdered bark is taken orally with water as antispasmodic (4)

5

0.03

6

0.03

8

0.04

5

0.03

Leaf juice is used as eye drop to soothe eye inflammation and blurred vision (2). Whole plant is fed to animals to overcome asthenia (1) and acts as galactagouge (1) Paste of leaves is antiphlogistic (2) and soothes itching between the fingers of feet during monsoons (2)

4

0.02

4

0.02

Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffery Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.

Shivlingi, Keemp Santha

Cucurbitaceae

w

Sapindaceae

w

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.

Bhringraaj

Asteraceae

w

Gajar Mula Eremostachys superba Royle ex Benth. Erythrina variegata L. Thub Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Safeda

Lamiaceae

w

Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are used as dressing on abscess (1). Brushing teeth with twig prevents toothache (6) and halitosis (3) Climber Paste of seeds, Ocimum tenuiflorum leaves and jaggery taken orally increase chances of conception (3) Shrub Leaves heated in clarified butter are ground to make a fine paste and applied on joints to relieve arthralgia (1). Dried and powdered leaves are styptic (1) Herb Decoction of fresh leaves taken orally checks epistaxis (1), acidity (6), cold, cough (8) and abscess (5). Leaf paste is applied on the forehead as antipyretic (2) Herb Ground root is fed to cattle to treat asthenia (3)

Fabaceae Myrtaceae

c/w c/w

Tree Tree

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Dudhal–patal

Euphorbiaceae

w

Herb

Euphorbia hirta L.

Lal Dudhli

Euphorbiaceae

w

Herb

Euphorbia royleana Bioss. Sula, Thor

Euphorbiaceae

w

Shrub

Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus hispida L.f. Ficus palmata Forssk.

Borh Kharkhumbal Phagwara

Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae

w w w

Tree Tree Tree

Ficus racemosa L. Ficus religiosa L.

Rumbli Bar, Peepal

Moraceae Moraceae

w w

Tree Tree

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Saunf

Apiaceae

c

Herb

Fumaria indica (Haussk.) Pugsley Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet Gossypium hirsutum L.

Pitpapra

Fumariaceae

w

Herb

Rattan Jot, Lal Geraniaceae Jari Kapas Malvaceae

w

Herb

c

Shrub

Grewia optiva J.R. Drumm. ex Burret

Dhaman

Tiliaceae

w

Tree

Hibiscus rosa–sinensis L.

Gudaal

Malvaceae

c

Tree

Kogar Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. ex A. DC. Hordeum vulgare L. Jau

Apocynaceae

w

Tree

Poaceae

c

Grass

Impatiens balsamina L.

Balsaminaceae

w/c

Herb

Teera


Thorn is pricked on the tail of cattle to check tail gangrene (1) Leaves are boiled and emanating vapours inhaled while wrapped in a blanket to treat nose blockade (5) Latex is applied at the site of ringworm. Latex mixed with mustard oil is applied on abscess (3) Paste of whole plant and Piper nigrum seeds is taken with water to cure piles (7) Whole plant is deep fried in mustard oil and applied at the site of leucoderma (1). Latex mixed with mustard oil is applied on abscess (1). Whole plant cut into small pieces is mixed with curd and fed to animals for facilitating the expulsion of placenta (1) Decoction of leaves, stem and bark is given against diabetes (4) Fruits are fed to cattle as galactagouge (2) Leaves are styptic (1) and applied on abscess (1). Latex is applied to pullout thorn from skin (1) Powdered bark is antispasmodic (4) Leaves are fed to animals as galactagouge (2). Animals are bathed with leaf decoction to check hair-fall (2). Newly sprouted leaves are ground with Piper nigrum seeds and taken orally with water to on piles (4) Seeds boiled in milk are taken orally as aperients (1). Seed decoction is antispasmodic (4) and acts as appetizer (2) Juice of whole plant is effective in jaundice (6), nausea (7), vomiting (5) and asthenia (6) External application of leaf juice is styptic (7)


1011


Local name

Family


Habit

Ipomoea carnea subsp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) D.F. Austin Ipomoea pestigridis L.

Bilaitti Aak

Convolvulaceae

w

Climber Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened on abscess (1) and joints to relieve pain (1)

2

0.01

Panja Bel

Convolvulaceae

w

1

0.01

Juglans regia L.

Akhroat

Juglandaceae

c

2

0.01

Justicia adhatoda L.

Brenkad

Acanthaceae

w

5

0.03

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Moldenke Lawsonia inermis L.

Kambela, Gandabal Panjphulli

Anacardiaceae

w

Climber Paste of leaves made with honey and lemon juice is applied on acne (1) Tree Outer peel of unripe fruit is crushed to make a fine paste and applied topically at the site of alopecia (2) Shrub Fresh leaves are placed on forehead to relieve headache (1). Decoction of roots checks nausea and epistaxis (2). Extract of fresh leaves is taken orally to cure abscess (1) and acts as blood purifier (1) Tree Paste of bark is applied as dressing on burns (2) and boils (2)

4

0.02

Verbenaceae

w

Shrub

Latex is applied at the site of alopecia to promote hair growth (4)

4

0.02

Mahendi

Lythraceae

w/c

Shrub

6

0.03

Lepidium sativum L.

Halian

Brassicaceae

w/c

Herb

4

0.02

Linum usitatissimum L.

Alsi

Linaceae

w

Herb

3

0.02

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell. Arg.

Tamatar

Solanaceae

c

Herb

3

0.02

Kameela

Euphorbiaceae

w

Tree

7

0.04

Malva parviflora L. Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Mangifera indica L.

Sonchal Malvaceae Baddi Bareaar Malvaceae

w w

Herb Herb

Paste of leaves acts as antiphlogistic (2) and soothes itching between the fingers of feet during monsoons (2). Chewing leaves on empty stomach cures leucoderma (2) Decoction of seeds in water or cow0 s urine is taken orally for healing fractured bones (3). Seed decoction in milk and clarified butter curbs labour pains and facilitates expulsion of placenta (1) Seeds are heated, finely ground and applied topically as paste on abscess (3) Leaf paste is styptic (1). Leaf juice is applied at ring worm affected site (2) Fine paste prepared by grinding fruits along with rhizome of Curcuma longa is styptic (3). Ground fruit is mixed with curd and fed to animals for expulsion of internal parasites (4) Fresh leaf juice cures cold (1), cough (2) and pyrexia (1) Paste of fresh leaves is styptic (2)

4 2

0.02 0.01

Amb

Anacardiaceae

c/w

6

0.03

Melia azedarach L.

Daraink

Meliaceae

c/w

28

0.15

Mentha arvensis L.

Pootna

Lamiaceae

c/w

18

0.10

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Mimosa pudica L.

Jangali Pootna Lamiaceae

c/w

6

0.03

Chuimui

Mimosaceae

w/c

4

0.02

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Galwasi

Nyctaginaceae

w

5

0.03

Momordica charantia L.

Karela

Cucurbitaceae

c

6

0.03

Morus alba L.

Toot

Moraceae

w/c

10

0.05

Musa paradisiaca L. Nerium indicum Mill.

Kela Lal Gandila

Musaceae Apocynaceae

c w

6 4

0.03 0.02

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Desi Tamakoo Solanaceae

Unripe fruit is finely ground and fed to animals to detoxify the effect of poisonous weed intake (3). Young leaves are ground and taken orally to cure dysentery (3) Tree Fruit paste is applied on animal0 s body to get rid of external parasites (7). Crushed leaves are mixed with jaggery and fed to animals to cure foot and mouth disease (6). Leaves are stitched to make a cap and worn on head to relieve headache (5). Leaves are boiled in water and this water is used for cleaning hair and acts as anti–dandruff agent (10) Herb Leaf decoction checks flatulence, abdominal spasms (8) and acts as an appetizer (10) Herb Leaf decoction checks flatulence (2), abdominal spasms (2) and acts as an appetizer (2) Herb Root decoction is taken orally to recover from jaundice (1). Root is tied on belly to relieve dyspepsia (1), dysentery (1) and abdominal spasms (1) Herb Leaves fried in clarified butter are fastened on abscess (1). Leaf juice is used as eye drop to soothe eye inflammation (2). Boiled leaves are eaten to reduce body pains (1). Tuber is administered in minute quantities to cure piles (1) Climber Paste of fresh leaves is applied on oral ulcers (2). Leaf juice is used as eardrop to relieve otalgia (1). Blend of fruit juice with dried powdered seeds is good for diabetics (2). Fresh fruit peel is crushed with Piper nigrum seeds and taken orally to check piles (1) Tree Fruit juice taken orally promotes recovery from jaundice (5). Eating fruits as such acts as aperients (5) Tree Paste of rhizome is applied on throat to treat tonsillitis (6) Shrub Latex is applied at the site of alopecia to promote hair growth (1), abscess (1) and insect bite (2) Herb Whole plant (as such or extract) is fed to animals suffering from bloat (1). Paste of whole plant is applied externally on animal0 s body to get rid of external parasites (2). Tree Extract of leaves and flowers is taken orally for expulsion of intestinal worms (1) Herb Decoction of seeds is taken as drink during summers and has cooling effect (2). Balls made of roasted flowers and Zea mays seeds act as digestive (3) Herb Leaf decoction is administered in flatulence and pharyngitis (6). Fresh leaf juice is taken with honey as antipyretic (11) Herb Decoction of fresh leaves is taken orally against renal colic (1) Shrub Juice of whole plant is used as eardrop to treat otalgia (4)

3

0.02

1

0.01

5

0.03

17

0.09

1 4

0.01 0.02

w

Nyctanthes arbor–tristis L. Haar– shringaar Ocimum basilicum L. Naazposh, Babbari

Oleaceae

w

Lamiaceae

w/c

Ocimum tenuiflorum L.

Tulsi

Lamiaceae

w/c

Oenothera rosea Aiton Opuntia vulgaris Mill.

Darraati Trappar Sula

Onagraceae Cactaceae

w w

Tree



1012



Local name

Family


Habit

Oryza sativa L.

Chawal, Dhaan

Poaceae

c

Grass

Oxalis corniculata L.

Khattibooti, Nikki Ammi Jannahru

Oxalidaceae

w

Acanthaceae

w

Maloongarh

Fabaceae

w

Phyllanthus emblica L.

Amla

Euphorbiaceae

c/w

Physalis minima L. Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J. L. Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f. Plumbago zeylanica L.

Pataka Kakarsinghi

Solanaceae Anacardiaceae

w w

Chitta Chitra

Plumbaginaceae

w

Herb

Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm. f.) O. Ktze. Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don Premna barbata Wall.

Kali Suaali

Lamiaceae

w

Shrub

Masloon

Polygonaceae

w

Herb

Sankhir

Verbenaceae

w

Tree

Prunus armeniaca L. Saadi, Haadi Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Aarn, Aaru

Rosaceae Rosaceae

w/c c

Tree Tree

Psidium guajava L.

Amrood

Myrtaceae

c/w

Tree

Punica granatum L.

Darooni

Lythraceae

w/c

Tree

Pyrus pashia Buch.–Ham. ex D. Don Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle Ricinus communis L.

Batangi, Kaith Rosaceae

w

Tree

Banj

Fagaceae

w

Tree

Darrili

Ranunculaceae

w

Herb

Areni, Arind

Euphorbiaceae

w

Shrub

Rosa brunonii Lindl.

Karir

Rosaceae

w

Shrub

Rosa indica L.

Gulab

Rosaceae

w

Shrub

Rubus ellipticus Smith

Aakhey

Rosaceae

w

Shrub

Rumex dentatus L.

Tandalak

Polygonaceae

w

Herb

Rumex hastatus D. Don

Ammi

Polygonaceae

w

Herb

Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don) Hand.– Mazz. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Solanum nigrum L.

Batola

Asteraceae

w

Herb

Latex is applied at the site of alopecia to promote hair growth (4). Cotton soaked in root juice is applied on aching tooth (4) Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened on joints for pain relief and to recover from bone dislocation (5). Leaf juice is used as eardrop to relieve otalgia (3). Oil (in very low dose) added to milk is taken orally as aperients (1) Leaves are fed to goats as galactagouge (4). Flower extract is used as eye drop to soothe eye inflammation (2). Flower paste is applied topically on acne (3) Flower decoction relieves dyspepsia, flatulence and acts as aperient (3) Ripe fruits taken orally act as aperient. Juice of tender leaves cures oral ulcers (5) Eating root as such or root decoction relieves flatulence (3) and dyspepsia (3) Leaf juice is taken orally to counteract weed or insect intoxication (5) Leaf paste is styptic (10) and also has cooling effect (7)

Takla, Lacely booti Kaayankothi, Peelkaan, Makoy Neeli Kandiari, Kandiari

Caryophyllaceae

w

Herb

Paste of young stem and leaves acts as demulcent (1)

Solanaceae

w

Herb

Solanaceae

w

Herb

Solanaceae

c

Herb

Leaf juice is used as eye drop to soothe inflammation of eyes (7). Boiled leaves are eaten to recover from jaundice (1). Leaf paste is applied topically on pimples and acne (20). Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened on joints to provide pain relief (1). Fruit decoction is taken to cure arthralgia (1). Root decoction treats intestinal infection (1) and is given after delivery to recover from weakness (1) Paste of tuber is applied on face to clear blemishes (1) and on forehead to relieve headache (1)

Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Burm. Phanera vahlii Benth.

Solanum surattense Burm. f.

Solanum tuberosum L.

Aalu



3

0.02

10

0.05

7

0.04

2

0.01

62

0.34

3 6

0.02 0.03

Leaf decoction is fed to animals to cure anorexia (12). The root is used as abortifacient (38) Decoction of fresh newly sprouted leaves is taken orally to cure dyspepsia (2), cold and cough (5) Root decoction is given in cold (2) and cough (2)

50

0.27

7

0.04

4

0.02

Seeds are fed to horse to cure anorexia (1). Paste of seeds in Sesamum orientale oil is messaged on body to relieve body pains (3) Oil extracted after grinding seeds is applied on aching tooth (4) Leaf paste is applied on animal0 s body to get rid of external parasites (3) Chewing young leaves and bark cures oral ulcers (3). Leaves are fed to animals to check gastroenteritis (4). Cotton soaked in leaf decoction is applied on aching tooth (2). Finely ground raw fruit is applied on forehead to relieve headache (1) Fruit juice mixed with Phyllanthus emblica juice is taken orally to recover from jaundice (10). Dried and finely powdered fruit rind also cures jaundice (4). Dried and powdered stem bark is used as anthelmintic (9). Crushed rind along with curd is taken orally as antispasmodic (3) Fruit extract is poured into eyes of animal to treat eye infection (5). Leaves serve as insect repellent (5) Bark decoction taken orally cures piles (1) and toothache (3)

4

0.02

4 3

0.02 0.02

10

0.05

26

0.14

10

0.05

4

0.02

8

0.04

9

0.05

9

0.05

3

0.02

5

0.03

6

0.03

5

0.03

17

0.09

1

0.01

28

0.15

4

0.02

2

0.01

Uncooked ground rice is made into paste and applied externally to cure tonsillitis (2). Uncooked rice is fed to animals for facilitating the expulsion of placenta (1) Herb Fresh leaf juice soothes eye inflammation (5), counteracts intoxication (2) and acts as an antidote (3) Herb Extract of the whole plant is taken orally on pyrexia (3). Leaf paste is applied to curb arthralgia (4) Climber Leaves are stitched to make a cap which is worn on the head to get relief from cold (2) Tree Eating fruits acts as blood purifier (4), appetizer (10), maintains blood pressure (5), eye–sight (10), prevents acne (4) and anorexia (23). Ground fruits are fed to animals to cure foot and mouth disease (1). Washing hair with infusion of dried fruits checks hair-fall (5) Herb Leaf juice is used as eardrop to treat otalgia (3) Tree Dried and finely powdered pods are administered in cough, asthma (1) and flatulence (5)


1013


Local name

Family


Habit


Sonchus wightianus DC. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

Dudhli Jari

Asteraceae Asteraceae

w w

Herb Herb

Leaf paste is applied on abscess and boils (1) External application of leaf paste is styptic (1)

Jaamnoo, Tallay

Myrtaceae

w/c

Tree

Tagetes erecta L.

Gutta

Asteraceae

w/c

Tamarindus indica L.

Imli

Fabaceae

w

Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.

Bathur, Phul Dudhli

Asteraceae

w

Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Hook. f. and Thoms.

Sarphank

Fabaceae

w

Gloe, Gadoh

Menispermaceae w

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Ajwain Sprague

Apiaceae

c

Tribulus terrestris L.

Pakhra, Gokhru

Zygophyllaceae

w

Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. Trigonella foenum–graecum L.

Dholi Andholi

Boraginaceae

w

Methi

Fabaceae

c

Tridax procumbens L.

Asteraceae

w

Viola odorata L.

Kumra, Gorakhmundi Soottamakoo, Giddar Tamakoo Banafsha

Vitex negundo L.

Dried seed powder is taken with water for the treatment of diabetes (50) and piles (2). Chewing fresh leaves and gargling with bark decoction cures oral ulcers (4). Drink made from its fruits provides relief from anorexia (11) Herb Extract of newly sprouted leaves taken orally acts as aperient (1). Leaf juice is used as eardrop to relieve otalgia (8) Tree Fruit extract is fed to animals to cure anorexia (1) and detoxify the effect of poisonous weed intake (4) Herb Boiled leaves are used as pre and post pregnancy food for ladies to overcome weakness (17). Also fed to animals before artificial insemination to increase chances of conception (1). Leaf paste is applied topically at the site of swelling (1) Herb Concoction of roots along with roots of Tribulus terrestris and Justicia adhatoda is administered against typhoid (1) Climber Whole plant fed to animals acts as galactagouge (10), overcomes asthenia (9) and anorexia (1). Stem is heated in fire until it gives flame. Peel is removed and inner portion consumed to cure hyperpyrexia (1) Herb Seeds eaten as such with jaggery or in the form of a decoction in combination with seeds of Piper nigrum and Ferula asafetida relieve abdominal spasms (6), flatulence (3), act as digestive (3) and appetizer (4) Herb Seed decoction is administered as diuretic (1). Dried and powdered fruits taken orally with milk and honey are effective against male impotency (1) Herb Extract of whole plant is taken orally with jaggery to relieve flatulence (1) Herb Seeds deep fried in mustard oil are used as a poultice to curb arthralgia (4). Seeds kept overnight in curd and consumed on an empty stomach are effective in diabetes (14) Herb Topical application of leaf extract is styptic (28)

Scrophulariaceae w

Herb

Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened on abscess (2). Topical application of leaf paste is styptic (3)

Violaceae

w/c

Herb

Bana

Lamiaceae

w

Shrub

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Xanthium indicum J. Koenig ex Roxb. Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

Asgandh

Solanaceae

w/c

Shrub

Dhaeen

Lythraceae

w

Shrub

Jojra

Asteraceae

w

Herb

Timbru

Rutaceae

w

Shrub

Zea mays L. Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Makkai Adrak

Poaceae Zingiberaceae

c c

Grass Herb

Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.

Bair

Rhamnaceae

w/c

Tree

Root decoction is prescribed against cough (16) and fever (15). Paste of stem and root applied topically relieves cervicalgia (3). Paste of whole plant taken orally with milk cures jaundice (9) Leaves (as such or in paste form) are applied locally on abscess (2). Leaves act as diuretic (4) and are fed to animals suffering from bloat (2) and dysentery (1). Brushing teeth with twig checks toothache (5), cavities, gum bleeding (4) and halitosis (2) Chewing fresh leaves on empty stomach acts as memory enhancer (8) and also reduces obesity (16) Dried and powdered flowers or flower decoction is administered in dysentery (1) Alopecia affected site is scratched with fruit followed by application of leaf paste (1) Brushing teeth with twig checks tooth decay and strengthens teeth (51). Checks halitosis (6). Dried and finely powdered fruits and seeds are administered in asthma (2) and also act as blood purifier (38) Decoction of silk is used as diuretic (3) Decoction of the rhizome in combination with honey, Piper nigrum seeds and Ocimum tenuiflorum leaves is administered in cold, cough (10) and pyrexia (13) Gargling with root decoction cures pharyngitis (6) and oral ulcers (1). Dried and powdered seeds taken orally with water check diabetes (1). Washing hair with decoction of dried fruits of Phyllanthus emblica along with leaves of Zizyphus mauritiana and Melia azedarach helps check hair-fall (1) and dandruff (3)

Verbascum thapsus L.

Medicinal value was observed either in the whole plant or was confined to one or more plant parts. In terms of percentage usage of organs, leaves were observed to be of utmost medicinal importance (38.4%) followed by seeds (12.1%), fruits (9.5%), root/ rhizome (9.1%), whole plant (8.3%), latex (4.8%), bark (3.9%), flower (3.5%), twig (3.5%), stem (2.2%), fruit rind (1.7%), tuber (0.9%), bulb (0.9%), heartwood (0.4%), thorn (0.4%) and silk (0.4%). Various


1 1

0.01 0.01

67

0.37

9

0.05

5

0.03

19

0.10

1

0.01

21

0.12

16

0.09

2

0.01

1

0.01

18

0.15

28

0.10

5

0.03

43

0.24

20

0.11

24

0.13

1

0.01

1

0.01

97

0.53

3 23

0.02 0.13

12

0.07

modes of administration were observed viz., oral (55.8%), external application (37.8%), eye (3.0%), ear (2.6%) and nasal cavity (0.8%). 3.3. Use-value of medicinal plants On the basis of use-value (UV) the most important medicinal species of the present study site were: Achyranthes aspera

1014


Table 3 Ailment category (Heinrich et al, 1998) and their factor informant consensus (Fic). Ailment category (diseases)

No. of species

Use citations

Fic

Andrological/gynecological/birth problems (impotency, labour pains, abortion, miscarriage, galactagouge, conception, facilitated expulsion of placenta) Circulatory (styptic, blood purifier, epistaxis, blood pressure, gangrene, hematochezia) Diabetes Fever (fever, pneumonia, pyrexia, hyperpyrexia) Gastrointestinal (appetizer, oral ulcers, constipation, piles, gastroenteritis, dyspepsia, dysentery, diarrhea, acidity, flatulence) Inflammation (burns) Liver complaints (jaundice) Muscular-skeltal disorders (spasms, sprain, joint-dislocation, fractured bones, cervicalgia) Ophthalmological (redness and inflammation of eyes, eye infection, eye-sight) Others (memory enhance, weakness, rumination, foot and mouth disease, kidney stone, hair-fall, swelling in body, gum bleeding, tooth decay) Parasite (external parasites like ticks, flies, lices etc., leeches in the nostrils of cattle) Physical pains (toothache, headache, otalgia, joint pains, appendicitis, chest pain, arthralgia, body pains) Poisoning (scorpion sting, snake bite, poisonous weed intake) Respiratory (cough, cold, nose blockade, asthma, whooping cough, suffocation, halitosis) Dermatological (abscess, ringworm, alopecia, acne, blemishes, bloat, leucoderma, dandruff, boils) Urological (diuretic, hematuria)

23

123

0.82

20 7 11 64 14 11 12 9 29

129 88 62 471 42 79 56 38 206

0.85 0.93 0.84 0.87 0.68 0.87 0.80 0.78 0.86

9 33 11 18 49 8

91 182 51 94 176 34

0.91 0.82 0.80 0.82 0.73 0.79

(UV ¼0.64), Zanthoxylum armatum (UV ¼0.53), Acorus calamus (UV ¼0.46), Syzygium cumini (UV ¼ 0.37), Phyllanthus emblica (UV ¼0.34), Plumbago zeylanica (UV ¼0.27), Aloe barbadensis (UV ¼0.25), Viola odorata (UV ¼0.24), Aegle marmelos (UV¼ 0.23), Azadirachta indica (UV ¼0.22), Allium cepa (UV¼ 0.21), Cassia tora (UV ¼0.20) and Centella asiatica (UV ¼0.19) (Table 2). 3.4. Factor of informant consensus As many as 78 ailments were observed to be cured by 166 plant species in the study area. The ailments were classified into 16 different ailment categories according to Heinrich et al. (1998) (Table 3). The maximum species (64) were used to cure various gastric disorders, followed by dermatology disorders (49 species), pain (33 species), other unclassified disorders (29 species) and andrological/gynecological/birth disorders (23 species). The informants agreed more in the treatment of diabetes (ICF¼ 0.93), removal of external parasite (ICF ¼0.91), liver complaints (ICF¼ 0.87), gastrointestinal disorders (ICF¼0.87) and other unclassified disorders (ICF¼ 0.86) (Table 3). 3.5. Fidelity level Fidelity level values in this study varied from 2.50% to 100%. For the better accuracy, species mentioned by less than five informants were not considered in the final analysis. Plumbago zeylanica (Fl ¼76.0%), Asparagus adscendens (Fl ¼60.0%) and Tinospora cordifolia (Fl ¼47.6%) were the species with high fidelity level and used to cure andrological/gynecological/birth ailments. Blood circulatory ailments were mainly cured by Geranium wallichianum (Fl ¼100%), Tridax procumbens (Fl ¼100%), Bauhinia variegata (Fl ¼80.0%) and Saussurea heteromalla (Fl ¼58.8%). Dermatological ailments were primarily treated by Solanum nigrum (Fl ¼ 71.4%), Calotropis procera (Fl ¼61.1%) and Azadiracta indica (Fl ¼ 37.5); Diabetes by Trigonella foenum graecum (Fl ¼77.8%), Syzygium cumini (Fl ¼74.6%), Aloe barbadensis and Momordica charantia (Fl ¼33.3%); external parasite by Anagallis arvensis (Fl ¼100%), Artemisia nilagirica (Fl ¼57.9%) and Acorus calamus (Fl ¼44.6%); and fever by Ocimum tenuiflorum (Fl ¼64.7%), Zingiber officinale (Fl ¼56.5%) and Viola odorata (Fl ¼34.9%). Other important species with high fidelity level were Euphorbia hirta, Mentha arvensis, Mentha longifolia and Trachyspermum ammi for gastrointestinal disorders; Ziziphus mauritiana and Saussurea heteromalla for curing inflammation; Berberis lycium, Punica granatum and Centella

asiatica for liver complaints; Oxalis corniculata and Pyrus pashia for ophthalmological disorders; Allium sativum, Tagetus erecta, Centratherum anthelminticum and Diospyros cordifolia for pains; Boerhavia diffusa, Rumex hastatus and Achyranthes aspera for poisoning. The respiratory, skelto-muscular and urological disorders were cured mainly by Pogostemon benghalensis, Zingiber officinale, Foeniculum vulgare, Ricinus communis, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Aegel marmelos etc. (Table 4).

4. Discussion The local population of Udhampur district had a good knowledge of ethnomedicinal plants as they were using 166 plants to cure as many as 78 ailments of humans and animals. Older informants had greater knowledge of ethnomedicinal plant species than younger informants. The indigenous medicinal plant use knowledge was declining among the younger generation, which may be attributed to improving status of education in the community and the low interest of the younger generation to inherit and use ethnomedicinal knowledge. Yineger et al. (2008) and Estomba et al. (2006) also reported that medicinal plant knowledge and use increases with age when the community had suffered an important erosion of ethnomedicinal plant knowledge. In the present study, the illiterates were having more knowledge of medicinal plants than the literates and a significant negative correlation was found between the number of medicinal plant reports and education level. This may be attributed to the fact that the literate people are more likely to be exposed to modernization (Shankar et al., 2001; Hoare, 2007; Apema et al., 2010; Emmanuel and Didier, 2011). It was also found that the transfer of medicinal plant knowledge from one generation to another is not taking place in the study site. This may be due to the lack of interest among the younger generation to learn and practice it (Shrestha and Dhillion, 2003; Balami, 2004; Apema et al., 2010; Emmanuel and Didier, 2011). This is not a good sign for the society because in such a condition knowledge is liable to erosion as it could vanish when knowledgeable elders die before the knowledge is transferred or during resettlements of individuals or communities (Yineger et al., 2008). Medicinal plants were mainly from Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae and Amaranthaceae families. There seems to be a tendency for a few plant families to stand out in any


Table 4 Fidelity level (Fl%) of important species for various ailment categories. Ailment category

Important plants

Fl (%)

Andrological/gynecological/ birth problems

Plumbago zeylanica

76.0

Asparagus adscendens Tinospora cordifolia Geranium wallichianum Tridax procumbens Bauhinia variegata Saussurea heteromalla Solanum nigrum Calotropis procera Azadirachta indica Trigonella foenum graecum Syzygium cumini Aloe barbadensis Momordica charantia Anagallis arvensis Artemisia nilagirica Acorus calamus Ocimum tenuiflorum Zingiber officinale Viola odorata Euphorbia hirta Mentha arvensis Mentha longifolia Rubus ellipticus Rumex dentatus Trachyspermum ammi Ziziphus mauritiana Saussurea heteromalla Ocimum tenuiflorum Centella asiatica Punica granatum Berberis lycium Oxalis corniculata Pyrus pashia Musa paradisiaca Withania somnifera Taraxacum officinale Pyrus pashia Zanthoxylum armatum Allium sativum Tagetes erecta Centratherum anthelminticum Diospyros cordifolia Boerhavia diffusa Rumex hastatus Achyranthes aspera Pogostemon benghalensis Zingiber officinale Viola odorata Eclipta prostrata Foeniculum vulgare Ricinus communis Colebrookea oppositifolia Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Aegle marmelos Citrus limon

60.0 47.6 100 100 80.0 58.8 71.4 61.1 37.5 77.8 74.6 33.3 33.3 100 57.9 44.6 64.7 56.5 34.9 100 100 100 100 100 100 50.0 41.2 35.3 55.9 53.8 46.4 50.0 50.0 100 100 94.7 55.6 52.6 100 88.9 83.3 60.0 100 100 46.2 71.4 43.5 37.2 36.4 71.4 55.6 38.1 62.5 31.0 29.4

Circulatory

Dermatological

Diabetes

External parasite

Fever

Gastrointestinal

Inflammation

Liver complaints

Ophthalmological Others

Physical pains

Poisoning

Respiratory

Skelto-muscular disorders

Urological

pharmacopoeia (Gazzaneo et al., 2005). Almeida and Albuquerque (2002) reported the family Lamiaceae as the richest in species citations whereas Bennett and Prance (2000) reported families Lamiaceae and Asteraceae as the most dominant medicinal plant families. Agra et al. (2007) have also reported Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Amaranthaceae, Convolvulaceae and Lamiaceae as the most represented medicinal plant families. Dominance of medicinal plant species from families Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Lamiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Ranunculaceae and Rosaceae could be attributed to their wider distribution, abundance in the study area and predominant herbaceous habit. Preference for their use may also be related as much to their ready availability for they are common in disturbed areas Voeks (1996). Moreover,

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the wide utilization of species from these families might relate to the presence of effective bioactive ingredients against ailments (Gazzaneo et al., 2005). Stepp and Moerman (2001) suggested that plants of these families concentrate very active biological compounds as a function of their habit or of their life strategies. Species with the highest use-value were Achyranthes aspera, Zanthoxylum armatum, Acorus calamus etc. The locals use Achyranthes aspera to cure respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders, and physical pains and poisoning. Srivastav et al. (2011) have also reported Achyranthes aspera to cure asthma and cough whereas some other workers found it to cure bites of poisonous snakes and reptiles (Nadkarni, 2009) and relieve the aching tooth (Gupta, 2010). Zanthoxylum armatum is another multi-utility ethnomedicinal plant used chiefly to cure tooth decay, halitosis, asthma and also as blood purifier by the locals. Ramachandran and Ali (1996) also reported the fruit and seeds to be employed as aromatic and tonic, in fever, dyspepsia and expelling round worm. Tirtha (1998) found it to cure diseases of teeth and asthma. The plant is used in the Indian system of medicines as a carminative, stomachic, anthelmintic and preventing toothache (Sati et al., 2011). Acorus calamus is used for the expulsion of intestinal worms and external parasites, and brushing teeth with rhizome cures toothache and strengthens teeth. Tablets made of dried and powdered rhizome are given to children along with honey as memory enhancers and for curing speech disorders. An earlier study conducted by Menon and Dandiya (1967) demonstrated a tranquilizing effect for Acorus calamus. Shukla et al. (2002) described its neuro-protective effect on rats. An in vitro antiproliferative and immunosuppressive effect (Mehrotra et al., 2003) and antioxidant property (Acuna et al., 2002) have also been demonstrated. The agreement among the informants (Fic) on the use of ethnomedicinal plant species was high for diabetes, external parasite, gastrointestinal disorders, liver complaints, other unclassified ailments, and circulatory disorders. The maximum plants were used for the gastrointestinal and dermatological categories, which is in agreement with the categories in the work of Heinrich et al. (1998) and Andrade-Cetto (2009). This also indicates that the incidences of such diseases were relatively high in the study area. The main reasons for higher cases of gastrointestinal and dermatological disorders in the study site may be attributed to the poor sanitation facilities as more than 95% of the local population practises open-air defecation. Lack of sanitation or poor sanitation leads to water-related diseases. Diarrhoea alone causes an estimated 4 billion cases and 1.9 million deaths each year among children under 5 yrs, or 19% of all under-5 death in low income settings (Baschi-Pinto et al., 2008). The fidelity level (Fl) is useful for identifying the most preferred species in use for treating certain ailments by the inhabitants. Fourteen medicinal species had 100% fidelity level. The gastrointestinal disorders had the maximum six species with 100% Fl, and circulatory, other and poisonous disorders had two species with 100%Fl. Generally, fidelity level of 100% for a specific plant indicates that all of the use-reports mentioned the same method for using the plant treatment (Srithi et al., 2009). Low fidelity level value means that same or different parts of the same plant to possess different medicinal properties. Many of the plants, having low fidelity level values, used as ethnomedicine in the study area find mention in different systems of medicine like Ayurveda and Yunani. Bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica is used in Ayurveda to check dysentery. The plant has been considered a remedy for the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea and intestinal worms also in some other studies (Singh, 1986; Kavitha et al., 2004). Incidentally, locals also use seed and bark decoction of this tree against dysentery. Viola odorata was used against cough, fever, cervicalgia and jaundice. Viola odorata contains alkaloid, glycoside, saponins, methyl slicylate, mucilage and vitamin C (Stuart, 1989) that have

1016


been reported to possess antioxidant (Ebrahimzadeh et al., 2010) and diuretic properties (Vishal et al., 2009), and used against bronchitis, cancer, cough, fever, urinary infections, rheumatism, sneezing, kidney and liver disorders (Kritikar and Basu, 1999; Nadkarni, 2009). In Ayurveda and Yunani systems of medicines, it is used against bronchitis and as febrifuge. Some of the medicinal properties of the plant species, mentioned in the present work, have already been scientifically validated on the basis of pharmacological assays e.g., Kumar and Roy (2007) showed experimentally that latex of Calotropis procera affords protection against inflammation, Yesmin et al. (2008) found that the leaves of Calotropis procera possess strong antioxidant and antibacterial properties, and Iqbal et al. (2005) found that the flowers of Calotropis procera possess good anthelmintic activity against nematodes of sheep. The local inhabitants were mainly using Solanum nigrum, Calotropis procera and Azadirachta indica, to cure skin and parasite problems. The leaves of Azadirachta indica, have strong antibacterial activity, are used for feeding and reducing the parasitic load of animals (Tipu et al., 2006). Solanum nigrum has been extensively used in traditional medicine in India and other parts of world to cure liver disorders, chronic skin ailments (psoriasis and ringworm), inflammatory conditions, painful periods, fevers, diarrhea, eye diseases, hydrophobia etc. (Kritikar and Basu, 1999). Methanol and aqueous extracts of Solanum nigrum reportedly demonstrated antimicrobial activity (Rani and Khullar, 2004). Plumbago zeylanica, Asparagus racemosus and Tinospora cordifolia were the main species used in andrological/gynecological/ birth problems. Plumbago zeylanica is used as abortifacient in the present study. The pharmacological studies carried out earlier indicate that Plumbago zeylanica possesses astringent, diuretic, antibacterial, antifungal, anticarcinogenic, antitumor and radiomodifying properties (Gupta et al., 2011). The roots of this plant has been reported to be a powerful poison when given orally or applied to ostium uteri, causes abortion (Vishnukanta, 2010). Plumbagin, a crystalline naphthoquinone compound isolated from root extra has shown antifertility activity but is found to be toxic (Gupta et al., 2011). Asparagus racemosus is used to treat debility, infertility, impotence, menopause, stomach ulcers, leucorrhoea and chronic fevers, delay ageing process and form health food ingredients in several Ayurvedic formulations (Hayes et al., 2006). Sharma et al. (2010) reported that Tinospora cordifolia cures premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction, and enhance the sexual stamina. Although Albizia lebbeck recorded low fidelity level value for andrological/gynecological/birth problems, the species also finds mention in Ayurveda as aphrodisiac. Ethanolic and methanolic extracts along with saponins of pods and bark possesses anti-protozoal, anti-fertility activity, hypoglycemic and anticancer properties (Chadha, 1985; Gupta et al., 2004, 2005). Locals however, highlighted the use of this tree against impotency as reported by Patki (1988) and Imtiaz et al. (2013). Total eleven species were utilized to cure fevers, and the main species used were Ocimum tenuiflorum, Zingiber officinale and Viola odorata. Antibacterial activity of Ocimum tenuiflorum has been demonstrated for extract of the plant as well as fixed oil obtained from the plant (Phadke and Kulkarni, 1989; Nair et al., 2007). The ethanolic extract (50%) of fresh leaves, volatile oil from fresh leaves and fixed oil from seeds showed antiasthmatic activity and significantly protected guinea-pigs against histamine and dyspnoea (Khare, 2007). Zingiber officinale is reported to be used as an antiemetic and to treat fever, cold, asthma and respiratory conditions as well as vomiting also by Zhong et al. (1996) and Mills and Bone (2000). Gastrointestinal disorders were the main ailment category of the study site that was cured by as many as 64 species. Euphorbia hirta, used by nomads in the treatment of warts (Joshi, 2011), was used to cure piles in the present study. This plant is used

for its antibacterial, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, galactogenic, antiasthmatic, antidiarrheal, antioxidant, anti-fertility, antiamoebic and antifungal property. In addition, it has a therapeutic effect on urine output and electrolytes (Kumar et al., 2010). This plant is also used in treatment of diseases of children, such as in case of worms, bowel complaints, cough etc. (Joshi, 2011). Mentha arvensis and Mentha longifolia were used against flatulence and abdominal spasms. Akram et al. (2011) reported Mentha arvensis to be used as a carminative, anti-spasmodic and antipeptic ulcer agent. Mentha longifolia is also a well known plant in traditional medicine as a cooling medicine and has been used in diarrhoea and gut spasm (Amini, 1997), in addition to many other uses, such as choleretic, carminative (Chopra and Chopra, 1992), in indigestion and flatulence (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Duke, 2002). Methanol and petroleum ether extracts of Trachyspermum ammi seeds showed antihyperlipidaemic effect in albino rabbits (Javed et al., 2006). Momordica charantia, used to cure diabetes in the present study, is one of the principal plants used in five districts of Lagos State of Nigeria for treatment of diabetes (Gbolade, 2009). The plant is also used against diabetes in Indian traditional medicine (Modak et al., 2007). Alcoholic extract of fruits of the plant reportedly lowered blood sugar levels in alloxan-induced diabetic albino rats (Singh et al., 2008). Trigonella foenum graecum (fenugreek) contains an alkaloid trigonelline and an essential oil that are anti-diabetic (Nadkarni, 2009). The hypoglycaemic effects of fenugreek (Mishkinsky et al., 1974; Sharma, 1987) and Syzygium cumini and Momordica charantia (Wadkar et al., 2008) have also been reported by the earlier workers. Centella asiatica is widely used to cure various ailments including abdominal disorders and wound healing in the various traditional medicinal systems of south and south-east Asia. Extract of the plant also reportedly inhibited ethanol-induced gastric mucosal lesions in rats (Cheng and Koo, 2000). Fresh juice of the plant has been shown to inhibit ethanol, aspirin, cold restraint stress and pyloric ligation-induced gastric ulcers in rats (Sairam et al., 2001). Allium sativum was used to cure the infection in the ear. The bulb of Allium sativum contain organosulphur compounds; proteins (mainly allinase), amino-acids (such as arginine, lysine, theronine and tryptophan), fibres, lipids, phytic acid, saponins, beta-sitosterol and small quantities of vitamins and minerals like vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, chromium, iron and selenium (Duke, 2003; Braun and Cohen, 2007). Allium sativum has antibacterial, antiviral and anti-fungal activity (Hughes and Lawson, 1991). Allicin is believed to be chiefly responsible for garlic0 s antimicrobial activity (Braun and Cohen, 2007). The locals use boiled leaves of Taraxacum officinale as pre and post pregnancy food for ladies to overcome weakness. Taraxacum officinale is a rich source of minerals particularly potassium (Hook et al., 1993) as well as iron, magnesium, zinc, potassium, manganese, copper, choline, selenium, calcium, boron and silicon (Queralt et al., 2005) and a rich source of vitamins A, C, D, and B complex (US Department of Agriculture, 2003). The relatively high protein, fibre and linoleic acid content of Taraxacum officinale leaves have led to suggestions that it is a nutritious and underutilized food source (Escudero et al., 2003; Braun and Cohen, 2007). The survey also indicated that about half of the local population was dependent on medical plants for curing different aliments and about 70% of the home made drugs were used by people above the age of 50 years. Some of the patients treated by traditional healers in the study area have been contacted and enquired about the success of treatment given to them. Most of the patients were found fully satisfied and having full faith in the treatment given. The study revealed that knowledge and usage of herbal medicines


for the treatment of various ailments among people and animals of the study area is still a major part of their life and culture. They use forest plants, weeds, fruit plants, vegetables, spices and ornamental plants as traditional medicines.

5. Conclusion Since time immemorial, the human society has developed amidst, and in close association with plant life (De, 1980). The survey indicated that study area has plethora of medicinal plants to treat a broad spectrum of human ailments. Use of local medicinal plants by the inhabitants in the study area ensures the continuity of indigenous knowledge associated with the species and has definite bearing on the identification of their habitats, which are confined in the pockets of the hilliest terrain to some extent. Indigenous knowledge is the tried and tested knowledge of the local communities and this knowledge have been accumulated by them over a period of time by experimentation and modification according to the need of the individual and is an essential component of sustainable development (Samant et al., 2010). But traditional medicinal practices are declining and in many cases are facing extinction. The threat is attributed by increasing commercialization and modernization, migration to cities for education and in search of jobs, as well as lack of significant and income generating opportunities to encourage the practices of traditional healers. Therefore, there is dire need to document and preserve this treasure of plants for conservation and future references. References Acuna, U.M., Atha, D.E., Ma, J., 2002. Antioxidant capacities of ten edible North American plants. Phytother. Res. 16, 63–65. Agra, M.F., Baracho, G.S., Nurit, K., Basílio, I.J.L.D., Coelho, V.P.M., 2007. Medicinal and poisonous diversity of the flora of “Cariri Paraibano”, Brazil. J. Ethnopharmacol. 111, 383–395. Akram, M., Uzair, M., Sarwer, N., Asif, H.M., 2011. Mentha arvensis Linn.: a review article. J. Med. Plants Res. 5 (18), 4499–4503. Almeida, C.F.C.B.R., Albuquerque, U.P., 2002. Uso e conservação de plantas e animais medicinais no estado de Pernambuco: um estudo de caso no Agreste. Interciencia 27, 276–285. Amini, A., 1997. Illustrated Dictionary of Therapeutic Plants and their Traditional Usage in Kurdistan. Taqbostan Publication, Khoramabad. Andrade–Cetto, A., 2009. Ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants from Tlanchinol, Hidalgo, México. J. Ethnopharmacol. 122, 163–171. Apema, R., Mozouloua, R., Madiapevo, S.N., 2010. Inventaire préliminaire des fruits sauvages comestibles vendus sur les marches de Bangui. In: Burgt, X van der, Maesen, J van der, Onana, J.M. (Eds.), Systématique et Conservation des Plantes Africaines, pp. 313-319. Balami, N.P., 2004. Ethnomedicinal use of plants among the newer community of Pharping village of Kathmandu District, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ. J. 24 (1). Baschi-Pinto, C., Velebit, L., Shibuya, M., 2008. Estimating child mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries. Bull. World Health Organ. 86 (9), 710–717. Bennett, B.C., Prance, G.T., 2000. Introduced plants in the indigenous pharmacopeia of Northern South América. Econ. Bot. 54, 90–102. Braun, L., Cohen, M., 2007. Herbs and Natural Supplements: An Evidence-based Guide. Churchill Livingstone, Sydney. Chadha, Y.R., 1985. The Wealth of India. CSIR, Raw Materials, New Delhi. Cheng, C.L., Koo, M.W., 2000. Effects of Centella asiatica on ethanol induced gastric mucosal lesions in rats. Life Sci. 67, 2647–2653. Chhetri, R.B., 1994. Further observations on ethnomedicobotany of Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India. Ethnobotany 6, 33–38. Chopra, R.S., Chopra, I., 1992. Second Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi. De, J.N., 1980. The vegetation based tribal economics in the Purulia district, West Bengal. Bull. Cult. Res. Inst. 14 (1 and 2), 37–42. Dhar, U., 1980. Plants of Kargil–Zanskar. In: Kachroo, P. (Ed.), An Integrated Survey. Kashmir University, Srinagar, India, pp. 48–51. Dubey, N.K., Kumar, R., Tripathi, P., 2004. Global promotion of herbal medicine: India0 s opportunity. Curr. Sci. 86 (1), 37–41. Duke, J.A., 2002. Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. CRC Press, London. Duke, J.A., 2003. The Green Pharmacy. Rodale, United Kingdom, England, London. Ebrahimzadeh, M.A., Nabavi, S.M., Nabavi, S.F., Bahramian, F., Bekhradnia, A.R., 2010. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity of H. officinalis L. var. angustifolius, V. odorata, B. hyrcana and C. speciosum. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 23 (1), 29–34.

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