Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan Sadia Bibi a, Jawairia Sultana a, Humairia Sultana b a b

Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Science, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, VIC, Australia

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 26 January 2014 Received in revised form 5 May 2014 Accepted 8 May 2014

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Two thirds of the world’s population relies on medicinal plants for centuries for several human pathologies. Present study aimed to identify, catalogue and document the large number of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine in Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Materials and methods: Informal interviews were conducted involving a total of 255 villagers (155 male and 65 female and 35 herbalists) to elicit the knowledge and use of medicinal plants. Results: Local communities possessed knowledge of fifty eight (58) medicinal plant species belonging to thirty five (35) families to treat fifteen ailment categories. Whole plant and leaves were the most frequently used plant parts (24%) followed by seed (14%), root (12%), flower (7%), bulb (6%), fruit (4%), stem (3%), latex and rhizome (2%) and sap and gum (1%). Frequently used growth forms of medicinal plants were wild herbs (63%) followed by cultivated herbs (14%), wild trees (11%), wild shrubs (10%) and wild and cultivated herbs (2%). Preparations were administrated generally through oral and topical routes. Local people were familiar mostly with the species in order to deal common ailments particularly cough, cold, digestive problems, fever, headache, and skin infections. Complex ailments were treated by traditional healers. Justica adhatoda, Olea ferruginea, Amaranthus viridis and Mentha royleana were identified as plants with high use value (UV). Conclusions: This study revealed that the area harbors high diversity of medicinal flora. Despite gradual socio-cultural transformation, local communities still hold ample knowledge of plants and their uses. The reliance on traditional medicines was associated with the lack of modern health care facilities, poverty and the traditional belief of their effectiveness. Medicinal plants play a significant role in management of various human diseases in the study area. A high degree of consensus among the informants was an indicative that plant use and knowledge were still strong, and preservation of this knowledge showed good foresight in the future. Awareness was thus needed to be raised among local people on sustainable utilization and management of plant resources. & 2014 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Keywords: Ethnobotany Medicinal plants Herbalists Communities Disease Traditional use

1. Introduction Ethnomedicinal investigations are imperative in illuminating significant indigenous plant species, primarily for finding new rudimentary drugs. Documentation of aboriginal medicinal knowledge of plant species has contributed to a number of modern drugs formulations for basic health care (Cox, 2000; Flaster, 1996). World Health Organization (WHO) (2010) estimated about 60% of the world’s population in developing countries rely on plants for the treatment of various diseases, due to lack of modern health care facilities (Calixto, 2005; World Health Organization, 2010). In rural communities, medicinal plants gained attention because of their effectiveness, lack of modern medical alternatives, increasing costs of allopathic medicines, and cultural preferences (Heinrich, 2000; Tabuti et al., 2003a). Many rural people hold traditional

knowledge of medicinal plants and the very fact existence of such local knowledge is dependent mainly on verbal transmission across generations (Joshi and Joshi, 2000; Tabuti et al., 2003a). Exposure to contemporary culture and access to modern amenities are altering the circulation and extent of local knowledge and use of medicinal flora in many local societies. Research on traditional use of medicinal plants has attained considerable interest within the scientific community in recent years (Jabbar et al., 2007). Uses of folk medicines have increased substantially in industrial countries, as numerous drugs have been derived from the tropical flora (Nanyingi et al., 2008). Estimates suggest global medicinal plant business will reach $ 5 trillion (US) by 2050 (Shinwari, 2010). Presently drugs available in the market are either plants derivative in crude extract, simplest form of plant part or the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031 0378-8741/& 2014 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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mixture of various plants parts (Saqib et al., 2013). About two centuries ago herbal medicines subjugated the pharmacopoeia, and even today about 25% drugs available in Western pharmacy are either plant derived or formulated based on their prototype substances (Ernst, 2005; Gilani and Rahman, 2005; Mahmood et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2011c). According to WHO, among 252 drugs essential for basic health care, 11% are from plant origin (Rates, 2001). Out of the total 422,000 flowering plants reported worldwide (Govaerts, 2001) about 50,000 flowering plants were used as medicinal plants (Schippmann et al., 2002). Out of these, only 5000 plants had been screened phytochemically in order to explore their active constituents, while only preliminary pharmacological investigations had been carried out for the rest of the plants (Mahmood et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2011c; Payne et al., 1991). In Subcontinent first record of plant medicine was compiled in Rig Veda between 4500 and 1600 BC and Ayurveda between 2500 and 600 BC. This system traces its origin to Greek medicine, which was adopted by Arabs and then spread to Europe and Subcontinent. The subcontinent gained tremendous importance from ethno medicinal point of view, and diminutive consideration has been given to the ethnomedicinal values of medicinal plants in Pakistan. The field of ethnobotany was virginal in Pakistan (Mahmood et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2011c). Even though, few efforts had been made to investigate the medicinal properties of indigenous medicinal plants species (Ahmad and Husain, 2008; Husain et al., 2008; Qureshi et al., 2006, 2009; Mahmood et al., 2011c, 2011d, 2012, 2013b; Saqib et al., 2013) but a large number of medicinal plants and associated indigenous uses still remain undocumented. Further meticulous and outfitted surveys are needed to protect the pharmaceutical and ethnomedicinal knowledge from loss. Ethnomedicinal survey is a suitable approach to select plants for detailed pharmacological screenings (Sari´cKundali´c et al., 2010). In Pakistan, ethno medicines have been practiced at large scale but, unfortunately, this knowledge is not being properly documented due to unawareness of local communities and authorities of the area where medicinal plants grow. There exists no detailed report on ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants from the Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Local people in study area are unaware of the conservation of medicinal plants and remain ignorant of any threat faced by medicinal plants e.g. over cutting for fuel wood consumption, careless uprooting of medicinal plants and heavy grazing. Ruthless use of these plant resources will result in loss of valuable flora (Ahmad et al., 2007, 2008a, 2008b). Protected areas of the valley were badly invaded by invasive species, e.g. Prosopis species introduced in the Sodhi Game Reserve, was a threat to the subsistence of important local vegetation predominantly medicinal flora (Ahmad and Waseem, 2004). The present study aimed: (1) to investigate and document the indigenous knowledge of commonly used medicinal plants from Soan Valley, Pakistan (2) to establish a baseline data for further comprehensive investigations on bioactive compounds (3) to save the indigenous medicinal knowledge.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area The study area (Soan Valley, Salt Range) is located along 72100 and 72130E and 32125 and 32145N, at an altitude of 762 m above sea level (Fig. 1). Salt Range Escarpment is a thrust between the foothills of Himalayan Mountains and Indus plains extending from the Jhelum River near Tilla Jogian in the east to the Indus River near Kalabagh in the west (Frisina et al., 2001). The highest point

on the range is Sakeesar (5010 ft); throughout its length, the salt range shows a typical aspect of having steep cliffs to the south, but in the north descending gently to the plateau. Valley is cold, dry and wind exposed area surrounded by mountain covered with scrub forests and isolated from the rest of the area of district Khushab and Mianwali. A great diversity of plants is found throughout the valley. The unique habitat has diverse geological and ecological conditions with its own culture and traditions. Since last decade, the impact of climate change is very evident in the reign; valley is facing a problem of considerably low annual rainfall of 20 in. which caused lowering of water table and severely affected vegetation of the area, long periods of drought are frequent whereas winters are accompanied by frost (Ahmad, 2002, 2012). Last eight year metrological data showed that there were long dry spell in the area posing vigorous impacts on the vegetation and environment (Ahmad, 2012). Soan Valley held an important position among the ecological regions of Pakistan due to Ucchali Wetlands Complex and richness of its biodiversity. The Ucchali Wetlands Complex, constituting Ucchali, Khabbeki and Jahlar Lakes, had been designated as Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention, a distinction it shares with only eighteen other wetlands in Pakistan. The three lakes of Ucchali Wetlands Complex were situated inside a cup shaped valley, while Namal and Kalar Kahar are located on its periphery. In Soan Valley, there were 22 villages, out of which eighteen were included in the study area (Villages Chitta, Kotali and Ugali are very small settlements and located very close to each other so these three are considered one; similarly, Dhadhur and Makromi are also located very close to each other and sampled collectively). The important tribes living in the study area were Awan. Socioeconomic conditions of the area presented a picture of excessive population pressure combined with intensive use of natural resources for livelihoods and daily needs. All land in the valley was privately owned, including the lake beds, which became available for cultivation when the water level had receded. Principal crops grown in the area were wheat in winter and vegetables in the summer. Wetlands provided a crucial source of irrigation in this essentially semi-arid zone. Grazing pressure in the region had badly eroded most communal grazing areas. Wood extraction was undertaken extensively both for the domestic fuel market and supply to urban centers. The effects of deforestation on both shamilat (community forests) and government forests had been extensive. 2.2. Data collection The study was conducted during March 2012 to September 2012. A total 35 herbalists (Hakims) were identified via rapid appraisal approach (RAA). RAA was hard to quantify but provide valued insight into the variety of dimensions and expertise of the local community with indigenous herbal medicines. RAA was based on direct interaction with local inhabitants and observation during the field visits (Martin, 1995). Open ended approaches i.e. interviews and group meetings highlighted various issues, however, the RAA was easy to adopt and allowed valid participation at local level. Interviews, group discussion with knowledgeable persons and individual meetings with herbalists were also held in order to get deep insight and to collect more precise and data on indigenous medicinal knowledge. During the course of study, 255 key informants were interviewed (155 men (agricultural background), 65 women (from agricultural background) and 35 herbalists) (Table 1). Information regarding the disease treated by medicinal plant, part(s) used, habit, mode of preparation, course of administration and dosage, vernacular name of plant(s) and status of plant species were recorded. A total of 58 plant species belonging to 35 families were documented. Interviews were made

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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Fig. 1. Location map of study area.

in Punjabi (local language). Authors were familiar with local language, and it presented the actual picture of the community. Medicinal plants reported in this study were verified by local

healers to confirm its use. A medicinal use was accepted as valid only if it was mentioned by at least three independent interviewees (Al-Qura’n, 2009).

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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Table 1 Age and gander characters of local people interviewed at Soon Valley. Informants

Local herbalists Male Female

Age group (years) o 55 15 70 25

455 20 85 40

Total

Total interviewed persons

35 155 65

plants. Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae are those families which hold a diversity of medicinal plants all over the Pakistan (Saqib et al., 2013). Local people used to cultivate some of the important medicinal plants at homes e.g. Aloe vera, Foeniculum vulgare, Melia azedarach, Mentha arvensis, Mentha royleana, Morus alba and Zizyphus numularia. However, most of the plants found in noncultivated areas i.e. forest and graveyards etc. indicate the practice of cultivating these plants was not well developed.

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3.2. Use of herbal medicines 2.3. Collection and identification of medicinal plants During the field survey, medicinal plants reported by local communities and verified by local herbalists were collected and identified in the field with the help of their vernacular names. After collection plants were tagged, wrapped in blotting paper and placed in polythene bags. Plants were brought to the Environmental Sciences Department, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan, where they were pressed, dried and mounted on herbarium sheets. Taxonomic identification of the collected plant samples was carried out with the help of flora of Pakistan (Ali and Nasir, 1989–1991; Ali and Qaiser, 1993–2011). 2.4. Data analysis Statistical analysis was based on descriptive data obtained during field work. Graphs were generated by analyzing the data via the SPSS program after organizing to present the information in the form of proportions and percentages. Each plant species mentioned by informants with respect to the indigenous information was counted as frequency of citation (FC). 2.5. Use value Use value described by Phillips and Gentry (1993) was calculated to evaluate the comparative significance of ethnomedicinal use of specific plant species by local communities. Use value UVi for species i was UVi ¼ ∑Ui=Ni where Ui is the number of use report(s) cited by each informer for a specific plant species I, Ni is the total number of informer interviewed for a specific plant species i.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Diversity of medicinal flora The present study reported 58 plants being used to treat various human ailments in study area (Table 2). These indigenous medicinal plants were distributed among 35 families. The documented medicinal plants and their ethno medicinal uses along with a common name, part used, preparations and means of administration had been summarized in Table 2. The plant family that turned out contributing higher number of medicinal species was Mimosaceae (six species) followed by five species of Lamiaceae and Solanaceae, four species of Malvaceae, three species of Brassicaceae, two species each of Apocynaceae, Canabaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Liliaceae, Acanthaceae, Adiantaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Araliaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Boraginaceae, Capparidaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Fumariaceae, Meliaceae and rest of the families reported one medicinal plant. Mimosaceae reported higher diversity of medicinal plants followed by Lamiaceae and Solanaceae. Malvaceae also showed greater diversity of medicinal

Local herbalists of the study area were playing significant roles in basic health care system of the region. Majority of local communities were poor and modern health care facilities were inaccessible to them. Present study revealed that people were well aware of the medicinal uses of indigenous plants, and they were able to practice herbal preparations on their own to treat minor health problems. It was observed during the survey that trend of using traditional herbal therapies is declining in study area, because the new generation consider phyto-therapies less efficient compared to modern medication. Herbalists deal mostly with serious health problems e.g. effective herbal medications were available against gastrointestinal disorders, hepatitis, infertility and sexual relating problems etc. In the study area a number of medicinal plants were used against a single ailment, for example, pneumonia was reportedly treated by Adiantum capillusveneris, Achyranthes aspera, Solanum incanum and Linum usitatissimum; jaundice was treated by Caraliurna tuberculata, Acacia nilotica and Boerhavia diffusa. Liver related ailments like hepatitis was treated by Caraliurna tuberculata and Riccinus communis, and skin diseases were treated by the Caraliurna tuberculata, Hedra nepalense, Euphorbia helioscopia, Melia azedarach, Alhagi maurorum and Withania coagulans depending upon the effectiveness of plants used (Fig. 2). Similarly, a single plant was also used to treat different diseases e.g. Caraliurna tuberculata was used to treat pneumonia, hepatitis, skin related problems and for stomach disorders. Pharmacological studies had been carried out for some of the plants reported in the present study and proved effective against ailments. Pharmacological research on Cannabis sativa extract found it effective against neuropathic pain along with its potential to inhibit hepatic metabolism (Comelli et al., 2008). Fruit of Solanum nigrum was effective for neuro pharmacological activities (Perez et al., 1998). Leaf extract of Amaranthus viridis was found best for treatment of diabetes while plant showed considerable anti hyperglycemic and hypolipidemic activities (Krishnamurthy et al., 2011). Some plants including Caraliurna tuberculata, Calotropis procera, Brassica nigra, Citrullus colocynthis, Aloe vera, Acacia modesta, Peganum harmala had some additional ethnobotanical uses that were not the same as reported in literature (Mehmood Abbasi et al., 2010; Mahmood et al., 2011; Bakhsh Tareen et al., 2010; Bhuvaneshwar Upadhyay et al., 2010). Data collected both from villagers and herbalists regarding identification and use of medicinal plants were complimentary with each other. 3.3. Growth forms and plant parts used for herbal preparations Growth form investigation of medicinal plants used in the study area revealed that wild herbs constituted the largest proportion and were the main source of indigenous medicines, followed by the cultivated herbs. Easy availability and high curative efficacy in comparison to other growth forms could be the reason for frequent use of herbs for medicinal purpose. Almost all plant parts were used for the medication either singly or in combination with other plants. Other growth forms include wild trees, wild shrubs and wild and cultivated herbs (Fig. 3). A possible reason for the use of these growth forms could be their relative

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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Table 2 Indigenous medicinal plant species used by the people of Soon Valley, Pakistan. Parts used Habit and habitat

Applications

Use value (UV)

FC Therapeutic uses

Wd, Sh Wp, juice

Oral with ginger

1

Adiantum capillus- Khati Wd, Hr Wp, tea veneris L. booti Achyranthes Puthkanda Wd, Hr R, aspera L. decoction, juice Amaranthus viridis Jungli Wd, Hr Wp, L. Chaulai decoction, juice

Oral

0.69

Oral, Toothbrush

0.73

Oral

0.99

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Rhazya stricta Decne. Caraliurna tuberculata N.E. Brown. Hedra nepalense K. Koch. Calotropis procera Ait. Trichodesma indicum L.

Sonf

St, sap, infusion Wd, Hr L, juice, infusion Wd, Hr Wp, powder

Oral

0.88

67 Leaves and roots of plant were very efficacious remedy for cough, administered along with ginger Juice was used for diarrhea and dysentery 43 A tea or syrup was used in the treatment of coughs, bronchitis and pneumonia. The leaves used as a hair tonic 5 Decoction was given in pneumonia. Infusion of root was mild astringent. Whole plant was recommended in treatment of snakebite. Root juice and stem were used to treat toothache 39 A decoction of entire plant was used to stop dysentery and inflammation. Root juice was used to treat inflammation during urination It was also taken to treat constipation. Leaves were used in scorpion sting and snake bites 7 Infusion of fennel seed used against flatulence and cramp like pains in gastrointestinal tract, especially in infants and small children Leaves juice was said to be very effective against skin allergies

Oral

0.17

Clt, Hr

Oral

0.56

Topical

0.46

Juri

Wp, decoction Wd, Hr L, milky latex Wd, Hr L, drink

Oral

0.59

Brassica nigra L.

Saroon

Clt, Hr

S, powder

0.67

Eruca sativa Miller. Sisymbrium irio L.

Jamahoon

Clt, Hr

L and S

Oral with honey Oral

0.54

Jangli saroon Bhang

Wd, Hr S and L, poultice Wd, Hr L, juice

Topical

0.83

Topical

0.19

Wp, plaster Wd, Hr R and L, juice Wd, Hr Wp, infusion

Topical Toothbrush, ear drops Oral

0.73 0.42

Family

Plant species

Acanthaceae

Justica adhatoda L. Vahaekar

Adiantaceae Amaranthaceae

Apiaceae Apocynaceae

Araliaceae Asclepiadaceae Boraginaceae

Brassicaceae

Canabaceae

Capparidaceae

Local name

Vena Choungan

Arbambal Ak

Cannabis sativa Linn. Sellaria media L. Gander Capparis spinosa L. Kari

Clt, Hr

Oral

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album L.

Bathu

Cucurbitaceae

Citrullus colocynthis L.

Tumma

Wd, Hr R, Fr, murabba

Oral, tropical, 0.89 toothbrush

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Chhhatri dodak

Wd, Hr Sap, S, R

Topical, oral

0.38

Riccinus communis L.

Arind

Wd, Sh S, L, poultice, juice

Topical, oral

0.25

Fumariaceae

Fumaria indica Hussk.

Papra

Wd, Hr Wp, juice

Oral

0.19

Lamiaceae

Salvia aegyptica L. Tukhum Malanga Mentha arvensis L. Podina

Wd, Hr S, drink

Oral

0.91

Liliaceae

0.71

4 A decoction of the plant was administered to treat skin diseases 20 Milky latex of leaves was applied to cure abscess 6 Cold infusion of leaves was considered depurative pounded with water and given as a drink to children for dysentery. The plant was considered as a cure for fever 2 Seeds powder mixed with honey was given for stomach pain 19 Grounded and fresh leaves were applied to abscesses. Seeds were given to stop vomiting 4 The seeds are used externally as a stimulant poultice 3 Dried and crushed leaves were taken as a drink for narcotic action. The juice of the leaves was applied on the hand to remove dandruff 62 Used in plaster to be employed on broken bones and swellings 3 The bitter root bark was used as a toothbrush in toothache. Leaf juice used to kills worms in ear 7 It was used as an infusion for intestinal ulceration. The finely powdered leaves were used as a dusting about the external genitalia in children 11 Roots were used as tooth sticks to relieve toothache. Fruit was processed into a sweet dish (Locally called as Murabba) which was prescribed to the patients of constipation, gas troubles and liver diseases and to removes abdominal worms. Fruits were crushed bare footed to cure diabetes 16 The plant was used as cathartic. Seeds with roosted peppers were given in cholera. Roots were known as anthelminitic. Milky latex was known to be poisonous and causes swelling on skin 2 Poultice of seeds was applied for gout and rheumatism. Poultice of leaves was administered for wounds, boils, sores and as a galactogogue. Fresh juice from the leaves with a bit of sugar claimed to treat hepatitis 26 Juice of plant was given in common fever. Also used for removing worms from abdomen and for the treatment of simple goiter. Whole plant was used in diabetes and bladder infection by taking its extract early in the morning 61 The seeds were used to treat diarrhea, gonorrhea and hemorrhoids

Wd and Clt, Hr Wd, Hr

L and St, decoction, infusion L, tea

Oral

0.25

3 The decoction and infusion of leaves and stems administered in fever, stomachaches, dysmenorrheal and diuresis

Oral

0.98

37 The dried leaves were made into powder and used with curd in the summer as stomachic, in diarrheaand dysentery 6 Poultice of bulb was used in earache; also, juice dropped into ear canal 7 Paste prepared from bulb mixed with black piper was taken to treat gastritis 55 Pulp is considered very effective remedy to treat arthritis and back bone pain 4 Hot poultices of seeds were used for boils, burns, and eczema. Seeds were used in gonorrhea. Poultice of seeds was also used in pneumonia and bronchitis

Mentha royleana L. Allium ascalonicum L. Allium sativum L.

Jangli podina Wasal

Clt, Hr

Bl, juice

Ear drops

0.63

Thoom

Clt, Hr

Bl, paste

Oral

0.71

Aloe vera L.

Kanvar gandal Alsi

Clt, Hr

Pulp

Oral

0.54

Clt, Hr

S, poultice

Topical

0.56

Linum usitatissimum L

15 Juice of plant was used to treat skin allergies

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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Table 2 (continued ) Family

Plant species

Local name

Parts used Habit and habitat

Applications

Use value (UV)

FC Therapeutic uses

Malvaceae

Abutilon indicum L.

Pataka

Wd, Sh Wp, infusion decoction

Oral

0.07

Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvesdrum coromandelianum L. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. Melia azedarach L.

Saunchal

Wd, Hr Wp, Topical infusion Wd, Hr Rh, powder Oral

8 The infusion of the root was prescribed in fevers as a cooling medicine and considered useful in haematuria and in leprosy. The decoction of the leaves was used in toothache, tender gums and internally for inflammation of bladder 22 A poultice of dried leaves was applied on broken bones

Meliaceae

Mimosaceae

Yard sonchal

0.34

The plant was known as resolvent, emollient and demulcent. The leaves were applied to inflamed sores and wounds

Lupra

Wd, Hr L, poultice

Oral, Tropical 0.89

11 Leaves were applied to wounds as a poultice. The seeds were given in dysentery. Roots were used for coughs and colds

Dharek

Wd, Tr

L, F, juice, extracts, paste

Oral, topical

0.34

Acacia modesta Wall.

Phulai

Wd, Tr

G, powder

Oral, Toothbrush

0.18

Lathyrus aphacea L. Alhagi maurorum Medik. Dalbergia sisso Roxb.

Dokani

Wd, Hr Sd, F

Oral

0.19

Kandera

Wd, Hr Wp, decoction Wd, Tr L, juice

Oral

0.44

Oral

0.57

Wd, Hr Wp, poultice, decoction Wd, Sh Wp, juice, powder

Oral, topical

0.31

Oral

0.54

22 Leave extract was used for blood purification, cooling agent to remove pimples and boils. The juice of leaves was extensively used for jaundice, allergies (Mallibadi) acting as blood purifier (Musaffie-Khoon). Fruit extract and pulp was supposed to be a tonic for liver and stomach. Paste of leaves was externally applied to remove skin itching and allergy acting as an antimicrobial agent. Paste was externally applied to kill lice 3 The powder gum was used to treat wounds and commonly used for backache. Tender twigs for cleaning the teeth and to treat teeth diseases 26 Ripen seeds were said to be narcotic and flowers were used as resolvent 6 The decoction of plant was given for skin allergy acting as blood purifier 25 Bark and wood were bitter, hot, acrid, aphrodisiac, abortifacient, expectorant, anthelmintic and antipyretic, allays thirst, vomiting, burning sensation, cures skin diseases, troubles of the anus, ulcers, and diseases of blood, leucoderma, dyspepsia and dysentery. Juice of the leaves was used for diseases of eye and nose. It was used in scabies, burning sensation of the body, scalding urine, syphilis, and stomach troubles 25 Plant was emollient, externally applied as poultice or plaster for swellings. Seeds were used in bowel complaints and infantile diarrhea. Used against skin diseases 19 The juice of roots/bark mixed with sugar was given to cure jaundice. Leaves, bark of young ranches, flowers, gum and unripe pods were taken in equal quantity and made into powder and was given to treat spermatorrhoea and premature ejaculation. The branches were used as tooth stick to strengthen the gums 5 Fruit was used for sore throat. The decoction of fruit was used in cough due to throat pain. The leaves were boiled in water (Joshanda) and given for the same purpose. Extract of root and bark was given to kill abdominal worms 16 Seeds and leave decoction was given in rheumatism. Seeds were used for fevers and asthma. Decoction of the seeds was used as mouth wash and mosquitoes repellent. The decoction of leaves was used for joint pain. Smoke of plant was common treatment for eye infections 24 Roots were boiled in water to obtain extract which was used as liver tonic. Roots were made into pieces and tied as necklace to cure jaundice. The paste of the plant was Externally applied to treat paralysis 49 Leaves decoction was used for toothache and gonorrhea while bark was used in curing fever 3 Leaves powder of plant along with buttermilk given to treat scurvy and as diaphoretic, diuretic, antidiabetic and enthelminthic 35 An infusion of the grass with milk was used for bleeding, piles, irritation of urinary organs, dropsy and vomiting. The juice was also given in dysentery 5 The dried and powdered plant was taken in pneumonia. The roots were used in bowl complaints. The whole plant was used as an excellent remedy for cholera 15 The leaves were sour, bitter, saltish, recommended in bilious conditions and low fevers; allay thirst and headache, good in diseases of kidney and the spleen, piles, scabies and burns. The herb was chiefly valued as a refrigerant and alterative pot herb. The seeds were believed to be vermifuge. Leaves were also applied to swellings 48 The fruit was highly palatable. The same was prescribed for sugar patients. The leaves mixed with turmeric, wheat flour and oil, slightly warmed over fire to get poultice and applied externally to

Talhi

Melilotus indica Linn.

Senji

Acacia nilotica Linn.

Kikar

Moraceae

Morus alba L.

Shehtoot

Wd, Tr

F, L, R, Bl, decoction, extract

Oral

0.35

Nitrariaceae

Peganum harmala L.

Harmal

Wd, Hr S and L, decoction, smoke

Oral

0.38

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhavia diffusa L.

Itsit

Wd, Hr R, aqueous extract

Oral,

0.31

Oleaaceae

Olea ferruginea Royle. Oxalis corniculata L. Cynodon dactylon Linn.

Kau

Wd, Tr

Oral

1

Oral with buttermilk Oral

0.18 0.91

Polygonaceae

Polygonum plebejum R.Br

Dremak

L and B, decoction Wd, Hr L, decoction Wd, Hr Wp, infusion and juice Wd, Hr Wp, powder

Oral

0.73

Portulaceae

Portulaca oleracea Saag L.

Wd, Hr L, tea

Oral

0.17

Rhamnaceae

Zizyphus numularia Lam.

Wd, Tr

Topical

0.86

Oxalidaceae Poaceae

Khatta metha Khabbal

Ber

L, poultice, aqueous extract

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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Table 2 (continued ) Family

Sapindaceae

Plant species

Dodonaea viscose L.

Urticaceae Violaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Sanatha

Parts used Habit and habitat

Applications

Use value (UV)

Wd, Hr L, powder and decoction

Topical, oral

0.29

Wd, Hr L, Fl, powder, smoke Solanum incanum Janglee Wd, Hr R, L, L. baingan decoction, infusion Solanum nigrum L. Kachmach Wd, Hr Fr and L, decoction

Oral, topical

0.67

Oral, topical, used as mouth wash Oral

0.34

Solanum Harnauli surrantense Burm.

Scorphulariaceae Varbascum thapsus Linn. Solanaceae

Local name

Gidhar tambaku

0.69

Oral

0.07

Oral

0.62

Withania coagulans Dunal.

Akri

Wd, Sh Wp, decoction, extract Wd, Sh F, S

Datura innoxia Mill.

Datoora

Wd, Hr L, poultice

Topical

0.34

Zhoomi, Joomi Viola serpens Wall. Lillio

Wd, Hr R, powder

Oral

0.39

Wd, Hr Wp

Oral

Urtica dioica L.

Tribulus terrestris L.

Bakhra

Wd, Hr Fr, powder, Oral with honey aqueous extract

0.13

FC Therapeutic uses

remove spines. Leaves were boiled in water and applied on hairs for long, healthy and shining hairs 3 The leaves of this shrub were viscid, and have a somewhat sour and bitter taste. It was believed that powdered leaves applied over a wound will heal it without leaving a whit scar. The leaves were said to be useful in rheumatism and to possess febrifugal properties. Leaves were used as a febrifuge; wood decoction was used as an astringent bath 3 The whole plant was rarely used for diarrhea, and dysentery of cattle. The leaves in powdered form were used for healing wounds. Extract of the plant was useful for earache 3 The roots were said to be used as a medicine for horses. It was used as a remedy for toothache and sore throat, pleurisy and pneumonia 43 The berries were oleaginous, bitter, pungent, alterative, aphrodisiac, toxic, and diuretic; improve appetite and taste, useful in diseases of heart and eye, in pain, piles inflammation. The root bark was laxative, Used in diseases of ears, eyes and nose 8 The berries were used for toothache. The berries extract was applied to broken organs. The roots were used in cough, asthma. The plant was also given in various animal diseases to cattle 14 The fruit was applied to wounds, used in asthma, biliousness and stranguary. The seeds were diuretic, useful in lumbago, ophthalmic; lessen the inflammation of piles, cures liver troubles 3 The leaves were useful as local application in rheumatism. The juice of the leaves was a good Substitute for the Bella-Dona. An extract made from the seeds was good mydriatic, and the leaves were used as emollient and supportive 19 The roots and leaves were used to make medicine for the cure of chambal (A disease in which white spots are formed on the body) The syrup made from the whole plant considered as aperients, cooling, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic, expectorant, febrifuge, and purgative in action. It was useful in asthma, bleeding piles, cancer of throat, constipation, cough, fever, headache, and skin diseases 31 The powder fruit mixed with honey was given as an aphrodisiac. Fruit was crushed in water and taken orally to treat painful urination and spermatorrhoea

a Wd, wild; Clt, cultivated; Hr, herbs; Sr, shrubs; Tr, tree; b Vernacular names are in local language—Punjabi. Rt, roots;Bl, bulb; Rh, rhizome; Lt, latex; G, gum. d Frequency of citation.

c

S, seeds; L, leaves; F, flowers; Fr, fruit; WP, whole plant;

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig. 2. Medicinal plants used against some specific diseases.

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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Cultivated, Herbs 14%

Wild and Cultivated Herbs 2% Wild, Shrubs

Pulp 2% Tea 3%

10%

Aqueous Plaster Drink extract 2% 3% Paste 7% 3%

Smoke 1% Infusion 12%

Murabba 2%

Decoction 22%

Poultice 13%

Wild, Trees 11%

Powder 30%

Wild, Herbs 63% Fig. 5. Mode of preparation of plant medicines. Fig. 3. Types of medicinal plants reported from study area.

Sap Stem 1% 3% Latex 2%

Seed 14%

Gum 1% Whole Plant 24%

Bulb 6%

Fruit 4%

Rhizome 2%

Root 12%

Leaf 24%

Flower 7% Fig. 4. Plant parts used in herbal preparations.

resistant against seasonal variations and availability throughout the year (Albuquerque, 2006). The most frequently used plant parts for preparation of medicines were leaves, roots, stems, fruits, seeds, bulb, latex and gum. The leaves and whole plants were used most frequently followed by the seed, roots, flower, bulb, fruit, stem, latex and rhizome and sap and gum (Fig. 4). For herbs, local healers believed more efficacy of herbal preparation of whole plants including roots rather than single plant parts. Higher concentration of bioactive compounds in the underground plant parts has been reported (Kunwar et al., 2006; Mahmood et al., 2013b). Practice of harvesting underground plant parts and whole plant was not viable (Flatie et al., 2009) and posed a threat to the sustainability of majority of medicinal plants used by the indigenous communities of Soan Valley. Generally fresh plant parts were collected by healers and villagers themselves from the forest or other uncultivated areas. In Soan Valley, villages were not very far from the forest, and plants used in traditional medicine could still be accessed with relative ease from the nearby natural vegetation, sometimes various parts were collected dried and stored for their use in the off season. 3.4. Route of administration The main mode of application for herbal preparation was the oral route of administration followed by the topical application and others included applied on teeth or used as tooth brush and sometimes as a mouth wash. In the case of earache, juice of Capparis spinosa roots and Allium ascalonicum bulb were found very effective as drops. Most of the preparations were used along with the mixtures of different plant species, with other additions

like honey; buttermilk and ginger etc. Monotherapies were most evident, although some remedies were prepared from more than one plant species in study area (Table 2). Plants were used when fresh or dry essentially in the form of a powder decoction, poultice, infusion, aqueous extract, juice, paste, drink, past and tea, murabba (sweet jam pickle), pulp and plaster, and sometimes even as a smoke (Fig. 5). 3.5. Use value of plants Justica adhatoda and Olea ferruginea were most commonly used plant species showing the highest use values of 1.00 due to its great diversity in the study area; local people used them potently against cough, diarrhea and dysentery toothache, gonorrhea and curing fever. Amaranthus viridis was also commonly used species showing the value 0.99, commonly used as a vegetable and to stop dysentery, inflammation, constipation and in snake bites. Mentha royleana (UV 0.98) was commonly found in the houses of people and tea made from leaves was found very effective in stomachaches and diarrhea. Other plants having high use values were Cynodon dactylon (0.91) used against bleeding, piles, dropsy, vomiting and dysentery. Seeds of Salvia aegyptica, (0.91) were used commonly in diarrhea, gonorrhea and hemorrhoids. Salvia moorcroftiana and Citrullus colocynthis (0.89) were abundant in study area, very effective in dysentery, constipation, gas troubles and liver diseases. Foeniculum vulgare (0.88), Zizyphus numularia (0.86) and Sisymbrium irio (0.83) also showed high use values. While Abutilon indicum and Solanum surrantense (UV 0.07) showed least UVs because they were not abundant in the study area. Further research was needed to spot out any valued compound present in plant species with high UV.

4. Conclusions Present work revealed that the study area was rich in indigenous medicinal plants species and the associated traditional knowledge. The local communities still relied on herbal remedies for their basic health care; thus indigenous plants remained vital for solving local health problems. Even local communities preferred customary herbal preparation against modern facilities to treat ailments. This study was a baseline to develop a link between local traditional herbalists and scientific institutions. It was important in order to document and preserve the indigenous medicinal knowledge of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan for the scientific community and upcoming generations. There was an urgent need to preserve imperative knowledge that had been transferred across generations, but modern generation was not giving much

Please cite this article as: Bibi, S., et al., Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants in the highlands of Soan Valley, Salt Range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.031i

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consideration to it. Medicinal plants with high use value should be screened for pharmacological studies of valuable phytochemical compounds in order to synthesize new drugs and to cure various ailments. This study also highlighted the need to conserve medicinal plants of study area. In major herbal preparations whole plants (herb) along with roots were used, this use pattern without replanting could destroy flora of the valley. Authorities should ensure the proper use of medicinal plants in terms of sustainability and conservation. Rural communities of the valley were poverty stricken; they cut forests to sell as fuel wood. Forest of very slow growing species Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica and Olea ferruginea were disappearing at alarming rate. A number of medicinal plants like Caraliurna tuberculata and Cordia vestita were on the verge of extinction due to overexploitation. Abiotic factors including the reduction in rainfall in recent years and rise in temperature are also posing severe impacts on the vegetation of study area. Invasive species pose yet another threat to the medicinal plants of Soan Valley; especially the protected areas were badly invaded by Prosopis species. Urgent actions were, therefore, needed to control the propagation of these species.

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