379
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT AS A TOOL FOR RISK MANAGEMENT
Chatchai Prince of
Ratanachai
Songkla University, Hatyai,
THAILAND
ABSTRACT Environmental Impact Assessment is essentially a process four elements: identification, prediction, comprising evaluation, and monitoring. Properly conducted EIA studies can identify linkages between injurious events and/or activities and their damaging consequences. This aids in making the risk management decision.
This paper discusses how EIA can be used as a tool for risk managemnet. Each element of EIA, as well as available risk is discussed. As a case example, the paper management options, EIA reviews guidelines/procedures in Thailand and identify weakness and strength in capabilities to identify the sensitive areas where risk should be effectively controlled. ELEMENTS OF
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment is essentially a process of four identification elements: the impacts, of the impacts, evaluation of alternatives having and monitoring of the impacts different environmental impacts, [ESCAP, 1985]. Identification centers around characterizing key affected environmental issues which can be by project
comprising prediction
activities.
the identified impacts the best available decisionaids in communication with Evaluation information. and disadvantages of different makers benefits alternatives, The process cannot thereby enabling proper decision making. complete without appropriate monitoring program to see if the predicted impacts are reasonably correct and the mitigation In Environmental measures are fact, Impact appropriate. Risk The much resembles Assessment Analysis. only very an is that the latter has difference uncertainty dimension attached to it. are
During prediction stage, quantified and analyzed based
Figure
1
on
the stages of an EIA process as division not only provides a useful concept for organizing essential tasks required in conducting the EIA study, but also helps identify risk management options available at each stage. Risk is a fact of life: natural consequences of living and/or man-made activities. Man has always tried to avoid high risk to his safety, health, and other valued aspects of lives.
described
displays
above.
Such
i
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
380
Figure
1
EIA Process and Associated Risk
Management Options
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
381
in the has been evidenced in a number of development mankind: medical practice, engineering works, civilization of social institutionalization. The hazards of concern to the risk motor other things, vehicles, among community include, occupational hazards, hazardous facilities (nuclear, liquified
This
petroleum gas, pesticide plants), toxic substances, natural (flood, fire, typhoon), international conflicts, wars, wild animals, diseases [Dooly, 1985]. Some of these hazards are of the consequences of development and often regarded as parts environmental impacts. Simply stated, risks can be grouped as: natural risks, manevents
The refers combinations. latter often to made and risks, natural risks which are aggravated by human activities such as catastrophic floods and landslides occurring in deforested to areas. Not much can be done about natural- risks but learn cope with them, and try to mitigate detrimental consequences as
much
Man-made risks, on the other hand, are for Risk often calls reduction, however, manageable. trade-offs in other benefits, other types of and, sometimes, risk Risk reduction. management is herein defined as the exercise of management skill, discretion, and authority in deciding how best to implement legislation, professional, and technical recommendations to reduce risk. In most countries, environmental legislation is designed to deal with an approval process for major projects. Authorities are sometimes created with responsibilities for environmental An EIA process has parameters such as air and water quality. been applied in several countries as a tool for environmental management. By identification of major issues and their potential impacts, it dictates formulation of strategies and policies and consequently attempts to act as a catalyst for technical administrative and further detailed institutional, In other measures needed for the effective menagement of risk. risk EIA can be considered a tool for words, management. In are what details of each stage of the EIA process follows, associated with each and risk the described, management options stage are identified. Some relevant case examples are also as
practicable.
more
given.
-
IDENTIFICATION Of THE IMPACTS
.
This stage typically involves: (1) preliminary idenfication environmental resources/values which are likely to be affected by project activities; and (2) scoping to prioritize key issues. Tools employed include EIA guidelines, checklist, interaction matrix, network, professional judgement, and of
public participation [ESCAP, 1985; Holling, 1978; Munn, 1979]. stage, manageable number of key issues are identified. Identification of impacts can be considered an initial EIA to help preliminarily predict impacts that are to be considered in more detail. later Should potential impacts appear to be At this
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
382
unacceptable, some risk management decisions may be invoked at early stage. One possible option is to reanalyze the objectives of the project and try to identify more appropriate alternative(s) to serve the original societal needs. Other alternative include technologies, devising the options or even sites, abondoning the project, if reselecting project proved to be the best solution. dimension It would be advantageous to have environmental as as in the included practicable, early project design Critical at the stage. prefeasibility study preferably decision(s) from environmental perspectives might help shape the project conceptual design which will later be perused in this
Much of avoidable risks can be details. avoided, other It is important that all unavoidable ones can be reduced. key which can issues possibly pose detrimental impacts on the are environment exhaustively identified. This implies that the should be carried out by experts in identification impact It an and field. requires comprehensive imaginative appreciation of what might be released from project based on intimate knowledge of the project operation. In conducting an EIA study for the only gold mine in Thailand, the study team identified three key issues: water pollution, soil erosion, and wildlife disturbance [Ratanachai, et al., 1987J.. Amalgamation was discarded and cyanidation was as an alternative technology for extracting gold from selected The wastewater treatment plant and the tailings disposal ore. not site were relocated and placed in such a way that they do of A the obstruct overland flow. project, great portion including several buildings, were redesigned and relocated based on environmental grounds. This would have been difficult, well or even impossible, to be included later when project is advanced. The study team convinced the project proponent to put additional investment in waste This was management. coincidental with the mobbed burning of the 600 million baht (1 baht = US$ 0.04 = 5.6 Yen) tantalum factory in Phuket, a nearby province in Southern Thailand, for fear of risk from acid transportation and a few other factory operations. Some 10-15 million baht was allocated for waste management facilities so as to ensure that damages from cyanide in both residuals, liquid waste and tailings, were practically under control. In another case it was example, envisaged that the construction of a proposed salinity barrier in Songkla Lake will pose several potential adverse impacts, both socially and ecologically. A few task teams were set up to look into this problem [Lheknim and Leelawattanakul, Ratanachai and 1989; 1989]. The task teams identified several Suwannatachote, potential effects that are likely to occur as consequences of the project, eutrophication, including loss, species escessive and sedimentation, social conflicts inundation, between water users. Despite inadequate information, the heat of the issues developed so much that the project was suspended and no concrete decision was made as to what should be done for the time being. more
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
383
PREDICTION OF THE
IMPACTS
the This involves quantifying analyzing and stage identified impacts. The impacts may be the release of energy (e.g., flood, fire), undesirable materials (e.g., pesticides, heavy metals), or social force (e.g., migration, increased income); removal of species, aesthetics, or social stability; of alteration physical and ecological regimes or societal
settings. The receptors, targets which are impacted, can be people and other environmental resources/values. The receptors may not be equally affected by a given dose. Some fauna are more immune Even in the same to certain substance than others. toxic are more some members species, susceptible than others depending on genetic, health factors, and age. Those who are highly susceptible will suffer the consequence at low levels of intensity and those who are immune will require a higher dose to suffer the consequences. At times, receptors may receive secondary impacts, ones which are generated as consequences of other impacts, from the project activities. Furthermore, it is sometimes necessary to deal with several types of consequences for the same exposure. A flood can damage ecosystem, injure or kill people, and damage or destroy valued objects. A toxic substance can cause death, permanent health damage, or recoverable sickness. Methods are available to assess these impacts. Some may be and quantifiable manipulation, using data computation, mathematical modelling; while others are not amenable to precise mathematical treatment and thus can only be estimated, oftentimes Stack discharge of sulphur dioxide approximately. from coal fire plants, for example, can be estimated with reasonable Gains in local economy and losses in accuracy. as results of shrimp farm development are more mangrove difficult to assess and Several compare. disciplinesengineering, ecology, meteorology, hydrology, sociology, and more- are usually required at this point. In at this conclusion, stage, we should be able to identify: (1) what are significant impacts? (2) when and how will they occur? (3) what are chances of occurring? and (4) what are their characteristics, especially magnitudes? It should also be noted that these findings may need refinement as the project develops and more details become available. Knowing the magnitudes and likelihood of potential adverse impacts, risk management options at this stage should aim at of measures neutralization, design mitigation (e.g., compensation), provision of operation guidelines, and risk avoidance (e.g., warning system, contingency planning, evacuation program). It is also possible that the project be abodoned at this stage, if proved to be the best solution.
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
384
EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT ALTERNATIVES Evaluation
involves comparison of
different
alternatives
having different beneficial and adverse impacts. It involves an assembly of the positive and negative aspects of options to enable between them. In addition to those selecting evaluations which should in fact be made at each stage, evaluation at macro level is also necessary. For example, the judgement whether to proceed with the project or not. While an economic evaluation is usually made by the proponent, we should be concerned with risk ensuring that the environmental evaluation is included as part of options evaluation. In evaluating the importance of the potential impacts, it and associated is desirable to know both their magnitudes probabilities of occurrences. Such probabilities are usually the of their inverse functions magnitudes. Emotively, than the decisions on societal a effect has catastrophe greater steady erosion of quality of life or environment. While statistical theories of such events are well established, the derived decisions are based more on subjective opinion than on quantitative evaluation. Despite limitation of the absolute quantitative evaluation of environmental impacts, the evaluation process is useful in identifying and defining, in a relative manner, areas which need further investigation. The analysis of environmental based and its associated probabilities should be done impacts be on the best available information. These results will then used as a basis for cost/benefit evaluation, however crude, to or otherwise, of the on decide the societal acceptability, risk. of individual members the Although lay society may perceive risk in a subjective manner, it is important that their elected representatives must manage risk as objectively
knowledgeably as possible [UNEP, 1982]. Having evaluated different alternatives, risk options at this stage include careful selection of and
management
the final solution which minimize risk. The selected solution may involve compensation between more than one alternatives. Detailed design choices can be made in such a way that further risk reduction can be obtained. Abondoning the project, if found most appropriate, may still be justified at this stage. It decisions should be cautioned that the detailed design also result in significant impacts on risk not encountered before. It is assessment proceed necessary that the impact in an iterative manner. along with the project design, Continuous involvement between the two can eliminate or, at least, reduce undesirable consequences. can
MONITORING OF THE
IMPACTS
Appropriate monitoring of the impacts of the project activities and the effectiveness of the mitigation measures is the utmost important part of the EIA process. Monitoring is
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
385
usually a continuous process which has to be carried out from the design phase, through the construction stage, and continue further along with the project operations. a The monitoring way program should be designed in such that it provides sufficient information for use in decision making. The possible risk management options at this stage should aim at refinement or adjustment of mitigation measures and operation guidelines to best suit our prime objective: environmental protection towards sustainable
development. The analysis of the monitoring results may prompt the need for design modification, for example, an additional waste treatment unit for an industrial complex. Finally, though not desirable, it is possible that the best risk management option would be to suspend, or halt, the project activities, if proved to be the best choice. EIA PROCESS IN THAILAND In EIA is used as a the Thailand, prediction tool to facilitate (1) the minimization of the adverse effects, and (2) the provision of the positive enhancement of environmental It resources/values to compensate these adverse effects. It also provides information upon which decisions can be made. or is not the mitigation identifies whether measure(s) necessary. and environmental problems increasingly of development projects and activities on which Thailand decided to create an organization
Recognizing the effects
detrimental
environment,
aimed at effectively managing its environmental resources. The National Environmental Quality Act (NEQA), enacted in 1975, Board an establishment of the National Environment authorized (NEB). One of the several functions of the NEB is issuing of notification categories and magnitudes of the projects or activities where the EIA reports are to be submitted to the NEB (Table 1). These reports shall cover the studies and measures for prevention of, and/or remedy for, the adverse effects of those projects on environmental quality. By law, the reports must be approved before the projects may proceed. The EIA procedures for public sector’s (Government agencies and/or State enterprises) and private sectors’ projects differ slightly. The procedures are shown schematically in Figure 2 and 3. (1) preparation of the They are resemble in two steps: Terms of Reference (TOR) by the project proponent and obtain approval of the TOR by the NEB; and (2) preparation of the EIA report according to the approved TOR. The Government agencies and/or State enterprises (Figure 2) The NEB submit the EIA report directly to the NEB for review. is not If the 90 within report days. has to finish reviewing reand the revise to will have report the proponent approved, the to review NEB has the At this stage, submitted to the NEB. revised Upon approval, the comments report within 30 day. and/or the recommendations will be submitted to the Ad-hoc is which committee, organized by the National Economic and
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386
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387
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388
Figure 3
EIA Prodecures of Action for the Private Sectors
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389
Social Development Board (NESDB), the major planning agency of The final Thai Government, for further consideration. the and the socio-economic with recommendations, report, along engineering feasibility studies, will be submitted to the cabinet for final decision before commencement of the project. For private sectors (Figure 3), the procedure will also follow described submission and two as above. The steps resubmission of the EIA report must be made to the NEB through the permitting agency. The time for reviewing the reports and the revised reports are also 90 and 30 days, respectively. The license will be issued if the report was approved. NEB guidelines [1979] recommend that the environmental resources/values be categorized into 4 levels: (1) physical resources, (2) ecological resources, (3) human use values, and (4) quality of life values. The guidelines, however, do not recommend any specific methodologies for impact identification, prediction, and evaluation. Any commonly accepted methods, such as and mathematical modelling, interation matrix, checklist, are acceptable, provided that sufficient reasoning is given. The guidelines emphasize on the formality and the format of reports and issues to be included in different types of
projects. not process
Though EIA
discussed:
explicitly stated, it is the NEB’s intent that should comprise the four stages previously and identification, evaluation, prediction,
The present institutional framework, however, does the NEB to exercise its full capacity in managing this integrated EIA process. The NEB, though fully responsible for making policies and guidelines for sound environmental in have no of real the country, authority management of laws and regulations concerned. enforcement For examples, for NEB does not have authority the issuing or reissuing permits, neither can it punish individuals who violate the environmental laws.
monitoring. not
allow
Therefore, while the foregoing discussion indicates that EIA should an the be viewed as and process integrated continuous process, only part of the process is accomplished. The problems arise at three points: firstly, EIA studies are usually conducted after project sites are selected; secondly, implementation of mitigation measures is not fully enforced; thirdly, monitoring programs are not always implemented. More often than not, the project sites are selected before commencement of the EIA studies. Although the practices negate the intent of the law, it would be difficult if NEB decides to order the based on proponents to reselect the sites environmental grounds. Upon approval of the EIA reports-which only imply the identification, prediction, and evaluation of the potential impacts of the projects -the control is handed over to other government agencies who have for authorities issuing or reissuing permits. The remaining tasks include implementation of mitigation measures and the monitoring of the impacts. For examples, mining activities are controlled by the
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
390 the industrial Mineral Resources Department; operation, the The main of Industrial responsibilities Factory Department. not these agencies are to promote national income and environmental betterment. Only portion of mitigation measures, are enhance economic returns, those which obviously will the alone let programs. Only monitoring usually implemented, large-scale projects, such as reservoirs or much publicized industries, that monitoring is observed. CONCLUSIONS
&dquo;
.
risk on the of the discussion above has been focus in for decision use EIA information with providing management making. In well conducted EIA studies, risk management options should be carefully considered as far as practicable. NEB The present institutional framework does not allow the full to exercise its capacity to effectively manage the Despite this limitation, integrated EIA process in Thailand. EIA is still the best tool for environmental management in this country in comparison with other environmental laws - such as Landuse Act and. Forest Act-which must go through a long political process before implementation can take place. issue more It is necessary that the government take this to if is on its the way join the country seriously; especially, would be it countries. of industrialized Although newly group difficult to give full authority to the NEB, it should be authorized to play more important role in implementing the EIA and not only to review the EIA reports. process
The
References: J. E. (1985) A Framework for Environmental Risk Analysis and Management. Chulalogkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. ESCAP. (1985) Environmental Impact Assessment: Guidelines for and United Nations Economic Planners and Decision Makers. for and Asia the Pacific. Social Commission Bangkok, Thailand. Holling, C. S. (1978) Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. John Wiley & Sons. New York, U.S.A. & Leelawattanakul, P. (1989) "Ecological Impacts of Leknim, W. the Proposed Salinity Barrier in Songkla Lake: A Review Paper." presented at the Second Expert Group Workshop on Sound Basin River/Lake Approaches to Environmentally Management of Water Resources. Hatyai, Thailand. R.E. Munn, (1979) SCOPE 5: Environmental Impact Assessment. John Wiley & Sons. New York, U.S.A. for of NEB: NEB. (1979) Manual Guidelines Preparation of Environment Environmental National Impact Evaluation. Board. Bangkok, Thailand. Ratanachai, C., et al. (1987) "Environmental Impact Statement for Cholsin Ltd. Co., (Gold Mine)." Prince of Songkla University. Hatyai, Thailand. (in Thai)
Dooly,
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391
C. & Suwannatachote. R. (1989) "Social Impacts of Proposed Salinity Barrier in Songkla Lake:.A Review Paper." presented at the Second Expert Group Workshop on Basin Sound River/Lake Approaches to Environmentally
Ratanachai, the
Management of Water Resources. Hatyai, Thailand. UNEP. (1982) Risk Guidelines on Management and Accident Prevention in the Chemical Industry. Industry & Environment Office, United Nations Environment Programme. Bangkok, Thailand.
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT AS A TOOL FOR RISK MANAGEMENT
Chatchai Prince of
Ratanachai
Songkla University, Hatyai,
THAILAND
ABSTRACT Environmental Impact Assessment is essentially a process four elements: identification, prediction, comprising evaluation, and monitoring. Properly conducted EIA studies can identify linkages between injurious events and/or activities and their damaging consequences. This aids in making the risk management decision.
This paper discusses how EIA can be used as a tool for risk managemnet. Each element of EIA, as well as available risk is discussed. As a case example, the paper management options, EIA reviews guidelines/procedures in Thailand and identify weakness and strength in capabilities to identify the sensitive areas where risk should be effectively controlled. ELEMENTS OF
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment is essentially a process of four identification elements: the impacts, of the impacts, evaluation of alternatives having and monitoring of the impacts different environmental impacts, [ESCAP, 1985]. Identification centers around characterizing key affected environmental issues which can be by project
comprising prediction
activities.
the identified impacts the best available decisionaids in communication with Evaluation information. and disadvantages of different makers benefits alternatives, The process cannot thereby enabling proper decision making. complete without appropriate monitoring program to see if the predicted impacts are reasonably correct and the mitigation In Environmental measures are fact, Impact appropriate. Risk The much resembles Assessment Analysis. only very an is that the latter has difference uncertainty dimension attached to it. are
During prediction stage, quantified and analyzed based
Figure
1
on
the stages of an EIA process as division not only provides a useful concept for organizing essential tasks required in conducting the EIA study, but also helps identify risk management options available at each stage. Risk is a fact of life: natural consequences of living and/or man-made activities. Man has always tried to avoid high risk to his safety, health, and other valued aspects of lives.
described
displays
above.
Such
i
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
380
Figure
1
EIA Process and Associated Risk
Management Options
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
381
in the has been evidenced in a number of development mankind: medical practice, engineering works, civilization of social institutionalization. The hazards of concern to the risk motor other things, vehicles, among community include, occupational hazards, hazardous facilities (nuclear, liquified
This
petroleum gas, pesticide plants), toxic substances, natural (flood, fire, typhoon), international conflicts, wars, wild animals, diseases [Dooly, 1985]. Some of these hazards are of the consequences of development and often regarded as parts environmental impacts. Simply stated, risks can be grouped as: natural risks, manevents
The refers combinations. latter often to made and risks, natural risks which are aggravated by human activities such as catastrophic floods and landslides occurring in deforested to areas. Not much can be done about natural- risks but learn cope with them, and try to mitigate detrimental consequences as
much
Man-made risks, on the other hand, are for Risk often calls reduction, however, manageable. trade-offs in other benefits, other types of and, sometimes, risk Risk reduction. management is herein defined as the exercise of management skill, discretion, and authority in deciding how best to implement legislation, professional, and technical recommendations to reduce risk. In most countries, environmental legislation is designed to deal with an approval process for major projects. Authorities are sometimes created with responsibilities for environmental An EIA process has parameters such as air and water quality. been applied in several countries as a tool for environmental management. By identification of major issues and their potential impacts, it dictates formulation of strategies and policies and consequently attempts to act as a catalyst for technical administrative and further detailed institutional, In other measures needed for the effective menagement of risk. risk EIA can be considered a tool for words, management. In are what details of each stage of the EIA process follows, associated with each and risk the described, management options stage are identified. Some relevant case examples are also as
practicable.
more
given.
-
IDENTIFICATION Of THE IMPACTS
.
This stage typically involves: (1) preliminary idenfication environmental resources/values which are likely to be affected by project activities; and (2) scoping to prioritize key issues. Tools employed include EIA guidelines, checklist, interaction matrix, network, professional judgement, and of
public participation [ESCAP, 1985; Holling, 1978; Munn, 1979]. stage, manageable number of key issues are identified. Identification of impacts can be considered an initial EIA to help preliminarily predict impacts that are to be considered in more detail. later Should potential impacts appear to be At this
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
382
unacceptable, some risk management decisions may be invoked at early stage. One possible option is to reanalyze the objectives of the project and try to identify more appropriate alternative(s) to serve the original societal needs. Other alternative include technologies, devising the options or even sites, abondoning the project, if reselecting project proved to be the best solution. dimension It would be advantageous to have environmental as as in the included practicable, early project design Critical at the stage. prefeasibility study preferably decision(s) from environmental perspectives might help shape the project conceptual design which will later be perused in this
Much of avoidable risks can be details. avoided, other It is important that all unavoidable ones can be reduced. key which can issues possibly pose detrimental impacts on the are environment exhaustively identified. This implies that the should be carried out by experts in identification impact It an and field. requires comprehensive imaginative appreciation of what might be released from project based on intimate knowledge of the project operation. In conducting an EIA study for the only gold mine in Thailand, the study team identified three key issues: water pollution, soil erosion, and wildlife disturbance [Ratanachai, et al., 1987J.. Amalgamation was discarded and cyanidation was as an alternative technology for extracting gold from selected The wastewater treatment plant and the tailings disposal ore. not site were relocated and placed in such a way that they do of A the obstruct overland flow. project, great portion including several buildings, were redesigned and relocated based on environmental grounds. This would have been difficult, well or even impossible, to be included later when project is advanced. The study team convinced the project proponent to put additional investment in waste This was management. coincidental with the mobbed burning of the 600 million baht (1 baht = US$ 0.04 = 5.6 Yen) tantalum factory in Phuket, a nearby province in Southern Thailand, for fear of risk from acid transportation and a few other factory operations. Some 10-15 million baht was allocated for waste management facilities so as to ensure that damages from cyanide in both residuals, liquid waste and tailings, were practically under control. In another case it was example, envisaged that the construction of a proposed salinity barrier in Songkla Lake will pose several potential adverse impacts, both socially and ecologically. A few task teams were set up to look into this problem [Lheknim and Leelawattanakul, Ratanachai and 1989; 1989]. The task teams identified several Suwannatachote, potential effects that are likely to occur as consequences of the project, eutrophication, including loss, species escessive and sedimentation, social conflicts inundation, between water users. Despite inadequate information, the heat of the issues developed so much that the project was suspended and no concrete decision was made as to what should be done for the time being. more
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
383
PREDICTION OF THE
IMPACTS
the This involves quantifying analyzing and stage identified impacts. The impacts may be the release of energy (e.g., flood, fire), undesirable materials (e.g., pesticides, heavy metals), or social force (e.g., migration, increased income); removal of species, aesthetics, or social stability; of alteration physical and ecological regimes or societal
settings. The receptors, targets which are impacted, can be people and other environmental resources/values. The receptors may not be equally affected by a given dose. Some fauna are more immune Even in the same to certain substance than others. toxic are more some members species, susceptible than others depending on genetic, health factors, and age. Those who are highly susceptible will suffer the consequence at low levels of intensity and those who are immune will require a higher dose to suffer the consequences. At times, receptors may receive secondary impacts, ones which are generated as consequences of other impacts, from the project activities. Furthermore, it is sometimes necessary to deal with several types of consequences for the same exposure. A flood can damage ecosystem, injure or kill people, and damage or destroy valued objects. A toxic substance can cause death, permanent health damage, or recoverable sickness. Methods are available to assess these impacts. Some may be and quantifiable manipulation, using data computation, mathematical modelling; while others are not amenable to precise mathematical treatment and thus can only be estimated, oftentimes Stack discharge of sulphur dioxide approximately. from coal fire plants, for example, can be estimated with reasonable Gains in local economy and losses in accuracy. as results of shrimp farm development are more mangrove difficult to assess and Several compare. disciplinesengineering, ecology, meteorology, hydrology, sociology, and more- are usually required at this point. In at this conclusion, stage, we should be able to identify: (1) what are significant impacts? (2) when and how will they occur? (3) what are chances of occurring? and (4) what are their characteristics, especially magnitudes? It should also be noted that these findings may need refinement as the project develops and more details become available. Knowing the magnitudes and likelihood of potential adverse impacts, risk management options at this stage should aim at of measures neutralization, design mitigation (e.g., compensation), provision of operation guidelines, and risk avoidance (e.g., warning system, contingency planning, evacuation program). It is also possible that the project be abodoned at this stage, if proved to be the best solution.
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
384
EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT ALTERNATIVES Evaluation
involves comparison of
different
alternatives
having different beneficial and adverse impacts. It involves an assembly of the positive and negative aspects of options to enable between them. In addition to those selecting evaluations which should in fact be made at each stage, evaluation at macro level is also necessary. For example, the judgement whether to proceed with the project or not. While an economic evaluation is usually made by the proponent, we should be concerned with risk ensuring that the environmental evaluation is included as part of options evaluation. In evaluating the importance of the potential impacts, it and associated is desirable to know both their magnitudes probabilities of occurrences. Such probabilities are usually the of their inverse functions magnitudes. Emotively, than the decisions on societal a effect has catastrophe greater steady erosion of quality of life or environment. While statistical theories of such events are well established, the derived decisions are based more on subjective opinion than on quantitative evaluation. Despite limitation of the absolute quantitative evaluation of environmental impacts, the evaluation process is useful in identifying and defining, in a relative manner, areas which need further investigation. The analysis of environmental based and its associated probabilities should be done impacts be on the best available information. These results will then used as a basis for cost/benefit evaluation, however crude, to or otherwise, of the on decide the societal acceptability, risk. of individual members the Although lay society may perceive risk in a subjective manner, it is important that their elected representatives must manage risk as objectively
knowledgeably as possible [UNEP, 1982]. Having evaluated different alternatives, risk options at this stage include careful selection of and
management
the final solution which minimize risk. The selected solution may involve compensation between more than one alternatives. Detailed design choices can be made in such a way that further risk reduction can be obtained. Abondoning the project, if found most appropriate, may still be justified at this stage. It decisions should be cautioned that the detailed design also result in significant impacts on risk not encountered before. It is assessment proceed necessary that the impact in an iterative manner. along with the project design, Continuous involvement between the two can eliminate or, at least, reduce undesirable consequences. can
MONITORING OF THE
IMPACTS
Appropriate monitoring of the impacts of the project activities and the effectiveness of the mitigation measures is the utmost important part of the EIA process. Monitoring is
Downloaded from tih.sagepub.com at University of Manitoba Libraries on June 9, 2015
385
usually a continuous process which has to be carried out from the design phase, through the construction stage, and continue further along with the project operations. a The monitoring way program should be designed in such that it provides sufficient information for use in decision making. The possible risk management options at this stage should aim at refinement or adjustment of mitigation measures and operation guidelines to best suit our prime objective: environmental protection towards sustainable
development. The analysis of the monitoring results may prompt the need for design modification, for example, an additional waste treatment unit for an industrial complex. Finally, though not desirable, it is possible that the best risk management option would be to suspend, or halt, the project activities, if proved to be the best choice. EIA PROCESS IN THAILAND In EIA is used as a the Thailand, prediction tool to facilitate (1) the minimization of the adverse effects, and (2) the provision of the positive enhancement of environmental It resources/values to compensate these adverse effects. It also provides information upon which decisions can be made. or is not the mitigation identifies whether measure(s) necessary. and environmental problems increasingly of development projects and activities on which Thailand decided to create an organization
Recognizing the effects
detrimental
environment,
aimed at effectively managing its environmental resources. The National Environmental Quality Act (NEQA), enacted in 1975, Board an establishment of the National Environment authorized (NEB). One of the several functions of the NEB is issuing of notification categories and magnitudes of the projects or activities where the EIA reports are to be submitted to the NEB (Table 1). These reports shall cover the studies and measures for prevention of, and/or remedy for, the adverse effects of those projects on environmental quality. By law, the reports must be approved before the projects may proceed. The EIA procedures for public sector’s (Government agencies and/or State enterprises) and private sectors’ projects differ slightly. The procedures are shown schematically in Figure 2 and 3. (1) preparation of the They are resemble in two steps: Terms of Reference (TOR) by the project proponent and obtain approval of the TOR by the NEB; and (2) preparation of the EIA report according to the approved TOR. The Government agencies and/or State enterprises (Figure 2) The NEB submit the EIA report directly to the NEB for review. is not If the 90 within report days. has to finish reviewing reand the revise to will have report the proponent approved, the to review NEB has the At this stage, submitted to the NEB. revised Upon approval, the comments report within 30 day. and/or the recommendations will be submitted to the Ad-hoc is which committee, organized by the National Economic and
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387
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388
Figure 3
EIA Prodecures of Action for the Private Sectors
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389
Social Development Board (NESDB), the major planning agency of The final Thai Government, for further consideration. the and the socio-economic with recommendations, report, along engineering feasibility studies, will be submitted to the cabinet for final decision before commencement of the project. For private sectors (Figure 3), the procedure will also follow described submission and two as above. The steps resubmission of the EIA report must be made to the NEB through the permitting agency. The time for reviewing the reports and the revised reports are also 90 and 30 days, respectively. The license will be issued if the report was approved. NEB guidelines [1979] recommend that the environmental resources/values be categorized into 4 levels: (1) physical resources, (2) ecological resources, (3) human use values, and (4) quality of life values. The guidelines, however, do not recommend any specific methodologies for impact identification, prediction, and evaluation. Any commonly accepted methods, such as and mathematical modelling, interation matrix, checklist, are acceptable, provided that sufficient reasoning is given. The guidelines emphasize on the formality and the format of reports and issues to be included in different types of
projects. not process
Though EIA
discussed:
explicitly stated, it is the NEB’s intent that should comprise the four stages previously and identification, evaluation, prediction,
The present institutional framework, however, does the NEB to exercise its full capacity in managing this integrated EIA process. The NEB, though fully responsible for making policies and guidelines for sound environmental in have no of real the country, authority management of laws and regulations concerned. enforcement For examples, for NEB does not have authority the issuing or reissuing permits, neither can it punish individuals who violate the environmental laws.
monitoring. not
allow
Therefore, while the foregoing discussion indicates that EIA should an the be viewed as and process integrated continuous process, only part of the process is accomplished. The problems arise at three points: firstly, EIA studies are usually conducted after project sites are selected; secondly, implementation of mitigation measures is not fully enforced; thirdly, monitoring programs are not always implemented. More often than not, the project sites are selected before commencement of the EIA studies. Although the practices negate the intent of the law, it would be difficult if NEB decides to order the based on proponents to reselect the sites environmental grounds. Upon approval of the EIA reports-which only imply the identification, prediction, and evaluation of the potential impacts of the projects -the control is handed over to other government agencies who have for authorities issuing or reissuing permits. The remaining tasks include implementation of mitigation measures and the monitoring of the impacts. For examples, mining activities are controlled by the
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390 the industrial Mineral Resources Department; operation, the The main of Industrial responsibilities Factory Department. not these agencies are to promote national income and environmental betterment. Only portion of mitigation measures, are enhance economic returns, those which obviously will the alone let programs. Only monitoring usually implemented, large-scale projects, such as reservoirs or much publicized industries, that monitoring is observed. CONCLUSIONS
&dquo;
.
risk on the of the discussion above has been focus in for decision use EIA information with providing management making. In well conducted EIA studies, risk management options should be carefully considered as far as practicable. NEB The present institutional framework does not allow the full to exercise its capacity to effectively manage the Despite this limitation, integrated EIA process in Thailand. EIA is still the best tool for environmental management in this country in comparison with other environmental laws - such as Landuse Act and. Forest Act-which must go through a long political process before implementation can take place. issue more It is necessary that the government take this to if is on its the way join the country seriously; especially, would be it countries. of industrialized Although newly group difficult to give full authority to the NEB, it should be authorized to play more important role in implementing the EIA and not only to review the EIA reports. process
The
References: J. E. (1985) A Framework for Environmental Risk Analysis and Management. Chulalogkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. ESCAP. (1985) Environmental Impact Assessment: Guidelines for and United Nations Economic Planners and Decision Makers. for and Asia the Pacific. Social Commission Bangkok, Thailand. Holling, C. S. (1978) Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. John Wiley & Sons. New York, U.S.A. & Leelawattanakul, P. (1989) "Ecological Impacts of Leknim, W. the Proposed Salinity Barrier in Songkla Lake: A Review Paper." presented at the Second Expert Group Workshop on Sound Basin River/Lake Approaches to Environmentally Management of Water Resources. Hatyai, Thailand. R.E. Munn, (1979) SCOPE 5: Environmental Impact Assessment. John Wiley & Sons. New York, U.S.A. for of NEB: NEB. (1979) Manual Guidelines Preparation of Environment Environmental National Impact Evaluation. Board. Bangkok, Thailand. Ratanachai, C., et al. (1987) "Environmental Impact Statement for Cholsin Ltd. Co., (Gold Mine)." Prince of Songkla University. Hatyai, Thailand. (in Thai)
Dooly,
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C. & Suwannatachote. R. (1989) "Social Impacts of Proposed Salinity Barrier in Songkla Lake:.A Review Paper." presented at the Second Expert Group Workshop on Basin Sound River/Lake Approaches to Environmentally
Ratanachai, the
Management of Water Resources. Hatyai, Thailand. UNEP. (1982) Risk Guidelines on Management and Accident Prevention in the Chemical Industry. Industry & Environment Office, United Nations Environment Programme. Bangkok, Thailand.
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