Journal of Adolescence 37 (2014) 461e472

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Emotional intelligence and psychological maladjustment in adolescence: A systematic review D.M. Resurrección*, J.M. Salguero, D. Ruiz-Aranda Universidad de Málaga, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online 14 April 2014

The study of emotional intelligence (EI) and its association with psychological maladjustment in adolescence is a new and active area of research. However, the diverse range of EI measurements and aspects of psychological maladjustment examined make it difficult to synthesize the findings and apply them to practice. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review to summarize the relationship between EI and adolescents’ emotional problems, eating disorder symptoms, addictions, and maladaptive coping. Using English and Spanish keywords, we identified 32 studies that found a negative association between EI and internalizing problems, depression, and anxiety. EI was also associated with less substance abuse and with better coping strategies. These associations differed slightly depending on whether EI was evaluated based on self-reporting or by testing maximum performance. We highlight methodological limitations in the literature on EI and adolescence, and we discuss potentially important areas for future research. Ó 2014 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Emotional intelligence Adolescence Psychological maladjustment Systematic review

Adolescence is a developmental period of psychological adjustment, which is important for functioning not only in the present but also in adulthood. Adolescence is a time of risk for the onset of anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and drug use (Kessler et al., 2007). Psychology has identified and described numerous risks and protective factors in adolescence (Evans et al., 2005), such as family processes, peer relationships, social environment, and personal characteristics (Hann & Borek, 2001). Several personal characteristics are important for adolescent psychosocial adjustment; these include self-esteem (Mruk, 2006), social competence (Clausen, 1991), and regulation strategies (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010; McLaughlin, Hatzenbuehler, Mennin, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011). More recently, emotional intelligence (EI) has been added to this list, because it has been hypothesized with better psychological functioning (Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008). Research on EI in adolescence is still young, and it remains unclear how this recent work integrates with what psychologists already understand about adolescents and psychological maladjustment. Therefore, in this paper, we systematically reviewed empirical research on the link between EI and psychological maladjustment in adolescence. Emotional intelligence (EI) More than 20 years ago, EI was defined as a set of skills for processing emotional information and using this information to guide one’s thinking and actions (Salovey & Mayer,1990). Since then, various theoretical approaches have attempted to explain EI * Corresponding author. Facultad de Psicología, Dpto. Psicología Básica, Universidad de Málaga, Campus Universitario de Teatinos, s/n, 29071 Málaga, Andalucía, Spain. Tel.: þ34 952132597. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (D.M. Resurrección). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.012 0140-1971/Ó 2014 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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and have provided divergent operationalizations (for a review, see Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). These approaches are driven by two models. Ability models define EI as a set of abilities related to processing emotional information (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Trait models, in contrast, conceptualize EI as a lower-order personality construct that encompasses self-perceptions and emotion-related dispositions (Petrides, Pita, & Kokkinaki, 2007). Within this context, different instruments have been developed to measure EI from the perspective of these two models; widely used examples include self-report questionnaires and tests of maximum performance (for a review of instruments, see Extremera, Fernández-Berrocal, Mestre, & Guil, 2004). For example, self-report instruments, such as the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue; Petrides & Furnham, 2003), ask people to evaluate their own EI skills based on their typical performance. There are no right or wrong answers. These instruments allow individuals to determine their “trait emotional intelligence” (TEI), which is an index of emotional self-efficacy. In contrast, tests of maximum performance, such as the MayereSaloveyeCaruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002), require the individual to solve emotional tasks. These instruments assess either actual functioning or the emotional knowledge required to solve emotional situations, known as “ability emotional intelligence” (AEI). These instruments assess maximum performance because a criterion of correctness exists. Performance on these tests is scored according to either expert norms (correct answers are determined by a sample of emotion experts) or consensus norms (correct answers are based on the responses of a normative sample). TEI measures, such as the TEIQue, assess constructs like stress management and empathy. AEI measures, such as the MSCEIT, evaluate constructs like emotional perception and emotional management. EI and psychological maladjustment EI theory postulates that people who are able to perceive and express emotions, to give meaning to their emotional experiences, and to regulate their emotions will show lower psychopathologies that have roots in emotional disturbances (Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011; Mayer et al., 2008). Two meta-analyses investigating the relationship between EI and health showed positive associations between EI and mental, psychological, and psychosomatic health (Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010; Schutte, Malouff, Thorsteinsson, Bhullar, & Rooke, 2007). These associations were stronger in studies based on selfreport instruments than in studies based on tests of maximum performance. Although most of the subjects in these studies were adults, a small number were adolescents, and similar results were obtained for both age groups. Kun and Demetrovics (2010) performed a systematic review of studies examining EI and addictions. Based on the 36 studies included, the authors concluded that lower EI was associated with higher rate of smoking and alcohol and drug use. These previous reviews and meta-analyses strongly suggest that EI is associated with lower psychological maladjustment and better well-being in adults. Whether the same is true in adolescents remains much less well-studied. Therefore, some of the previous studies did not consider possible age-related differences, and few have explored links between EI and adolescent-specific psychological maladjustment issues, such as eating disorders (Martins et al., 2010). This lack of understanding poses a significant challenge to research and clinical progress. The present review aimed to comprehensively assess the current understanding in this area by taking into account several instruments for measuring EI in adolescents that have been published since the above mentioned systematic reviews appeared, in particular tests of maximum performance, such as the MSCEIT-Youth Version (MSCEIT-YV; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, in press). In addition, the present review aimed to include more studies than previous reviews, which were limited to English-language studies (Kun & Demetrovics, 2010). Our review The study of EI in adolescence has become more important as researchers realize that it can be treated as a developmental process that can be taught and improved (Brackett et al., 2011). In order to understand current thinking and suggest future research directions on the relationship between EI and psychological maladjustment in adolescent populations, we undertook a systematic review of the literature. In addition, we explored associations between EI, as assessed both by self-report and tests of maximum performance. We focused on maladjustment variables related to internalizing problems (e.g., emotional problems, eating disorders, or addictions), and coping strategies involved in the development of such kinds of problems, because those variables are health issues among adolescent populations (Evans et al., 2005). Moreover, these selected variables relied on outcomes from previous reviews and meta-analyses (Kun & Demetrovics, 2010; Martins et al., 2010; Schutte et al., 2007) and extend it including adolescent issues, such as substance abuse or eating disorders. Thus, the study of externalized problems (e.g., aggression or behavioral problems) or academic issues (e.g., academic performance or school attitudes) have been excluded from our review. Method Literature search Medline, PsycINFO and Scopus databases were searched exhaustively, without time limitations, for studies examining the link between EI and psychological maladjustment in adolescent populations. Searches were conducted using the following keywords in English and Spanish: emotional intelligence and adolescence combined with health, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, tobacco smoking, eating disorders, anxiety, depression, major depression, coping behavior, mental disorders, stress, adjustment, and psychological adaptation. Searches were undertaken between September 3 and 6, 2013. Computer searches were supplemented by manual searches of reference lists, allowing us to complement our database of studies.

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Inclusion criteria Studies were included if they met the following criteria: (1) they were based on a theoretical model of EI, such that studies based on other theoretical perspectives (e.g., strategies of emotion regulation) were excluded; (2) they were empirical, such that theoretical papers, reviews, and meta-analyses were excluded; (3) they measured EI and any of the criteria variables, such that studies examining entirely other adjustment indexes, such as social adjustment and academic performance, were excluded; and (4) they used adolescent participants, so studies focusing on undergraduate populations, adults, or both were excluded. Data extraction The initial database search identified 275 potentially eligible studies: 68 from Scopus, 104 from Medline, and 103 from PsycINFO (Fig. 1). Duplicate studies were deleted, and 172 potential studies were assessed against the inclusion criteria based on titles and abstracts. Two independent reviewers (PhD students) analyzed the titles and abstracts, and a third reviewer (PhD in psychology) participated in cases of disagreement. This review led to the exclusion of 132 studies, most of which were not based on a theory of EI, leaving 32 studies. The full text of these studies was read, and 13 were deleted because they did

Fig. 1. Flowchart of studies included in the review.

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not use adolescent samples or they did not evaluate the criteria variables. Twenty-seven studies met all inclusion criteria, and these were supplemented from five studies identified through manual searches of references of meta-analyses, reviews, and other papers (Cha & Nock, 2009; Fernández-Berrocal, Extremera, & Ramos, 2003; Parker, Taylor, Eastabrook, Schell, & Wood, 2008; Repetto, Pena, & Lozano, 2006; Rivers et al., 2012). At the end of the process, the literature search produced a total of 32 reports. This sample has expanded studies included in previous work. We have added a total of 20 new articles on adolescents not included by Martins et al. (2010); eight of these measured EI using test of maximum performance. Our study has added 26 new articles with adolescents not included in the review by Kun and Demetrovics (2010), with five of them measuring EI based on a test of maximum performance. Results Our search identified 20 studies that assessed EI with self-report instruments (Table 1), and eight that measured it through tests of maximum performance (Table 2). The remaining four studies assessed EI using both a test of maximum performance and self-report (Table 3) (Davis & Humphrey, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c; Hayes & O’Reilly, 2013). Two of the studies were carried out with clinical populations (Díaz-Castela et al., 2013; Hayes & O’Reilly, 2013). The samples were between 11 and 19 years of age. Nearly all studies (28) were cross-sectional, while four were longitudinal: one with a seven-month follow-up (Frederickson, Petrides, & Simmonds, 2012), one with a nine-month follow-up (Stange, Alloy, Flynn, & Abramson, 2013), and two with a 12month follow-up (Palomera, Salguero, & Ruiz-Aranda, 2012; Salguero, Palomera, & Fernández-Berrocal, 2012). Reviewed studies employing different instruments were grouped into three categories: TEI and psychological maladjustment; AEI and psychological maladjustment; and TEI, AEI, and psychological maladjustment. Each section summarized the main results obtained with each measure. TEI and psychological maladjustment Several papers in our review evaluated TEI with the Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Tuvery, & Palfai, 1995). This measure is composed of three subscales: emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair. Extremera, Durán, and Rey (2007) found a link between TEI, evaluated with the TMMS, and perceived stress. The results showed that higher levels of both repair and clarity scales were associated with lower perceived stress. Both scales explained unique variances of perceived stress over the optimism/pessimism variable. Another study showed that emotional repair and emotional clarity were positively associated with problem-solving strategies and distraction responses. Conversely, these scales were negatively associated with rumination and cognitive suppression (Martín, García, & Mérida, 2008). With respect to depression, different studies have analyzed associations between depression and the overall and per-dimension scores on the TMMS. The TMMS total score was negatively related to depressive symptoms (Martinez-Pons, 1998), and dimensional analysis of the TMMS revealed differences in associations with depression. Emotional clarity and emotional repair were inversely associated with depressive symptomatology, and these associations remained significant even after controlling for self-esteem and cognitive suppression (Fernández-Berrocal, Alcaide, Extremera, & Pizarro, 2006; Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2003; Martín et al., 2008; Reppeto et al., 2006). Conversely, high emotional attention was associated with higher levels of depression (Martín et al., 2008; Reppeto et al., 2006). The relationship between TEI and anxiety had similar results to those for EI and depression. Emotional clarity and emotional repair on the TMMS were found to be inversely related to anxiety, with emotional repair ability being a better predictor of anxiety symptoms (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2006; Martin et al., 2008). Emotional attention showed a positive relationship to anxiety (Salguero et al., 2012). Díaz-Castela et al. (2013) found that adolescents with a high risk for developing social anxiety disorders had lower scores on the emotional repair scale of the TMMS. These authors found no differences in emotional clarity and emotional attention. Research on adolescence has also focused on substance abuse. One study analyzed the relationship between TEI, evaluated with the TMMS, and both alcohol and tobacco abuse (Ruiz-Aranda, Fernández-Berrocal, Cabello, & Extremera, 2006). They found that adolescents with greater emotional attention reported higher consumption of these substances. Conversely, adolescents higher in emotional repair reported less consumption of both alcohol and tobacco (Ruiz-Aranda et al., 2006). With respect to the validity of the TMMS in predicting psychological maladjustment, one study showed that TMMS dimensional scores could predict psychological maladjustment after a one-year follow-up (Salguero et al., 2012). Emotional attention predicted psychological distress, with high levels of attention to feelings associated with worse depressive and anxious symptomatology, whereas emotional repair predicted less depression and better mental health. Evaluating TEI with the TEIQue-Adolescent Short Form (TEIQue-ASF; Petrides, Sangareau, Furnham, & Frederickson, 2006), different studies found that TEI was associated with reduced use of maladaptive strategies and increased use of adaptive strategies (Mavroveli, Petrides, Rieffe, & Bakker, 2007; Mikolajczak, Petrides, & Hurry, 2009). Mavroveli et al. (2007), applying the TEIQue-ASF to 285 adolescents, found that TEI moderated the effects of depression on somatic complaints. In particular, among girls with high levels of depression, those with high TEI reported fewer somatic complaints. With respect to self-injury behaviors, Mikolajczak et al. (2009) found that those who self-harmed had lower TEI than those who did not, as assessed using the TEIQue-ASF. Additionally, they found emotional coping strategies partially mediated the relationship between TEI and self-injury behaviors. Frederickson et al. (2012) evaluated 1140 adolescents using the TEIQue-ASF and again seven months later. They found that TEI predicted self-reported psychopathology. This association was observed both crosssectionally and longitudinally.

Table 1 Studies included of the relationship between TEI and psychological maladjustment. Study

Assessment time

Assessment of EI

Adjustment index

Sample

Statistical analyses

Summary of results

Statistic

Chan (2005)

Cross-sectional

EIS-12

Coping strategies Health

Structural equation modeling

Cross-sectional

TMMS

Social anxiety

Best fitted model was one which coping strategies mediated the relationship between TEI and psychological distress Clinical sample had lower score on emotional repair than the community sample.

c2 ¼ 110.54**, GFI ¼ 0.97 y RMSEA ¼ .04

Díaz-Castela et al. (2013)

Downey et al. (2010)

Cross-sectional

Adolescent SUEIT

Coping strategies Behavioral problems

n ¼ 624 (317 girls) M ¼ 12.98; SD ¼ 2.3 years n ¼ 425 (225 girls) divided into clinical sample (n ¼ 127) and control group (n ¼ 298) M ¼ 15.4; SD ¼ 1.32 years n ¼ 145 (85 girls) M ¼ 12.02 years

z ¼ 3.46**

Extremera et al. (2007)

Cross-sectional

TMMS

Perceived stress

Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2006)

Cross-sectional

TMMS

Anxiety Depression

Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2003)

Cross-sectional

TMMS

Depression

Non-productive coping mediated the relationship between emotional management and internalizing problems. Emotional clarity and emotional repair explained unique variance of perceived stress over optimism/pessimism Emotional repair was associated with depression even when self-esteem and cognitive suppression were controlled. Emotional repair and emotional clarity were associated with anxiety over selfesteem and cognitive suppression. Emotional repair was negatively related to depression.

Frederickson et al. (2012)

Longitudinal (7 months)

TEIQue-ASF

Adjustment Psychopathology

Hassan and Shabani (2013)

Cross-sectional

EQi:YV

Kumar et al. (2013)

Cross-sectional

Martín et al. (2008)

Latent factor means comparisons

Mediation analyses

n ¼ 250 (130 girls) M ¼ 14.7; SD ¼ 0.63 years n ¼ 1140 (53% boys) 11e13 aged.

Regression analyses

Mental health

n ¼ 247 (50.2% boys) 15e17 aged.

Structural equation modeling

EIS

Emotional adjustment

ANOVA

Cross-sectional

TMMS

Depression Anxiety

n ¼ 450 boys divided into High EI (n ¼ 219) and Low EI group (n ¼ 231) M ¼ 15.2 years n ¼ 50 (29 girls) 15e16 aged.

Pearson correlations

Martínez-Pons (1998) Mavroveli et al. (2007)

Cross-sectional

TMMS

Depression

Cross-sectional

TEIQue-ASF

Pearson correlations Moderated multiple regression analyses

Mikolajczak et al. (2009)

Cross-sectional

TEIQue- ASF

Coping strategies Depression Somatic complaints Coping strategies Depression Self-injury

n ¼ 109 (50% boys) 11e15 aged. n ¼ 282 (146 boys) M ¼ 13.87; SD ¼ 0.75 years n ¼ 490 (57.3% girls) M ¼ 16.65; SD ¼ 0.75 years

Multiple mediation analyses

Hierarchical regression analyses

Multiple regression analyses

TEI was related to psychopathology at time 2, after controlled psychopathology at time 1. TEI was a full mediator of the relation between spiritual intelligence and mental health. Those boys with lower EI had better emotional adjustment than those boys with lower EI. This difference is not statistically significant. Emotional attention was positive related to both rumination and depression. Anxiety was inversely associated to both emotional repair and emotional clarity. Higher TEI was inversely related to depressive symptomatology. For girls, TEI moderated the effects of depression over somatic complaints.

Emotional coping partially mediated the relationship between TEI and selfharm.

R2 ¼ .21, DR2 ¼ .6, F ¼ 22.51 b ¼ .19** (clarity); b ¼ .12* (repair) R2 ¼ .29, DR2 ¼ .11**, F ¼ 8.81**, b ¼ .37** R2 ¼ .54, DR2 ¼ .22**, F ¼ 26.78**, b ¼ .18** (clarity); b ¼ .42** (repair) r ¼ .37**

R2adj ¼ :46, F ¼ 220.41, b ¼ .16**

c2ð61Þ ¼ 142:5, GFI ¼ .91, RMSEA < .07 F ¼ 1.03* High EI group: M ¼ 2.37, SD ¼ 2.16 Low EI group: M ¼ 2.58, SD ¼ 2.22 r ¼ .42** (rumination), r ¼ .30* (depression) r ¼ .55** (emotional repair), r ¼ .42** (emotional clarity)

r ¼ .39* 2

R adj ¼ :40, F(3, 118) ¼ 28.30; TEI  Depression b ¼ .22**

R2 adj ¼ :14  465

Hierarchical regression analyses

D.M. Resurrección et al. / Journal of Adolescence 37 (2014) 461e472

n ¼ 498 (296 girls) M ¼ 15.7; SD ¼ 1.6 years n ¼ 250 (130 girls) M ¼ 14.7; SD ¼ 0.63 years

delta M ¼ .29*, S.E. ¼ .09

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued ) Assessment time

Assessment of EI

Adjustment index

Sample

Statistical analyses

Summary of results

Statistic

Parker et al. (2008)

Cross-sectional

EQi:YV

Internet addiction Gaming

n ¼ 667 (418 girls) M ¼ 16.20; SD ¼ 1.45 years

Structural equation modeling

TEI was negatively related to dysfunctional preoccupation. Relationships were different for younger and older adolescents.

Repetto et al. (2006)

Cross-sectional

TMMS EII

Depression

n ¼ 392 (56% boys) 14e19 aged.

Higher levels of TEI were associated with lower depression.

Ruiz-Aranda et al. (2006)

Cross-sectional

TMMS

Substance use

n ¼ 1135 (645 girls) M ¼ 14.68 years

Lineal regression analyses Correlation analyses Correlation analyses

Salguero et al. (2012)

Longitudinal (12 months)

TMMS

Psychological adjustment Mental health

n ¼ 358 (50% boys) M ¼ 14.36; SD ¼ 1.28 years

Hierarchical regression analyses

Younger adolescents: r ¼ .76, GFI ¼ .94, AGFI ¼ .87, RMSR ¼ .06 Older adolescents: r ¼ .56, GFI ¼ .96, AGFI ¼ .92, RMSR ¼ .05 R2 ¼ .21, F ¼ 25.9** r ¼ .14** (emotional attention), r ¼ .22** (emotional clarity), r ¼ .-31** (emotional repair) r ¼ .12** (tobacco consumption), r ¼ .10** (alcohol consumption). r ¼ .14** (tobacco consumption), r ¼ .12** (alcohol consumption). R2 ¼ .19, F ¼ 13.89, b ¼ .19** (emotional attention) R2 ¼ .19, F ¼ 13.89, b ¼ .19** (emotional repair)

Shrivastava and Mukhopadhyay (2009)

Cross-sectional

MEII

Internalizing problems

t- tests

Stange et al. (2013)

Longitudinal (9 months)

ECQ

Depression

n ¼ 510 adolescents divided into affected sample (n ¼ 15) and normative sample (n ¼ 10) 14e18 aged. n ¼ 256 (54% girls) M ¼ 12.32; SD ¼ .61years

Zavala and López (2012)

Cross-sectional

EQi:YV

Clinical disorders

n ¼ 829 (52,5% girls) M ¼ 13.6; SD ¼ .64 years

Hierarchical regression analyses

Multiple regression analyses

Emotional attention was positively related to tobacco and alcohol consumption. Emotional repair was inversely associated with tobacco and alcohol consumption. At the longitudinal level, higher emotional attention was associated with lower mental health. Furthermore, emotional repair was related to better mental health. Those adolescents with internalizing problems had lower EI.

Those adolescents with lower emotional clarity and more negative inferential styles were most vulnerable to experience depressive symptoms after had experienced life stress. Depressive tendency was associated with intrapersonal subscale, stress management and adaptability subscale. Eating disorders were associated with stress management. Substance abuse was associated with stress management and interpersonal subscale. Anxiety symptoms were associated with interpersonal subscale. Suicide tendency was associated with stress management, intrapersonal subscale and adaptability

t ¼ 12.76** Affected sample: M ¼ 11.66, SD ¼ 17.21 Normative sample: M ¼ 89.76, SD ¼ 12.13 R2 ¼ .47, DR2 ¼ .02**, Emotional clarity  inferential styles  life stress b ¼ .15, t ¼ 2.89** R2 ¼ .17, b ¼ .23** (intrapersonal subscale), b ¼ .12** (stress management), b ¼ .10** (adaptability subscale) R2 ¼ .13, b ¼ .22** R2 ¼ .16, b ¼ .12* (interpersonal subscale), b ¼ .29** (stress management) R2 ¼ .11, b ¼ .07* R2 ¼ .15, b ¼ .29** (stress management), b ¼ .09** (intrapersonal subscale), b ¼ .08* (adaptability)

Note. EIS-12 ¼ Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998); Adolescent SUEIT ¼ Adolescent Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence (Luebbers et al., 2007); TMMS ¼ Trait Meta Mood Scale (Salovey et al., 1995); TEIQue-ASF ¼ Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire e Adolescent Short Form (Petrides et al., 2006); EQ:i YV ¼ Emotional Quotient Inventory e Youth Version (Bar-On & Parker, 2000); EII ¼ Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Tapia, 2001); MEII ¼ Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Mangal & Mangal, 2004); ECQ ¼ Emotional Clarity Questionnaire (Flynn & Rudolph, 2010). * ¼ p < .05; ** ¼ p < .01.

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Study

Table 2 Studies included of the relationship between AEI and psychological maladjustment. Assessment time

Assessment of EI

Adjustment index

Sample

Statistical analyses

Summary of results

Statistic

Cha and Nock (2009)

Cross-sectional

MSCEIT-YV

Self-harm Suicide attempts

n ¼ 54 (46 girls) M ¼ 17.3; SD ¼ 1.92 years

Moderated multiple regression analyses

R2 ¼ .25, DR2 ¼ .13, DF ¼ 8.67**, Child sexual abuse  Strategic EI b ¼ .38**

Palomera et al. (2012)

Longitudinal (12 months)

Emotional perception

Psychological adjustment

n ¼ 536 (53,6% girls) M ¼ 13.4; SD ¼ 2.02 years

Hierarchical regression analyses

Strategic EI moderated the relationship between have suffered child sexual abuse and suicide attempts after childhood sexual abuse variable was controlled. At the longitudinal level, higher emotional perception was related to less clinical maladjustment and lower emotional problems.

Rivers et al. (2012)

Cross-sectional

MSCEIT- YV

Psychological adjustment

n ¼ 273 (55% girls) M ¼ 11; SD ¼ 1 years

Pearson correlations

Salguero et al. (2011)

Cross-sectional

Emotional perception

Psychological adjustment

n ¼ 255 (50,6% girls) M ¼ 13.43; SD ¼ 0.67 years

Multiple regression analyses

Trinidad and Johnson (2002)

Cross-sectional

AMEIS

n ¼ 205 (106 boys) M ¼ 12.64; SD ¼ 0.98 years

Pearson correlations

Trinidad, Unger, Chou, Azen, et al. (2004) Trinidad, Unger, Chou, and Johnson (2004) Trinidad et al. (2005)

Cross-sectional

AMEIS

n ¼ 416 (53% girls) M ¼ 11.3 years

Hierarchical regression analyses

Cross-sectional

AMEIS

Alcohol consumption Tobacco consumption Tobacco consumption Risk factors for smoking Tobacco consumption

n ¼ 416 (53% boys) 10e13 aged.

Multiple regression analyses

Cross-sectional

AMEIS

Risk factors for smoking

n ¼ 416 (53% boys) M ¼ 11.3 years

Multiple regression analyses

At boys’ sample, EI was negatively associated with clinical maladjustment and emotional symptoms. At girls’ simple, lower EI was associated with internalizing problems. Emotional perception was related to less sense of inadequacy. Higher EI was associated with lower alcohol and tobacco consumption. High EI was associated with lower likelihood of intending to smoke in the next year. Higher EI was related to worse perception of the consequences of smoking. Higher EI was associated with better perception of risk factors for smoking.

R2 ¼ .34, DR2 ¼ .03 F ¼ 71.06, b ¼ .17** (clinical maladjustment) R2 ¼ .38, DR2 ¼ .04 F ¼ 83.09, b ¼ .17** (emotional problems) r ¼ .21* (clinical maladjustment), r ¼ .24* (emotional symptoms) r ¼ .26*

R2 ¼ .19, DR2 ¼ .04, F ¼ 11.20, b ¼ .-20* r ¼ .16* (alcohol consumption), r ¼ .19*(tobacco consumption)

b ¼ .38*

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Study

b ¼ .20** b ¼ .17**

Note. MSCEIT-YV ¼ MayereSaloveyeCaruso Emotional Intelligence Test-Youth Version (Mayer et al., in press); Emotional Perception (Salguero et al., 2011), AMEIS ¼ Adolescent Multifactorial Emotional Intelligence Scale (Mayer et al., 1997). * ¼ p < .05; ** ¼ p < .01.

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Table 3 Studies included of the relationship between TEI, AEI and psychological maladjustment. Assessment time

Assessment of EI

Adjustment index

Sample

Summary of results

Statistical analyses

Statistic

Davis and Humphrey (2012a)

Cross-sectional

TEIQue-ASF MSCEIT-YVR

n ¼ 412 (214 girls) M ¼ 13.09; SD ¼ 1.07 years

AEI was a moderator of the relationship between socioeconomic adversity and depression.

Hierarchical regression analyses

R2 ¼ .07, DR2 ¼ .01, DF ¼ 4.41*, AEI  Socioeconomic adversity b ¼ 2.10

Davis and Humphrey (2012b)

Cross-sectional

TEIQue-ASF MSCEIT-YVR

Depression Familiar dysfunction Socioeconomic adversity Depression

n ¼ 510 (270 girls) M ¼ 13.02; SD ¼ 1.08 years

Hierarchical regression analyses

R2 ¼ .23, DR2 ¼ .01, DF ¼ 4.93*, b ¼ .14 (AEI) R2 ¼ .29, DR2 ¼ .08, DF ¼ 34.17**, b ¼ .37 (TEI)

Davis and Humphrey (2012c)

Cross-sectional

TEIQue-ASF MSCEIT-YVR

Both, AEI and TEI, made an incremental contribution to explain depression beyond personality and cognitive ability. Active coping mediated the relationship between AEI and depression.

Multimediator model

Direct effect ¼ .07 [.12, .02]

Hayes and O’Reilly (2013)

Cross-sectional

EQi:YV MSCEIT-YVR

Community group had higher AEI and TEI than the detainee and psychiatric group.

ANOVA

F ¼ 5.56** (TEI) F ¼ 25.08** (AEI)

Coping strategies Depression Disruptive behavior Psychiatric disorders

n ¼ 772 (403 boys) M ¼ 13.53; SD ¼ 1.22 years

n ¼ 80 boys divided into detainee group (n ¼ 30; M ¼ 14.9, SD ¼ .99 years), psychiatric group (n ¼ 20; M ¼ 14.62, SD ¼ 1.99 years), and community group (n ¼ 30; M ¼ 15.33, SD ¼ 1.02 years)

Note. TEIQue-ASF ¼ Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire e Adolescent Short Form (Petrides et al., 2006); MSCEIT-YVR ¼ MayereSaloveyeCaruso Emotional Intelligence Test e Youth Version Research (Mayer et al., in press); EQi:YV ¼ Emotional Quotient Inventory e Youth Version (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). * ¼ p < .05; ** ¼ p < .01.

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Study

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Applying the Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQi:YV; Bar-On & Parker, 2000), Zavala and López (2012) evaluated 829 adolescents and found that TEI was negatively associated with eating disorders. Gender and stress management were predictive factors for this relationship. With respect to depression, the stress management scale of the EQi:YV was a significant predictor of lower depression (Zavala & López, 2012). Zavala and López (2012) found that the intrapersonal subscale from the EQi:YV was positively associated with anxiety, while the total score was unrelated to it. As a result, girls with good intrapersonal skills showed a greater predisposition to anxiety. These authors suggested that girls are more worried than boys about being socially accepted, leading them to cultivate interpersonal resources. These authors also found that lower TEI predicted suicide attempts in girls (Zavala & López, 2012). TEI, assessed with the EQi:YV, was negatively associated with mental health problems (Hassan & Shabani, 2013). These authors also found that TEI was a full mediator in the relationship between spiritual intelligence and mental health problems (Hassan & Shabani, 2013). As mentioned above, research on adolescent addictive behaviors has also focused on addictive behaviors. Parker et al. (2008) found that low TEI, as assessed using the EQi:YV, predicted dysfunctional preoccupation, which comprised gaming abuse and internet addiction. This relationship was more significant for young adolescents than for older ones. Respecting substance abuse, a lower TEI has also been associated with both higher alcohol and substance abuse. Deficits on both the stress management and interpersonal scales of the EQi:YV have been related to addictive behaviors (Zavala & López, 2012). With respect to the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS; Schutte et al., 1998), Chan (2005) analyzed the relationship between psychological distress, coping behaviors, and TEI. The author compared different structural equation models to find which one best fit the data and found that the better one was a model in which coping strategies mediated the relationship between TEI and psychological distress. Adolescents with high scores on both the self-management of emotions scale and the utilization of emotions scale were less likely to engage in avoidant coping strategies that contribute to psychological distress. Adolescents higher on both the empathy scale and the social skills scale were more likely to engage in social-interaction coping, which helps to reduce psychological distress (Chan, 2005). Another study showed that those adolescents with higher levels on the EIS had better emotional adjustment than those lower on the EIS (Kumar, Mehta, & Maheshwari, 2013). Two studies assessing EI with different instruments found TEI to be inversely related to internalizing problems. Assessing EI with the Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory (MEII; Mangal & Mangal, 2004), Shrivastava and Mukhopadhyay (2009) found that participants with internalizing problems showed lower TEI than did a sample of normal adolescents. Using the Adolescent Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (Adolescent SUEIT; Luebbers, Downey, & Stough, 2007), Downey, Johnston, Hansen, Birney, and Stough (2010) found both the emotional recognition and expression scale and the emotional management and control scale to be inversely associated with internalizing problems. This relationship was mediated by non-productive coping. Stange et al. (2013) evaluated depressive symptoms, negative inferential styles, and emotional clarity, using the Emotional Clarity Questionnaire (ECQ; Flynn & Rudolph, 2010). At time 2 (nine months later), they evaluated life events and depressive symptoms. These authors found those adolescents with negative inferential styles and lower emotional clarity, were most vulnerable to experience depressive symptoms, after depressive symptoms at time 1 were controlled.

AEI and psychological maladjustment The relationship between AEI and psychological maladjustment appears to be similar to that between TEI and maladjustment. Our review found several papers that measured EI through three different tests of maximum performance: The Adolescent Multifactorial Emotional Intelligence Scale (AMEIS; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 1997), MSCEIT:YV (Mayer et al., in press), and Emotional Perception (Salguero, Fernández-Berrocal, Ruiz-Aranda, Castillo, & Palomera, 2011). Employing the MSCEIT-YV, Rivers et al. (2012) examined relationships between AEI and psychological maladjustment, and explored whether these relationships depended on whether the ratings were from the teacher or the student. Both teacher and student reports of internalizing problems were inversely associated with EI even after controlling for verbal ability. This association was stronger for girls than for boys. They also found that self-reported clinical maladjustment and emotional symptoms were negatively related to AEI; this association remained significant even after controlling for verbal ability. In this case, these associations were stronger for boys. This study showed that adolescents with high EI rated themselves, and were rated by their teachers, as less anxious and depressed. Cha and Nock (2009) investigated the role of AEI in suicide attempts and ideation among those adolescents at risk. AEI, as measured using the MSCEIT-YV, moderated suicide attempts in adolescents who had been victims of childhood sexual abuse. In particular, strategic EI significantly moderated this relationship. Several studies employed the AMEIS to analyze the relationships between AEI and alcohol and tobacco use (Trinidad & Johnson, 2002; Trinidad, Unger, Chou, Azen, & Johnson, 2004; Trinidad, Unger, Chou, & Johnson, 2004, 2005). These studies suggested that AEI is negatively related to the consumption of alcohol and tobacco. Adolescents with lower AEI reported lower ability to refuse a cigarette, while those with higher AEI showed greater awareness of the negative consequences of smoking and lower likelihood of intending to smoke (Trinidad, Unger, Chou, Azen, et al., 2004; Trinidad, Unger, Chou, & Johnson, 2004; Trinidad et al., 2005). With respect to emotional perception, an ability of EI, Salguero et al. (2011) found that this ability, assessed using a test of maximum performance, was associated with a lower sense of inadequacy, after extraversion and neuroticism were controlled. In a related longitudinal study, higher emotional perception predicted less clinical maladjustment and fewer emotional problems (Palomera et al., 2012). These relations were more significant for boys.

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TEI, AEI, and psychological maladjustment Different authors have investigated the relationship between TEI and AEI and psychological maladjustment in order to explore the different roles of both types of measures. Hayes and O’Reilly (2013) analyzed possible differences in TEI and AEI between three groups of adolescents (e.g., detainees, psychiatric, and community groups). These authors found that the community group had higher levels of TEI, assessed with the EQi:YV, and AEI, assessed with the MSCEIT-YV, than the detainee and psychiatric groups. In particular, no differences were found in the perception scale on the MSCEIT-YV (Hayes & O’Reilly, 2013). Davis and Humphrey (2012a, 2012b, 2012c) concluded that TEI, as assessed using the TEIQue-ASF, is strongly connected with internalizing symptomatology. These studies found that the relationship between EI and depressive symptomatology was stronger using the TEIQue-ASF than the MSCEIT-YV. Nevertheless, both TEI and AEI were found to make an incremental contribution to the prediction of depression (Davis & Humphrey, 2012b). AEI, as assessed using the MSCEIT-YV, moderated the effect of socioeconomic adversity on depressive symptoms (Davis & Humphrey, 2012a). Davis and Humphrey (2012c) also related TEI to coping strategies. Adolescents with higher TEI were less likely to employ avoidant coping and more likely to engage in active coping and support seeking. Conversely, adolescents with higher AEI were more likely to engage in active coping strategies and less likely to engage in support seeking. AEI modified the effect of active coping on depression levels, while TEI modified the effects of both active and avoidant coping on depression. Active coping decreased depressive symptomatology in adolescents with lower TEI. Adolescents higher in TEI employed avoidant coping and showed fewer depressive symptoms (Davis & Humphrey, 2012c). These authors suggested that AEI was important for selecting a particular coping strategy, whereas TEI was relevant for executing that strategy. Discussion The present review has focused on the relationship between EI and different variables related to psychological maladjustment in adolescence in order to clarify the state of the field and suggest future directions, especially since numerous studies have been performed and several EI assessment tools developed since the last systematic reviews and meta-analyses were published in this area. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review specifically examining the role of EI in adolescence. Taken together, the studies included in this review suggest that higher EI is associated with lower psychological maladjustment, consistent with analogous studies on adults (Kun & Demetrovics, 2010; Martins et al., 2010; Schutte et al., 2007). Adolescents with higher EI, as assessed by either self-report or test of maximum performance, showed better emotional adjustment, lower perceived stress, fewer internalizing problems, and lower depression or anxiety. Adolescents with higher EI also showed fewer risk behaviors (e.g., substance abuse or suicide attempts), better coping strategies (e.g., social coping), and fewer maladaptive strategies (e.g., rumination). Taken together, these results suggest that EI has incremental validity for predicting psychological adjustment, beyond other predictors such as optimism/pessimism, verbal skills, self-esteem, personality dimensions, and intelligence (Davis & Humphrey, 2012b; Extremera et al., 2007; Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2006; Frederickson et al., 2012; Rivers et al., 2012; Salguero et al., 2011). Results from the few longitudinal studies that we identified suggest that these relationships persist over time. The studies in our review examined populations in diverse countries, including China, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Spain, suggesting that the relationship between EI and psychological maladjustment has transcultural validity. Our systematic review has identified two potential moderator variables in the relationship between EI and psychological maladjustment: the EI measure and gender. EI assessed by self-report showed stronger associations with psychological maladjustment than did EI assessed by tests of maximum performance. This finding is consistent with previous work (Martins et al., 2010; Schutte et al., 2007). Those studies assessing both TEI and AEI reported that both contribute to predictions of mental health, particularly depression (Davis & Humphrey, 2012b). In fact, TEI and AEI showed different associations with criteria variables and coping strategies (Davis & Humphrey, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c). Our systematic review has identified gender as another possible moderating variable in the relationship between EI and psychological adjustment. Girls with either eating disorders or internalizing problems reported lower TEI and AEI (Mavroveli et al., 2007; Rivers et al., 2012; Zavala & López, 2012). Boys with a greater tendency towards substance abuse or clinical maladjustment showed lower levels of both TEI and AEI (Palomera et al., 2012; Rivers et al., 2012; Zavala & López, 2012). Some of the reviewed studies analyzed possible mechanisms by which EI prevents psychological maladjustment. Coping strategies were found to play a relevant role in the relationship between EI and various variables such as depression and selfinjury behaviors (Davis & Humphrey, 2012c; Mikolajczak et al., 2009). Davis and Humphrey (2012c) suggested that TEI and AEI are associated with different aspects of coping processes, and further work is needed to address this intriguing possibility. EI has also been studied as a moderator. EI reduced the impact of triggering factors on the onset of psychological maladjustment. For example, AEI moderated the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and suicidal behaviors in adolescents (Cha & Nock, 2009). While reviewing the literature in this field, we identified several limitations. First, most studies were cross-sectional and few were longitudinal and experimental. Second, only eight of the 32 studies assessed EI with tests of maximum performance. Third, there are studies focused on diverse variables, some of which are poorly understood, especially in adolescents. At the same time, most studies neglected variables particularly important in adolescence, such as eating disorders. Only the study by

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Zavala and López (2012) analyzed the relationship between EI and eating problems. Fourth, criteria variables in the included studies were usually assessed using self-report instruments. It would be interesting to know how these variables, when assessed with behavioral instruments, are related to both AEI and TEI. Fifth, only two studies involved clinical samples. Studies with clinical samples are needed in order to gain insight into relationships between EI and diverse pathologies. Sixth, a variety of instruments assessing TEI have been used in the literature; whereas some of them have been extensively used (e.g., TMMS), results using others (e.g. ECQ or Adolescent SUEIT) are scarce and conclusions derived from them must be taken with caution. Seventh, some studies relied on small sample sizes (Cha & Nock, 2009; Hayes & O’Reilly, 2013; Martin et al., 2008; Shrivastava & Mukhopadhyay, 2009). Results from those studies should also be taken with caution. Finally, few studies have examined moderator variables and more investigation is required to reach appropriate conclusions, in order to avoid sampling error. Future investigations should take these limitations into account in order to improve our knowledge of the relationships between EI and psychological maladjustment in adolescence. In particular, longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to verify cross-sectional results, and the time has come for more complex models of EI to be proposed. Diverse authors have suggested using combined approaches to assess EI, such as self-report instruments and tests of maximum performance, in order to explore the different roles of TEI and AEI (Davis & Humphrey, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c; Hayes & O’Reilly, 2013). It would also be interesting to analyze the role of gender and age on the relationship between EI and psychological maladjustment. Future reviews should concentrate on analyzing the relationship between EI and externalizing problems and academic issues. The present systematic review highlights a negative relationship between EI and psychological maladjustment in adolescence. However, more studies are needed in order to understand this relationship in greater detail. These insights may allow the design of more effective prevention and intervention programs. Indeed, EI-training programs have already shown promise for promoting mental health in adolescents (Ruiz-Aranda et al., 2012).

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