Child Abuse & Ne&cl, Vol. 16, pp. 553-565, Pnnted in the U.S.A. All rights reserved.

0145-2134/92 $5.00 + .oO Copyright 0 1992 Pergamon Press Ltd.

1992

EGO DEVELOPMENT IN WOMEN WITH HISTORIES OF SEXUAL ABUSE A. GRACE JENNINGS AND MARY W. ARMSWORTH Department of Educational Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, TX

Abstract-As many as a third of the women in this culture experience sexual abuse prior to reaching age 18. Recent literature and research have presented divergent views related to the impact of early abuse on ego development, with arguments supporting both ego fragmentation and ego acceleration. This preliminary study compared the level of ego development, as measured by Loevinger’s Washington University Sentence Completion Test (SCT), of 30 women with histories of childhood sexual victimization, and 30 women with no history of abuse. Results indicated no significant difference between the ego levels of the sexually abused and nonabused groups, with a slight trend toward higher ego development in the abusedgroup. Factors contributing to these findings are discussed and recommendations for future research are suggested. Key l+‘ords-Ego development, Sexual abuse.

INTRODUCTION DURING THE PAST 10 years, dramatic increases in reported cases of sexual abuse have occurred with research providing various estimates as to its actual prevalence (Finkelhor, 1980; Herman, 198 1; Russell, 1983, 1986; Siegel, Sorenson, Golding, Burnham, & Stein, 1987). Estimates of its prevalence from a Los Angeles catchment area study of 3,132 persons found 5.3% of those surveyed reported at least one experience of sexual assault before age 16 (Siegel et al., 1987). Russell’s studies (1983, 1986) found that 38% of female participants had at least one experience of sexual abuse before age 18. Finkelhor (1980) found that 19% of women and 9% of men in a normal college population of 796 students reported sexual victimization as children. Herman’s ( 198 1) estimates of prevalence rates (derived from analyzing five studies since 1940) indicated that 20% to 33% of women reported unwanted sexual experiences with an adult male. The studies cited differ in sample population and research design which may contribute to discrepancies of findings. Regardless of differences in prevalence estimates, however, sexual victimization of children and adolescents has emerged as a critical societal problem in the United States today. Although arguments continue regarding whether sexual abuse is damaging to the child’s development (see Gelinas, 1983, for a review of these arguments) increasing documentation from clinical observation, case studies, and controlled studies indicates that sexual abuse does result in a diversity of characteristic problems and symptoms. Depression is the most commonly reported symptom in adults with histories of incest (Browne & Finkelhor, 1986) and

This research was supported by a Faculty Research Opportunity grant to Dr. Armsworth from the College of Education at the University of Houston. Received for publication September 17, 1990; final revision received July 5, 199 1; accepted July 3 1, 199 1 Requests for reprints may be sent to Mary W. Armsworth, Ed.D., Department of Educational Psychology, 49 1 Farish Hall, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5874. 553

554

A. G. Jennings and M. W. A~swo~h

has been documented in community and clinical populations (Bagley & Ramsay, 1986; Briere & Runtz, 1988; Sedney & Brooks, 1984). Higher incidence of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts have also been found in sexually victimized samples (Briere & Runtz, 1986; Sedney & Brooks, 1984). Gelinas ( 1983) sees many behavioral symptoms that are evident in adulthood as elaborations of incest sequelae that were not treated. She states that survivors often enter therapy with a “characterological depression with complications and atypical impulsive and dissociative elements” (p. 326). Results of two studies (Armsworth, Gregory-Bills, Navy, & Schultz, 1988; Briere & Runtz, 1988) found depression, anxiety, and dissociation to be higher in victims than in controls. Several authors have also documented posttraumatic stress s~ptomatology in incest populations (Armsworth, 1984; Donaldson & Gardner, 1985; Lindberg & Distad, 1985). Other problems or conditions frequently found in sexually abused populations, but not established in a causal relationship, include drug abuse (Benward & Densen-Gerber, 1975); promiscuity or prostitution (James & Meyerding, 1977); sexual dysfunction (Tsai, FeldmanSummers, & Edgar, 1979); decreased self-esteem (Bagley & Ramsey, 1986; Courtois, 1979); and multiple personality or severe dissociative disorders (Braun & Sachs, 1985). The extent to which any of these problems manifest themselves appears to depend on the personality of the victim and the variables associated with the particular abuse experience (Harter, Alexander, & Neimeyer, 1988; Herman, Russell, & Trocki, 1986; Tsai et al., 1979; Van Buskirk & Cole, 1983). The long- or short-term duration of an abuse experience, age at onset, frequency of contact, the covert or overt nature of the experience, the identity of the perpetrator, the consensual or nonconsensual nature of the abuse, and whether or not force was used, may influence the impact of the experience on the victim. In addition, current formulations of the human response to trauma (van der Kolk, 1987) and the psychosocial influences of the milieu in which the trauma is processed (Green, Wilson, & Lindy, 1985) indicate that the appearance of symptoms is multidetermined.

SEXUAL ABUSE AND PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT

Few investigations have specifically considered the long-term effects of sexual abuse on the development of personality. The state of research in the area of impact of childhood victimization is such that much of the current work is based on adult retrospective studies which cannot establish causality but do provide the basis for understanding commonalities of response and delineating areas for prospective study, treatment approaches, and prevention programs. Given the fact that childhood incest and sexual victimization experiences have been shrouded in societal and professional silence (Butler, 1978; Herman, 198 1) long-term prospective studies of traumatize children who reach adulthood are not yet available (van der Kolk, 1987). Thus the literature reviewed in this section draws on the studies of personality functioning of adults with histories of victimization, clinical observations of functioning in this population, and parallel literature from studies of other traumatized adults (Vietnam veterans). These studies suggest that sexual abuse in childhood may have an impact on the personality development of victims, specifically on ego development. Sgroi (1982) has suggested that sexual abuse is an experience beyond the capacity of a child to comprehend and integrate, thus significantly disrupting her or his developmental progression toward mastery of the self, the environment, and relationships with others. A comparative study of the personality profiles from the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) of sexually abused and nonabused clinical samples (Wheeler & Walton, 1987) found significant differences between the two subject groups. The basic coping style or personality pattern of sexually abused women tended to be asocial, avoidant, submissive, and passive-aggressive. A high prevalence of borderline personality disorders was present with the

Ego development and sexual abuse

555

possibility of schizotypical and paranoid personality disorders. Similarly, Bryer, Nelson, Miller, & Krol ( 1987) used the MCMI to examine female psychiatric patients who had histo-

ries of sexual abuse, physical abuse, or combinations of both abuses. Comparison of MCMI scores with nonabused inpatients indicated the abused group had more severe psychotic or psychotic-like symptoms, and more borderline diagnoses and character features. Several investigators have used the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) to examine personality profiles of adolescents and adults with sexual abuse histories. Tsai, Feldman-Summers, and Edgar (1979) compared three groups of 30 women each (incest/therapy; incest/no therapy; controls). The incest therapy group had T scores greater than 70 on scales 4 and 8 (Psychopathic Deviate and Schizophrenia). Meiselman (1980) found no significant difference on MMPI profiles of 16 incest/psychotherapy patients and 16 matched no incest/psychotherapy patients. She did find elevations on scales 4 and 8 in the incest group. Scott and Stone ( 1986) used clinical samples and found elevations on scales 4 and 8 in adults; adolescents had elevations on scales 4 and 9 (hypomania). These researchers conclude “that being sexually victimized by the father produces arrestment of ego development and related identity confusion at the core of the personality” (p. 258). Similarly, Scott and Thoner (1986) investigated ego deficits in anorexia nervosa patients and incest victims using the MMPI. Data indicated that both groups demonstrated significantly lower mean scores on ego strength than the norm, suggesting that anorexics and incest victims are less well adjusted psychologically and possess extremely limited resources for coping with problems. A number of reports, including the two previously mentioned studies that used the MCMI, have found an association between incest or sexual victimization histories and borderline personality disorder. This psychiatric classification indicates difficulties in affect regulation, impulse control, reality testing, interpersonal relationships, and identity formation (Herman & van der Kolk, 1987). The diagnosis implies ego fragmentation. Herman, Perry, and van der Kolk ( 1989) found in a study of diagnosed borderline patients that the great majority reported histories of childhood trauma (physical abuse, sexual abuse, and witnessing domestic violence). Barnard and Hirsch (1985) in examining case files found that 17 of 30 psychiatric patients with identified incest histories had received Borderline Personality Disorder as their primary diagnosis. Briere (1989) states that Borderline Personality Disorder is “perhaps the most common label attached to individuals who present with severe post-sexual abuse trauma in psychiatric settings” (p. 36). Herman and van der Kolk (1987) and Briere ( 1989) argue that much of the symptomatology of this disorder is congruent with the signs and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Ellenson (1989) states, however, that the “concept of childhood sexual abuse resulting in persistent structural damage to the ego or self is overapplied. Such formulations have arisen from observations of apparent ego fragmentation, as revealed in the behavior of notably damaged survivors and in the reports of survivors of their own experiences of inner fragmentation” (p. 592). Ellenson sees the ego structure, not as damaged, but as “actively organized by the survivor to cope with cataclysmic rage” (p. 593) that results from sexual abuse. He believes that a number of defenses (submergence, avoidance, denial, symbolization, and projection) are implemented to protect against overwhelming horror and rage. In an examination of ego identity from an Eriksonian perspective, Wilson (1980) interviewed 356 men who had served in Vietnam. He formulated three outcomes for ego-identity under major traumatic stress. These are: 1. Ego-retrogression or dissolution resulting from over-stressed defenses aimed at adaptation. 2. Intensification of the predominant psychosocial crisis of the person; the process of assimilation and accommodation of the experience into a coherent self-structure is impeded (p. 135).

556

A. G. Jennings and M. W. Armsworth

3. Ego acceleration, in which the person begins to assimilate and accommodate experiences into the self-structure earlier than normatively expected (“the adult stages of ego development emerge into ascendency prematurely” p. 135). Wilson concluded that the Vietnam War had a profound effect on the identity of the participants, and each of the three variants of ego development are accompanied by “acute periods of anxiety and periodic self-estrangement” (p. 164). While theoretical underpinnings of researchers influence formulations of whether responses to trauma are pathological, deviant, or adaptational processes required to survive familial or societal “pathology” and brutality, there is agreement that the experience of sexual victimization alters how the person views self, world, and self-in-world (Hymer, 1984; JanoffBulman & Frieze, 1983; McCann, Sakheim, & Abrahamson, 1988). To date, no studies have attempted to measure ego development in a sexually victimized group to determine if longterm impact can be determined. Measuring Ego Development Loevinger (1966, 1976) refers to the process of developing feelings about oneself, striving toward mastery, integration, and making sense of experience as the development of the ego, the “master trait” of personality. As the “master trait,” ego development is “. . .the frame that provides more specific traits their meaning and around which the whole edifice of personality is constructed” (Blasi, 1976, p. 41). It is an individual’s level of ego development which determines his/her frame of reference and how she/he construes the world, especially the interpersonal world (Loevinger, 1966, 1976). Ego development is postulated by Loevinger ( 1966, 1976) to occur in a developmental sequence of qualitative changes consisting of seven hierarchical stages and three transitional phases. Each stage of development is considered to reflect specific characteristics in term of its mode of impulse control, character development, interpersonal relations, conscious preoccupations, and cognitive complexity. Every stage is more complex than the preceding one and none can be skipped in the course of one’s development. However, it is probable that the sequence of stages can be interrupted at any point in development (Hauser, 1976). According to Loevinger ( 1976): If the problems of some stage of ego development are insurmountable for a child, by reason of trauma, deprivation, indulgence, environmental restriction, or whatever, [she]/he will ceaSe to develop at that point or develop very slowly thereafter. Future problems will be met and construed in terms of the ego structure appropriate to the earlier age. (p. 174)

The absence of empirical data concerning the impact of sexual abuse and/or other types of trauma on the development of personality (ego) may be due to the difficulty inherent in measuring personality and its attributes. According to Loevinger and Wessler (1970), the most appropriate measure of personality (or ego) development is a projective technique requiring subjects to project their frame of reference. Herman and van der Kolk (1987) indicate that the projective tests are more capable of detecting disturbed ego functioning, particularly in borderline patients who may otherwise function in an intact manner. Loevinger (1976) developed the Washington Sentence Completion Test (SCT) for this purpose. The SCT draws upon the cognitive and emotional experiences within the developing personality by means of sentence completions. Measuring the core of ego functioning, that is, the “master trait” of personality, the SCT is considered a reliable and valid measure for research purposes (Loevinger, 1979; Redmore & Waldman, 1975). While the preponderance of literature indicates that there are long-term negative consequences of incest or sexual abuse regarding ego development, there have been no attempts to

Ego development and sexual abuse

557

systematically explore this variable. The purpose of this preliminary study was to examine whether a difference in levels of ego development could be documented comparing affected and nonaffected groups. The psychosocial definition of sexual abuse and incest developed by Sgroi (1982) was used for this study. Operationally, incest and sexual abuse were defined as self-reports of experience(s) in childhood (0- 12 years old) or adolescence ( 13- 18 years old) of any form of sexual activity between a subject and a parent, stepparent, sibling, extended family member, surrogate parent (common-law spouse, foster parent), adult acquaintance (teacher, coach, babysitter, neighbor, etc.), or stranger. Sexual experiences were considered abusive if there were 5 or more years age difference and there was a clear power difference between the subject and reported perpetrator. Sexual activities reported included genital exposure by the perpetrator, intimate kissing, fondling, masturbation of the perpetrator’s genitals, mutual masturbation, fellatio, cunnilingus, and vaginal or rectal penetrations. Based on previously reported studies, it was hypothesized that women sexually abused in childhood or adolescence would exhibit lower levels of ego development as measured by the SCT than women with no reported abuse.

METHOD Subjects Subjects were 60 women drawn from a larger community sample of university students, community college students, women’s groups (professional and religious) and selected and cooperating volunteers. The first 30 women who reported incidents of sexual abuse in childhood or adolescence and the first 30 women who reported no incest, sexual abuse, emotional abuse or physical abuse for the same ages were selected from the larger sample. The age range for the sexually abused group was 18 to 48 years with a mean age of 35.1 (SD = 7.0). For the nonabused group the range was 23 to 57 years with a mean age of 35.2 years (SD = 9.4). The difference between the mean ages of the two groups was analyzed using a t test with no significant difference between the mean ages of the two groups (t = -.05; df= 58;M p >.05). A test of the group variances indicated that the groups were homogeneous in terms of age variability as well (F(29,29) = 1.80; p >.05). Subjects were well educated with the majority of women possessing a year or more of graduate education. No significant difference in level of education between the two groups was found (x2 = 1.27; df= 1; p >.05). Sixty percent of the sexually abused group reported being single compared to 43% of the non-abused group; a Chi-square analysis (x 2 = 1.67; df= 1; p >.05) indicated this difference was not significant. Thus, the two groups were homogeneous in terms of age, educational level, and marital status at least in a statistical sense. Characteristics of the two samples are presented in Table 1. Age of abuse onset (modal age 4-7 years), duration of abuse, and perpetrators by category are included for the sexually victimized group. Instruments The Demographic and Abuse History Questionnaire (DAHQ) included information on age, marital status, educational level, occupation, factors related to reported abuses, and details concerning the duration and value of professional help. The Washington University Sentence Completion Test (XT) (Loevinger, Wessler, & Redmore, 1970) is a projective assessment devised to measure seven stages and three transitional phases of ego development. The SCT was selected to measure ego development in this prelimi-

558

A. G. Jennings and M. W. Armsworth Table 1. Characteristics of Sexually Abused (N = 30) and Nonabused Groups (N = 30) Sexually Abused Group Characteristic

n

4s

18-2.5 26-33 34-4 1 42-48 49-57 Education Less than high school High school diploma Some college or technical school Bachelor’s degree Some graduate work Master’s degree Doctorate Amount of Professional Therapy None Less than 1 year 1-2 years 2-3 years 3-4 years 4-5 years 5-6 years 7-8 years 8-9 years 9- 10 years Age of Abuse Onset O-3 years 4-7 years 8-11 years 12-15 years 16-17 years Duration of Abuse Once 3 months- I 1 months 1 year-2 years 3 years-5 years 6 years- IO years I I years- 15 years I6 years-20 years 2 1 years-25 years Perpetrator(s) by Catego@ Father Stepfather Brother Uncle Grandfather Stepgrandfather Cousin Mother Brother-in-law Family friend Neighbor Teacher Priest Stranger

%

Nonabused Group n

10

20 30 13 30 7

27 47 17 0

0

3 7 20 7 53 7 3 5 7 6 3 6 0 1 0 0 1

17 23 20 10 20 0

4 20 2 2 2

13 67 7 7

;: 0 3

7

7

30 17 17 13 10 :

8 5 6 7 3 3 8 1 I, 6

1 1 4

a Categories may overlap due to multiple perpetrators.

27 17 20 23 10 10 27 3 3 30 20 3 3 13

%

3 3 13 70 7 0 11 10

3 2 1

:, 0

37 33 10 7 3 3 3 3 0 0

Ego development and sexual abuse

559

nary study based on Loevinger’s ( 1966, 1976) definition of ego. Loevinger has acknowledged the difficulty of defining and measuring ego and ego development, and developed her conceptual base and configuration on the work of Kohlberg, Piaget, and Sullivan (Blasi, 1976; Hauser, 1976; Loevinger, 1976). Her term “ego” is conceptualized as the “master trait,” or the process which integrates experiences and provides a “framework of meaning which one subjectively imposes on experience” (Hauser, 1976, p. 930). While Loevinger concedes that this definition of ego development is ambiguous, theoretical and abstract (Loevinger & Wessler, 1970) she contends, however, that ego development can be measured through examining the sequential stages and their corresponding differences, resulting in operational definitions (Hauser, 1976). These stages are summarized briefly (Loevinger, 1976, pp. 15-26): l

l

l

l

l

l

l

l

l

l

Presocial and Symbiotic Stages (I- 1): At these stages, the task of the infant is to construct a self which is differentiated from the outer world. A strong symbiotic relationship with the parent or the parent substitute is retained and self-differentiation begins. These are preverbal stages and measuring them has been difficult (Hauser, 1976). Impulsive Stage (I-2): This is the first stage that is measurable with a verbal instrument. The child in this stage is egocentric and preoccupied with fulfilling physical needs. The child’s own impulses are punished or rewarded but not regulated by internalized rules. Self-Protective Stage (A): Characteristics of this stage are protection of self-interest and preoccupation with “getting into trouble.” The individual attempts to control other people and rejects most blame for deceitful actions, employing manipulation or exploitation to meet these goals. Self-Protective-Conformist Stage (A/3): This transitional phase is between the self-protective and conformist stages. Control of impulses is beginning and rewards and punishments take on new meaning. While self-interest continues to dominate this phase, rules and relationships are perceived within the framework of opportunism and hedonism. Conformist Stage (I-3): The child or adult at this stage is a conformist; rules are obeyed just because they are the rules. Relationships with others become more important than self-development while attitudes, thoughts, and roles are more concrete and stereotypical. Self-Aware Phase (I-3/4): This is a transitional phase between the conformist and conscientious stage and is considered the modal stage in our society (Loevinger, 1976). Characteristics of this stage are increased self-awareness and an appreciation for multiple possibilities and causations. Conscientious Stage (I-4): At this stage, the individual begins to internalize rules and make choices of rules for one’s self. Morality is becoming internalized and the person feels responsibility for others. The person is able to deal with feelings and motives of others as well as to reflect on self. Striving to achieve also characterizes this stage. Individualistic Phase (I-4/5): This is a transitional stage between the conscientious and the autonomous stages. There is a marked sense of individuality, complexity, and a concern for emotional dependence. Moralism may be replaced with awareness of inner conflict and discrepant beliefs. Autonomous Stage (I-5): Persons in this stage have developed the capacity to cope with inner conflict. There is a greater emphasis on self-fulfillment and respect for another person’s autonomy occurs. Increased expression of feelings and tolerance of ambiguity are more apparent. Integrated Stage (I-6): A person in this stage is able to transcend some of the conflicts experienced in the autonomous stage, but this stage is rarely achieved by persons in our society. Maslow’s self-actualizing person would be an example of a person attaining this stage (Loevinger, 1976).

The SCT consists of 36 sentence stems to be completed by the subject in his/her own words, and ostensibly elicits the subject’s perceptual frame of reference in contrast to multiple choice

560

A. G. Jennings and M. W. Annsworth

or forced choice devices. The responses to each sentence stem are matched against those in the scoring manual to achieve a rating at one of the stages. The distribution of item ratings is then used to arrive at a total protocol rating. The SCT has both high interrater reliability (.85) and high internal consistency, with an alpha coefficient of .90 (Loevinger & Wessler, 1970). Shortterm test-retest reliability is significant, varying from .40 in a sample with low variance to .80 in a sample with greater variance (Redmore & Waldman, 1975). Procedure All subjects were presented with the SCT and DAHQ as part of a research packet assessing the impact of sexual abuse on adult women. Subjects completed research packets which were then sealed and returned to the investigator. Each subject was assigned a code number which then served as the sole means of identifying test protocols. Abuse status, age at onset of the abuse, duration of the abuse, identity of perpetrator(s), current age, marital status, educational level, and amount of professional help received were recorded for each subject. The abuse group consisted of subjects with reported incest or sexual abuse histories in childhood or adolescence. The nonabuse group consisted of subjects with no reported history of incest, emotional abuse, physical abuse, or sexual abuse. Sexual abuse was assessed by a positive response to questions asking whether subjects had experienced sexual activity with a family member or person outside the family during childhood or adolescence. Six protocols not providing supporting information concerning the abuse experience(s), for example, specified perpetrator(s), age at onset, nature of the sexual activity, and/or duration of the abuse experience, were considered incomplete and not included in the study. Nonabuse status was assessed by a negative response to all questions inquiring whether subjects had experienced any sexual activity with a family member or other individual during childhood or adolescence. Nine subjects who were not sexually victimized but indicated positive responses to questions on physical and/or emotional abuse during childhood and adolescence were not included in either sample group. The SCT protocols were scored independently by two trained raters. Raters were blind to subjects’ abuse or nonabuse status. The 36 response items for each subject were rated and the cumulative frequency distribution of the 36 ratings was computed. Total protocol ratings (TPRs) were obtained through the application of Loevinger’s and Wessler’s (1970) automatic scoring rules to the cumulative frequency distribution of item ratings. When disagreements in scoring occurred, compromise ratings were arrived at through consultation between the two raters. Interrater reliability coefficients were computed for TPRs originally assigned to SCT protocols by raters before compromise ratings were determined. A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient of .72 was obtained for the pair of raters, considered respectable by Loevinger and Wessler (1970). The percentage of complete agreement for TPRs was 72%; agreement for TPRs within one half step was 100%. This is comparable to the 53-80% of complete agreement and 9 l-100% agreement within half step reported by Loevinger and Wessler ( 1970).

RESULTS The distribution of ego levels obtained from the SCT is presented in Table 2. A small number of subjects were rated at the Conformist (I-3) Individualistic (I-4/5), and Autonomous (I-5) ego levels, making it necessary to combine ego levels for the purpose of statistical analysis. Subjects rated at the Conformist (I-3) and Conscientious/Conformist (I-3/4) levels

561

Ego development and sexual abuse Table 2. Distribution

of SCT Scores

Ego Levels (Loevinger, 1976) I-2

A

I-3

I-314

I-4

Sexually Abused Group N= 30

1

18

10

Nonabused Group N= 30

I

Al3

I-415

I-5

1

(19)

(11) 21

6

1

1 (8)

(22)

were grouped together and subjects rated at the Conscientious (I-4), Individualistic (I-4/5), and Autonomous (I-5) levels were grouped together. Although the levels of ego development are ordered categories, the combining of ego levels resulted in ego development being treated as a dichotomy for the purpose of analysis. The results of a chi-square analysis performed to test the homogeneity of proportion between ego development and sexual abuse are presented in Table 3. No significant difference was found between ego level and a history of sexual abuse (x 2 = .69; df = 1; p>.O5).

DISCUSSION The results of the present investigation do not confirm the hypothesized difference in ego development between sexually abused and nonabused women. The majority of women in both groups were rated at the Conscientious/Conformist (I-3/4) level of ego development, the modal level for students during the first 2 years of college and for adults in general (Loevinger, 1976; Loevinger & Wessler, 1970). Contrary to expectations, subjects in the sexually abused group were more often rated at the Conscientious (I-4) level or higher than were nonabused subjects but not significantly so. Caution should be exercised in interpreting the present findings as suggesting that sexual abuse may have a positive impact on victims in terms of ego development. The results do suggest, however, that sexual abuse in childhood or adolescence may not necessarily delay or arrest ego development as postulated by Sgroi ( 1982), Scott and Stone (1986), and Herman et al. (1986). In fact, in the present study, sexually abused subjects generally exhibited healthier egos than did nonabused subjects. There are a number of possible explanations for the current findings.

Table 3. Relation Between Level of Ego Development and Sexual Abuse I-3/4 and

Below Nonabused Women Sexually Abused Women Total

I-4 and Above

f= 8

f= 22 E(f) = 20.5 73%

E(f)= 9.5

f= 19 E(f) = 20.5

f= 11 E(f) = 9.5

f= 30

27%

63%

37%

f= 41

f= 19

Note. x2 = .6932, df = 1, p = .4101.

Total

f= 30 n = 60

562

A. G. Jennings and M. W. Amsworth

Instrumentation used in the current study may be limited in tapping the “ego” construct in personality. In a recent investigation of the validity of Loevinger’s model and measure of ego development, Novy (1990) found the SCT to have excellent psychomet~c properties. Nonetheless, the SCT as well as other psychological measures is limited in the ability to test abstract constructs. 2. The lack of significant difference between the sexually abused women and controls may be due in part to the self-selection of the relatively small sample which may have eliminated women with severe deficits in ego functioning, social cognition, social adjustment, and educational level. Women who enter college are likely to have a high level of ego integration and may be more resilient than abused women who do not, Generalizing the present findings to other sexually abused women is therefore limited, since the volunteers may not be representative of the larger population of sexually victimized women. 3. Additional limitations of the study include the necessary reliance on frequency data, the restricted range in ego levels, and the retrospective nature of the study. It was not possible to control for the effects of events that intervened between the sexual trauma and the present assessment. Possible intervening variables might include the level of ego functioning at the time of victimization, the multiple factors associated with the abuse experience(s) (e.g., age at onset, duration of abuse, or identity of perpetrator(s), and the impact of any psychotherapeutic relationships experienced by the sexually abused subjects). Eighty percent of the abused group were victimized prior to the age of 7 with 46% experiencing the abuse for 3 years or longer. Sixty-seven percent were victimized by multiple perpetrators including family and nonfamily members. Professional help of some type was received by 83% of the sexually abused women as compared to 63% of the nonabused women. Loevinger (1976) suggests that teachers, therapists, and others may provide exceptional circumstances for ego growth beyond the levels at which individuals have stabilized. As indicated in Table 1, the present sample was a diverse group in terms of abuse histories and amount of professional help received. These factors may have significantly inlluenced the levels of ego development exhibited by the sample. 4. The findings of the current study may lend support to Wilson’s (1980) finding of ego acceleration or premature acceleration of the life stages or crises described by Erikson. In describing persons with psychosocial acceleration, Wilson states, “They are extremely intense individuals who are actively determined to live an existenti~ly valid existence. In fact, they live their day-to-day lives with a good deal of creativity, directly, assertively, and are unusually sensitive to phoniness, deceit, cruelty, callousness, inequity, and injustice. * . . Specifically, they are deeply concerned with altruistic action and the need to contribute meaningfully to society” (p. 147). The current sample of women with abuse histories may have tapped “resilient” persons who developed a “spirit of survival” (Mrazek & Mrazek, 1987) compared to the psychiatric ~pulations that may be tapping what Wilson (1980) would classify as ego-retrogressed individuals. 1.

The findings of the current study may also lend support to the formulation of Ellenson (1989) who believes that rather than having a damaged ego, the person has organized a number of defenses to cope with the sexual abuse. Ulman and Brothers (1988) have also focused their conceptualization of posttraumatic responses activated by various traumas, including sexual abuse, resulting in dissociative disorders. Citing the work of Shatan, Ulman and Brothers (1988) have further indicated that they believe the traumatized individual has developed an adaptive lifestyle aimed at defending survival of the self. Previous research has seldom focused on the adaptive nature of behaviors or sypmtoms displayed by adults with histories of incest. This has resuhed in a body of literature that may overlook strengths of

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survivors by focusing on deficits. The present study may indicate further need for research that taps several domains of functioning in this population. Considering the current literature on sexual abuse, the present findings should be considered a conservative estimate of the lack of permanent negative effects of sexual abuse on the development of ego, as defined by Loevinger ( 1966, 1976). Research on clinical populations has indicated that sexual abuse victims tend to exhibit more negative personality profiles than do nonsexually abused clinical subjects (Scott & Stone, 1986; Wheeler & Walton, 1987). The negative personality profiles exhibited by clinical incest victims in the study by Wheeler and Walton ( 1987) included a higher prevalence of borderline personality disorders. In an investigation of ego development in a psychiatric sample, Vincent and Castillo (1984) found that 67% of the individuals diagnosed as having borderline personality disorders exhibited preconformity (A/3 or below) levels of ego development. Thus, the incidence of borderline personality disorder in the Wheeler and Walton (1987) study and the inference that sexually abused women should have a lower level of ego development are in direct contrast to the results of the present study. The present data, albeit from a small sample, casts doubt on the dubious trend (Briere, 1989) of automatically labeling sexually abused women as probable borderline personalities. Replication of this study with a larger more representative group of sexually abused women would be necessary for generalization beyond the present sample. In addition, the findings suggest several directions for future research on sexual abuse populations. Perhaps the trauma of sexual abuse and related psychotherapy in some way provides the impetus for higher levels of ego development. Investigations concerning the impact of psychotherapy on the resolution of possible developmental delays in ego development and trauma resolution are warranted. Additional investigations of the relation between ego development and sexual abuse utilizing larger clinical and nonclinical samples while controlling for specific factors (e.g., age of onset, duration of abuse, identity of perpetrator(s) associated with abuse experiences) are suggested. Such investigations would add to the body of knowledge about the long-term impact of sexual abuse on personality and provide additional data concerning the assumptions of developmental delays found in the literature. Future research might also focus on resilient persons who may have worked through severely debilitating consequences of abuse. Qualitative research methodologies, such as Wilson’s ( 1980) interview research that have “understanding” rather than “proof’ as a goal may yield valuable insights into cognitive, behavioral, or social exigencies that permitted sexually victimized individuals to adapt to hostile environments or situations. Future studies might also examine coping processes and behaviors that were used and found helpful. Not enough is known about the long-term effects of sexual victimization in childhood and adolescence. Conflicting research data suggests that the impact of sexual victimization is an extremely complex phenomenon warranting continual investigations. While those professionals who treat this sizeable population of victimized individuals needs to be aware of the resultant patterns and symptoms of abuse, delineation of protective factors in the personality would add immensely to the literature. Acknowledgements-The authors thank Paul Swank, Ph.D., and Ken R. Vincent, Ed.D_.,for theoretical and statistical consultation; Marsha Harman, M.Ed., and Genny Stevens, M.Ed., who served as raters; and Tracy Lilly for manuscript preparation.

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Resume-Un tiers des femmes de notre culture est confront6 a une experience d’abus sexuel avant l’age de 18 ans. La litterature et la recherche r6cente 1 ce sujet presentent des vues divergentes quant a l’impact de l’abus pr6coce sur le dCveloppement du Moi, avec des arguments aussi bien en faveur du morcellement du Moi que de son acceleration. Cette etude preliminaire compare le niveau de dtveloppement de Moi, mesur6 par le “Loevinger’s Washington University Sentence Completion Test (SCT)” de 30 femmes abus&es sexuellement au cours de l’enfance et de 30 femmes sans histoire d’abus. Les resultats ne montrent pas de differences signiticatives centre les deux groupes en ce qui conceme le developpement du Moi, avec cependant une leg&e tendance a un Moi plus fort pour le groupe des abules. Les facteurs contribuant a ces don&es sont analyds et des recommandations sont faites pour de futures recherches. Resumen-Tantas coma un tercio de las mujeres en tsta cultura pasan por la experiencia de1 abuso sexual antes de alcanzar la edad de 18 adios. La literatura e investigaciones recientes presentan puntos de vista divergentes relacionados con el impact0 de1 abuso temprano en el desarrollo de1 yo, con argumentos que apoyan tanto la fragmentaci6n de1 yo coma su aceleracmn. Este estudio preliminar compar6 el nivel de desarrollo, de acuerdo al resultado obtenido en el Loevinger Washington University Sentence Completion Test (SCT), de 30 mujeres con historias de victimizacibn sexual en la ninez y 30 mujeres sin historia de abuso. Los resultados no indicaron diferencias significativas entre 10s niveles de desarrollo de1 yo de 10s grupos abusados y no abusados, con una ligera tendencia hacia un yo m&s desarrollado en el grupo abusado. Se discuten 10s factores que contribuyen en estos hallazgos y se sugieren recomendaciones para futuras investigaciones.