Accepted Manuscript Title: Effects of waste eggshells and SiC addition on specific strength and thermal expansion of hybrid green metal matrix composite Authors: Satpal Sharma, Shashi Prakash Dwivedi PII: DOI: Reference:
S0304-3894(17)30005-5 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.01.002 HAZMAT 18299
To appear in:
Journal of Hazardous Materials
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
1-8-2016 22-12-2016 3-1-2017
Please cite this article as: Satpal Sharma, Shashi Prakash Dwivedi, Effects of waste eggshells and SiC addition on specific strength and thermal expansion of hybrid green metal matrix composite, Journal of Hazardous Materialshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.01.002 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Effects of Waste Eggshells and SiC Addition on Specific Strength and Thermal Expansion of Hybrid Green Metal Matrix Composite 1 1
Satpal Sharma, 1,2Shashi Prakash Dwivedi*
School of Engineering, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddha Nagar, U.P. 201310, India
2
Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida, Gautam buddha Nagar, U.P. 201310, India *Corresponding Author: E-mail- [email protected]
Highlights
Fabrication of hybrid green metal matrix composite using waste eggshell and SiC particles
Specific strength and thermal expansion analysis
Overall density and cost
Comparative study of hybrid MMCs properties before and after heat treatment
Abstract Chicken eggshell waste is an industrial byproduct, and its disposal constitutes a serious environmental hazard. Chicken eggshell can be used in commercial products to produce new materials with low cost and density. Low density material which can sustain at higher temperature is a remarkable area of research. Keeping these facts in the mind, the present investigation aims to study the physical behaviour, specific strength and thermal expansion of AA2014/SiC/carbonized eggshell hybrid green metal matrix composites.
Microstructure of
hybrid green metal matrix shows that the reinforcement particles (SiC particulates and carbonized eggshells particles) are uniformly distributed in the matrix AA2014 alloy. Specific strength for the composites containing 2.5 wt. % SiC and up to 7.5 wt. % carbonized eggshell was observed to be higher than that of the other selected composites. While for the same composition (AA2014/2.5 % SiC/7.5 % carbonized eggshell composites), porosity was observed lower than other selected composites. The results revealed that sample of AA2014/2.5 % SiC/7.5
% carbonized eggshell showed minimum cross sectional area reduction after the thermal expansion at 4500C among all the selected samples. Overall costs of hybrid metal matrix composites were also calculated.
Keywords: Green MMC; Waste Eggshells; Specific Strength; Thermal Expansion; Cost
1. Introduction Continuously developing technologies contribute to improvements in materials science. Composite materials have now replaced traditional engineering materials. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are especially preferred for high temperature applications in many areas due to their light weight, high mechanical properties, excellent wear, and corrosion resistance. The production of composite materials and the development of subsequent shaping processes have become very relevant for technological applications. The modern development in the field of science and technology demands the developments of advanced engineering materials for various engineering applications, especially in the field of transportation, aerospace and military engineering related areas. These areas demand light weight, high strength having good properties. Such demands can only be met by development and processing of aluminum metal matrix composite materials. The main challenge in the development and processing of engineering materials is to control the microstructure, mechanical properties and cost of the product [1-2]. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) have been studied for some years now and their properties are becoming increasingly well known. Particle-reinforced metal matrix composites have found broad applications in various industries, such as automotive, aerospace, marine, nuclear industries and the other applications where low density, high stiffness and good wettability are required. The aluminum matrix composites are used in various engineering applications such as aircraft structures, automobile structures, fuselage structures, under tension cylinder block liners, vehicle drive shafts and automotive pistons. The advantages of metal matrix composites are their adapted physical, mechanical and thermal properties with low density, high abrasion, high thermal conductivity, high specific strength, high specific modulus, and wear resistance [3-5].
The ever-increasing demand for low cost reinforcement encouraged the interest towards production and utilization of using by-products from industry as reinforcement since they are readily available or are naturally renewable at affordable cost. A lot of environment pollution due to the waste of industries/societies encourages our societies for utilizing these waste products in research areas. More recent advancements involved the use of waste or recycling materials like fly-ash, red mud, rice-hull ash, bagasse ash, basalt fiber, breadfruit seed hull ash, maize stalk waste and eggshells waste particle. These raw materials offer great opportunities because synthesized reinforcements can be produced in situ economically. Even though, there have been several attempts to use chicken eggshell components for a variety of applications, its chemical composition and accessibility make chicken eggshell a probable source of biofiller - reinforced composites giving additional or improved thermal and mechanical properties. The other advantages of using chicken eggshell are its availability in bulk quantity with lightweight and being economical and environmental friendly in processing of composites as reinforcement particles. Investigation of various properties like mechanical and physical of aluminum metal matrix composites reinforced by eggshells particulate is a remarkable area of research [6-8]. On the basis of literature review (Table 1), it was found that no researcher has investigated the mechanical and thermal expansion of AA2014/SiC/carbonized eggshell green hybrid metal matrix composite. From the literature review, it was also observed that in most of cases, densities and cost of hybrid composites increased. Hence, in view of the above facts, an investigation was carried out to find the effects of SiC and carbonized eggshell addition on specific strength and thermal expansion behavior of green hybrid metal matrix composite.
2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Matrix Material
In the present investigation, AA2014 aluminium alloy was selected as a matrix material. 2014 aluminium alloy is an aluminium-based alloy often used in the aerospace industry. It is easily machined in certain tempers, and among the strongest available aluminium alloys, as well
as having high hardness. The corrosion resistance of this alloy is particularly poor. Chemical composition and mechanical properties are shown in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively [20].
2.2 Primary Reinforcement Material In the present investigation, carbonized eggshells powder was selected for primary reinforcement material. Figure 1 (a) shows the photograph of hen eggshell. Hen eggshells naturally consist of ceramic materials. The chemical composition (by weight) of eggshell is shown in Table 4. The hen eggshell was cleaned and sun dried to eliminate the covering layer of eggshell [20]. The dried eggshell was ball milled to obtain eggshell powder as shown in Figure 1 (b). Some part of eggshell membranes are left after dried the eggshell powder. It was then carbonized to 500°C for 3 h to remove the carbonaceous materials like eggshell membrane [7] as shown in Figure 1 (c). The eggshell membrane is the clear film lining the eggshell, visible when one peels a boiled egg. Eggshell membrane is primarily composed of fibrous proteins such as collagen type. However, eggshell membranes have also been shown to contain glycosaminoglycans, such as dermatan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate and sulfated glycoproteins including hexosamines, such as glucosamine. Other components identified in eggshell membranes are hyaluronic acid, sialic acid, desmosine and isodesmosine, ovotransferrin, lysyl oxidase, lysozyme, and β-Nacetylglucosaminidase [7].
2.3 Secondary Reinforcement Material Silicon carbide (SiC) was selected as a secondary reinforcement to further improve the mechanical properties of composites. Introduction of SiC to the aluminum matrix significantly enhances the strength, the modulus, abrasive wear resistance and thermal stability. The density of SiC (3.2g/cm3) is nearer to that of aluminum alloy AA2014 (2.8g/cm3). The resistance of SiC to acids, alkalis or molten salts up to 8000C makes it a good reinforcement candidate as a secondary reinforcement for aluminum based MMC. Additionally, SiC is easily available and has good wettability with aluminum alloys [1].
2.4 Composition Selection Results of Table 4 are already discussed in previous works [24-25, 27]. Previous results showed that the addition of carbonized eggshell particles and SiC particles improves the mechanical properties of the composite as there wettability is good with AA2014 aluminium alloy. Though previous results showed that by using carbonized eggshell particles as reinforcement material, density and cost of composites were reduced as compared to SiC reinforced composites. But heat treatable property of SiC reinforced composite was found to be much better than SiC reinforced composites. Hence, in view of the above facts, an investigation was carried out to find the effects of SiC and carbonized eggshell addition on the physical and mechanical properties of AA2014/SiC/Carbonized Eggshell hybrid green metal matrix composite simultaneously. On the basis of the results based on pilot investigations, the compositions of reinforcements (SiC and Carbonized eggshell) were selected and are shown in Table 5. The total percentage of both reinforcements varies from 2.5 wt. % to 12.5 wt. % in AA2014 matrix material. If the weight percentage of reinforcement increases more than 12.5 %, then there is no more effects on physical and mechanical properties of hybrid metal matrix composite were observed.
2.5 Processing of hybrid MMCs AA 2014/carbonized eggshells/SiC hybrid green metal matrix composite used in this study was developed by electromagnetic stir casting technique at parameters of 12 ampere (current), 180s (time) and 7000C (matrix pouring temperature) respectively and immediately extruded on UTM machine at 60 MPa using cylindrical H13 tool steel die coated with graphite [20]. In the present investigation, precipitation hardening process (heat treatment technique) was employed to improve further mechanical properties. AA2014 Aluminum alloys have broad applications due to their good mechanical and physical properties [28-31]. AA2014 aluminium alloys containing Cu and small amount of Mg and Si can be heat treatable in the cast condition reinforced with chicken eggshell (ES) due to the precipitation strengthening mechanisms. One of the most familiar heat treatment is the T6 treatment, in which the constituent is solution heat
treated at approximately 530°C. During the casting of AA2014/ eggshells composite, the CaCO3, Mg and Si atoms are segregated in the primary Al phase which is typically dendritic due to solidification process. The solutionizing treatment dissolves the CaCO3, Mg and Si elements in the primary Al phase. The quenching process solutionizing capture some precipitation reaction throughout cooling and recover the vacancy fraction to give support to mobility of atoms in the ageing process and reduce residual stresses in the composites [24-25]. Heat treatment process was carried out at solutionizing time of 4.5 hour, aging temperature of 2500C and aging time of 13.5 hour respectively [3, 27].
2.6 Density and Porosity Analysis The theoretical densities of composites were calculated using a rule of mixtures as given in equation 1. Theoretical density of hybrid MMC= Wt. fraction of AA2014 x Density of AA2014 + Wt. fraction of SiC x Density of SiC + Wt. fraction of carbonized eggshell x Density of carbonized eggshell
(1)
The experimental densities of the composites were determined by means of the Archimedes principle. To obtain the density of the samples experimentally the mass of each composite was first measured. Then, the volume of each composite was obtained as shown in Figure 2. The experimental density was then calculated using the following formula [24]: Experimental density of composite = mass of composite/Volume
(2)
Porosity (P) is the percentage of the pores volume to the total volume with the volume of a substance [3]. It is defined by (3)
3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Microstructure Analysis Since, maximum specific strength and minimum cross sectional area reduction after thermal expansion were observed for AA2014/7.5% Eggshell/2.5%SiC composite. Hence, in view of the above facts, microstructures of sample designation G3 were carried out. Figure 3 (ad) shows a typical microstructure of AA2014 reinforced with 2.5 % SiC and 7.5 % carbonized
eggshell hybrid green metal matrix composites. It shows uniform distribution of carbonized eggshell and SiC particles in AA 2014 matrix. No clustering was observed in AA2014/7.5 wt. % eggshell/2.5 wt.% SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 clearly shows the interface between the AA2014 matrix and reinforcement materials (SiC particles and carbonized eggshell particles). It shows proper wettability and good interface bonding between AA 2014 matrix, SiC particles and carbonized eggshell particles respectively. Figure 4 shows the EDX pattern of typical AA 2014/7.5 %eggshells/2.5 % SiC hybrid green composite. EDX pattern of typical AA 2014/7.5 %eggshells/2.5 % SiC hybrid green composite also shows uniform distribution of eggshell and SiC in AA2014 aluminium alloy. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show no clustering (microstructure of AA2014/2.5%SiC/7.5%eggshell). Maximum tensile strength was also observed for AA2014/2.5%SiC/7.5%eggshell composite. Though, with the increasing of reinforcement percentage, mechanical properties improved. But it was observed that beyond some range of reinforcement weight percent, clustering of reinforcement (Here meaning of clustering is grouping a set of carbonized eggshell and SiC particles) observed as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows the microstructure of AA2014 reinforced with 2.5% SiC and 12.5 %eggshell composites. When clustering of reinforcement particles occurred, some air is interrupted with reinforcement particles. Due to these airs, porosity is developed at the interfaces of composites. This porosity reduces the mechanical properties. Though, density of sample designation G5 is lower than sample designation G3, but its specific strength is also lower than sample designation G3. Lower specific strength of sample designation G5 may be due to the clustering of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014 aluminium alloy as shown in Figure 5.
3.2 Density and Porosity Analysis Table 6 shows that both the theoretical and the experimental densities decreased with increasing percentage additions of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/SiC composites. Theoretical densities of SiC particles and carbonized eggshell particles were 3.21 and 2 g/cm3, respectively. Even though the density is lowest for sample G5, but sample G3 has better mechanical properties. The overall theoretical density of AA2014/Eggshell/SiC hybrid green metal matrix composite decreased with wt.% additions of carbonized eggshell particles. The
theoretical density of the composites (AA2014) decreased from 2.8 g/cm3 at 0 wt.% to 2.75 g/cm3 at 7.5 wt.% for carbonized eggshell particles and 2.5 wt.% SiC particles. The experimental density of the composites decreased from 2.78 g/cm3 at 0 wt.% to 2.73 g/cm3 at 7.5 wt.% for carbonized eggshell particles and 2.5 wt.% SiC particles. From the theoretical density analysis of AA2014/7.5 % Eggshell/2.5 % SiC hybrid green metal matrix composite, it can be observed that about 1.8% theoretical density reduced as compared to matrix alloy AA2014.
In the present investigation, red deviation bars between theoretical density and experimental density are showing percent porosity as shown in Figure 6. Shorter black deviation bar between theoretical and experimental density shows low porosity, while longer black deviation bar shows higher porosity. Higher percentage of porosity leads to specimen failure. Minimum porosity was found to be 0.72 % for AA2014/7.5%carbonized eggshell/2.5 % SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites (sample designation G3).
3.3 XRD Analysis Figure 7 illustrate XRD analysis results for sample designation G3. XRD analysis was carried out to recognize the different elements and phases present in the hybrid green metal matrix composite [23, 24]. The XRD result of AA2014/7.5 wt. % carbonized eggshells/2.5 wt. % SiC particulate hybrid green metal matrix composite confirms the presence of CaCO3, Cu, SiC, CaSiO3, Al, MnO2, Al2O3, Mg2SiO4. From XRD pattern weight percentage of composition were found to be about 4 % of CaCO3, 2 % of SiC, 1 % of CaSiO3, 1 % of Mg2SiO4, 1 % of Cu, 0.25 % of MnO2 and 0.25 % of Al2O3 respectively.
3.4 Specific Strength Analysis The specific strength of different compositions was calculated by dividing the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) by the experimental density of composites. The specific strength of AA2014/7.5 % carbonized eggshell/2.5 % SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites are shown in Table 7. It can be observed from Figure 8 that after addition of carbonized eggshell particles up
to the weight fraction of 7.5 % in AA2014/2.5 % SiC composites, specific strength of hybrid green metal matrix composite as heat treated is maximum (100.3 kN-m/Kg). Further, increasing the weight fraction of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/2.5% SiC composite, specific strength goes on decreasing and it is lowest for sample designation G25. The presence of reinforcements (carbonized eggshell/SiC) produces a significant increase in the work hardening of the material during tensile testing. This increase in work hardening is more significant at higher weight fraction of carbonized eggshell particles (presence of CaCO3, Cu, SiC, CaSiO3, Al, MnO2, Al2O3 and Mg2SiO4). But, it decreases at higher weight fraction of carbonized eggshell and SiC (more than 7.5 % of carbonized eggshell and more than 2.5% of SiC). This may be due to clustering of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/SiC composite. It can be observed that after addition of SiC particles in AA2014/Eggshell composite, heat treatable property of green metal matrix composite significantly improved. After the heat treatment process, about 7.77 % specific strength improved as compared to cast AA2014/7.5%Eggshell/2.5 % SiC green metal composite.
3.5 Thermal Expansion Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges. Thermal expansion was measured by heating the composite up to 4500C in electric furnace. The thermal expansion values of different samples are given in Table 8.
The change in dimensions of various compositions is shown in Figure 9. It is clear that the change in dimension of AA2014/7.5% carbonized eggshell/2.5 % SiC green metal matrix composites is lowest among all compositions. Though, Sample designation G13 also shows low change in dimension (from 755 to 722.4 mm2). But due to poor specific strength, it cannot be recommended for aircraft and automotive industries. A356/15%SiC/5% Fly-ash hybrid metal
matrix composite shows better mechanical properties in comparison with other compositions. The change in dimension of sample designation G3 is low in comparison with other samples. Low porosity of sample designation G3 is also responsible of low thermal expansion. Hence, AA2014/7.5% carbonized eggshell/2.5% SiC green metal matrix composites is appropriate for the various applications. 3.6 Cost Estimation The cost of AA2014 is about 300 INR (Indian Rupees), while the cost of SiC powder powder is 700 INR. The eggshell particles are available as a waste, so the eggshell particles are available free of cost [25, 26]. From Figure 10, it can be observed that cost of hybrid green metal matrix composites continuously decreases after the addition of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/SiC composite. Sample designation G3 (7.5% Eggshell and 2.5 % SiC) shows better specific strength and low thermal expansion. Cost of sample designation G3 was estimated 287.5 INR. Cost of sample designation G3 was found about 5.83 % lower than the AA2014 alloy. Minimum cost (272.5 INR) was observed for sample designation G5, but its specific strength is lower than sample designation G3, which is not acceptable from mechanical properties point of view.
4 Conclusions The microstructural characteristics, physical behaviour, specific strength and thermal expansion of AA2014/waste eggshell/SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites were investigated in this research. The following conclusions can be withdrawn: 1. Microstructure images show that carbonized eggshell particles and SiC particles are uniformly distributed in AA2014 aluminium alloy. 2. Maximum specific strength was found to be for sample designation G3 (reinforced with 7.5 % eggshell and 2.5 % SiC). Cost and density of AA2014/7.5% eggshell/2.5 % SiC composite were found to be 5.83 % and 1.8 % lower than matrix alloy, which is acceptable. 3. Minimum thermal expansion and porosity were also observed for sample designation G3.
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Figure 1: Photograph of; (a) eggshells, (b) eggshells powder, (c) carbonized eggshells powder.
Figure 2: Volume measurement of composites [24]
Figure 6: Density and porosity analysis of hybrid green MMCs
Figure 7: XRD results of sample designation G3
Figure 8: Specific strength of hybrid green MMCs
Figure 9: The change in dimensions of various compositions
Figure 10: Cost estimation of hybrid green MMCs
Table 1: Hybrid metal matrix composites with different reinforcements [9-19] Ref.
Matrix Material
Hybrid MMCs
(Theoretical density
(Theoretical density in g/cc)
in g/cc) . (9) (10)
Al 2219 = 2.84
Al 2219/15%SiC/3% graphite composites = 2.87
AlSi12CuMgNi = 3.3 Al Si12 Cu Mg Ni/12% Al2O3 /4% carbon fiber composites = 3.22
. (11)
Al 6061 = 2.70
Al6061/5%Al2O3/5% Graphite = 2.74
(12)
A356 = 2.68
(13)
Al 6061 = 2.70
(14)
A413 = 2.8
(15)
Al 2024 = 2.78
2024Al/ (5%Al3Zr + 5%Al2O3 np) = 2.90
(16)
Al 6063 = 2.70
Al6063/5wt%SiC/2.5wt%Al2O3/ 2.5wt% Gr composite: 2.75
(17)
Al: 2.7
(18)
LM25Al = 2.68
(19)
A356 = 2.68
A356/10%SiC/5%B4C metal matrix composite = 2.73 Al6061-7.5%FlyAsh-10%SiCp = 2.74 A413/4.5%Fly ash/4.5%B4C = 2.78
Al- 15 wt% fly ash/1.5 wt% graphite (Gr) = 2.66 LM25Al + 7.5%SiC+ 5%TiO2 = 2.79 A356/10%SiC/5% RHA metal matrix composite = 2.70
Table 2: Chemical composition of AA2014 alloy (wt %) Si 0.5-0.9
Fe 0.5
Cu 3.9 – 5.0
Mn 0.4-1.2
Mg 0.2-0.8
Zn 0.25
Ti 0.2
Ni 0.1
Cr 0.1
Al Balance
Table 3: Measured properties of AA2014 alloy Melting point Density (g/cm3) Tensile Strength (MPa) Hardness (BHN) Toughness (Joule) Ductility (percentage elongation) Fatigue Strength (MPa) for 1 x 107 cycles
6400C 2.8 185 60 12 13 90
Table 4: The chemical composition eggshell [26] Constituents
Wt. %
calcium carbonate
(94%)
magnesium carbonate
(1%)
calcium phosphate
(1%)
organic matter
(4%)
Table 5: Sample designation and reinforcement weight ratio [27] S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Sample designation G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
SiC (wt.%) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 5 5 5 5 5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 10 10 10 10 10 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
Eggshell (wt.%) 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Table 6: Theoretical and experimental density of hybrid green composites [27] S.No.
Sample Designation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
Theoretical (g/cm3) 2.79 2.77 2.75 2.73 2.71 2.80 2.78 2.76 2.74 2.72 2.81 2.79 2.77 2.75 2.73 2.82 2.80 2.78 2.76 2.74 2.83 2.81 2.79 2.77 2.75
Experimental (g/cm3) 2.75 2.74 2.73 2.70 2.66 2.77 2.74 2.71 2.68 2.66 2.77 2.74 2.71 2.68 2.66 2.77 2.73 2.70 2.64 2.60 2.79 2.75 2.70 2.68 2.66
Table 7: Specific strength of hybrid green metal matrix composites S.No.
Sample Designation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
As Cast (kN-m/Kg) 90.91 96.72 100.37 100.00 100.00 93.86 97.81 95.20 93.28 92.11 95.31 96.72 92.99 92.54 90.23 96.03 94.51 92.59 90.91 88.46 93.19 93.09 90.74 85.82 78.95
As heat treated (kN-m/Kg) 98.18 105.11 108.06 108.15 108.65 101.08 105.84 95.94 97.01 95.86 100.36 102.19 98.89 99.25 93.98 101.81 98.90 97.04 94.70 92.31 100.36 96.73 92.59 87.69 80.83
Table 8: Change in dimensions of hybrid green metal matrix composites before and after thermal expansion S.No.
Sample Designation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
Dimension of samples before thermal expansion Length Width Cross in mm in sectional (L) mm area in (B) mm2 (A = L x B) 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750
Dimension of samples after thermal expansion Length Width Cross in mm in mm sectional (L) (B) area in mm2 (A = L x B) 27 29 29.5 29 28.5 29 27.5 27.5 29 28.5 28 27.5 28 28.5 27 27.5 28 28 27.5 28 27.5 27 28.5 27 26
26 24.5 24.5 24.2 24 23.5 24 24.5 24 23.5 24 23.5 25.8 24.5 25 24.5 23.5 24.5 24 24.5 24.5 24.5 24 24 24
702 710.5 722.75 701.8 684 681.5 660 673.75 696 669.75 672 646.25 722.4 698.25 675 673.75 658 686 660 686 673.75 661.5 684 648 624
S0304-3894(17)30005-5 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.01.002 HAZMAT 18299
To appear in:
Journal of Hazardous Materials
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
1-8-2016 22-12-2016 3-1-2017
Please cite this article as: Satpal Sharma, Shashi Prakash Dwivedi, Effects of waste eggshells and SiC addition on specific strength and thermal expansion of hybrid green metal matrix composite, Journal of Hazardous Materialshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.01.002 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Effects of Waste Eggshells and SiC Addition on Specific Strength and Thermal Expansion of Hybrid Green Metal Matrix Composite 1 1
Satpal Sharma, 1,2Shashi Prakash Dwivedi*
School of Engineering, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, Gautam Buddha Nagar, U.P. 201310, India
2
Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida, Gautam buddha Nagar, U.P. 201310, India *Corresponding Author: E-mail- [email protected]
Highlights
Fabrication of hybrid green metal matrix composite using waste eggshell and SiC particles
Specific strength and thermal expansion analysis
Overall density and cost
Comparative study of hybrid MMCs properties before and after heat treatment
Abstract Chicken eggshell waste is an industrial byproduct, and its disposal constitutes a serious environmental hazard. Chicken eggshell can be used in commercial products to produce new materials with low cost and density. Low density material which can sustain at higher temperature is a remarkable area of research. Keeping these facts in the mind, the present investigation aims to study the physical behaviour, specific strength and thermal expansion of AA2014/SiC/carbonized eggshell hybrid green metal matrix composites.
Microstructure of
hybrid green metal matrix shows that the reinforcement particles (SiC particulates and carbonized eggshells particles) are uniformly distributed in the matrix AA2014 alloy. Specific strength for the composites containing 2.5 wt. % SiC and up to 7.5 wt. % carbonized eggshell was observed to be higher than that of the other selected composites. While for the same composition (AA2014/2.5 % SiC/7.5 % carbonized eggshell composites), porosity was observed lower than other selected composites. The results revealed that sample of AA2014/2.5 % SiC/7.5
% carbonized eggshell showed minimum cross sectional area reduction after the thermal expansion at 4500C among all the selected samples. Overall costs of hybrid metal matrix composites were also calculated.
Keywords: Green MMC; Waste Eggshells; Specific Strength; Thermal Expansion; Cost
1. Introduction Continuously developing technologies contribute to improvements in materials science. Composite materials have now replaced traditional engineering materials. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are especially preferred for high temperature applications in many areas due to their light weight, high mechanical properties, excellent wear, and corrosion resistance. The production of composite materials and the development of subsequent shaping processes have become very relevant for technological applications. The modern development in the field of science and technology demands the developments of advanced engineering materials for various engineering applications, especially in the field of transportation, aerospace and military engineering related areas. These areas demand light weight, high strength having good properties. Such demands can only be met by development and processing of aluminum metal matrix composite materials. The main challenge in the development and processing of engineering materials is to control the microstructure, mechanical properties and cost of the product [1-2]. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) have been studied for some years now and their properties are becoming increasingly well known. Particle-reinforced metal matrix composites have found broad applications in various industries, such as automotive, aerospace, marine, nuclear industries and the other applications where low density, high stiffness and good wettability are required. The aluminum matrix composites are used in various engineering applications such as aircraft structures, automobile structures, fuselage structures, under tension cylinder block liners, vehicle drive shafts and automotive pistons. The advantages of metal matrix composites are their adapted physical, mechanical and thermal properties with low density, high abrasion, high thermal conductivity, high specific strength, high specific modulus, and wear resistance [3-5].
The ever-increasing demand for low cost reinforcement encouraged the interest towards production and utilization of using by-products from industry as reinforcement since they are readily available or are naturally renewable at affordable cost. A lot of environment pollution due to the waste of industries/societies encourages our societies for utilizing these waste products in research areas. More recent advancements involved the use of waste or recycling materials like fly-ash, red mud, rice-hull ash, bagasse ash, basalt fiber, breadfruit seed hull ash, maize stalk waste and eggshells waste particle. These raw materials offer great opportunities because synthesized reinforcements can be produced in situ economically. Even though, there have been several attempts to use chicken eggshell components for a variety of applications, its chemical composition and accessibility make chicken eggshell a probable source of biofiller - reinforced composites giving additional or improved thermal and mechanical properties. The other advantages of using chicken eggshell are its availability in bulk quantity with lightweight and being economical and environmental friendly in processing of composites as reinforcement particles. Investigation of various properties like mechanical and physical of aluminum metal matrix composites reinforced by eggshells particulate is a remarkable area of research [6-8]. On the basis of literature review (Table 1), it was found that no researcher has investigated the mechanical and thermal expansion of AA2014/SiC/carbonized eggshell green hybrid metal matrix composite. From the literature review, it was also observed that in most of cases, densities and cost of hybrid composites increased. Hence, in view of the above facts, an investigation was carried out to find the effects of SiC and carbonized eggshell addition on specific strength and thermal expansion behavior of green hybrid metal matrix composite.
2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Matrix Material
In the present investigation, AA2014 aluminium alloy was selected as a matrix material. 2014 aluminium alloy is an aluminium-based alloy often used in the aerospace industry. It is easily machined in certain tempers, and among the strongest available aluminium alloys, as well
as having high hardness. The corrosion resistance of this alloy is particularly poor. Chemical composition and mechanical properties are shown in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively [20].
2.2 Primary Reinforcement Material In the present investigation, carbonized eggshells powder was selected for primary reinforcement material. Figure 1 (a) shows the photograph of hen eggshell. Hen eggshells naturally consist of ceramic materials. The chemical composition (by weight) of eggshell is shown in Table 4. The hen eggshell was cleaned and sun dried to eliminate the covering layer of eggshell [20]. The dried eggshell was ball milled to obtain eggshell powder as shown in Figure 1 (b). Some part of eggshell membranes are left after dried the eggshell powder. It was then carbonized to 500°C for 3 h to remove the carbonaceous materials like eggshell membrane [7] as shown in Figure 1 (c). The eggshell membrane is the clear film lining the eggshell, visible when one peels a boiled egg. Eggshell membrane is primarily composed of fibrous proteins such as collagen type. However, eggshell membranes have also been shown to contain glycosaminoglycans, such as dermatan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate and sulfated glycoproteins including hexosamines, such as glucosamine. Other components identified in eggshell membranes are hyaluronic acid, sialic acid, desmosine and isodesmosine, ovotransferrin, lysyl oxidase, lysozyme, and β-Nacetylglucosaminidase [7].
2.3 Secondary Reinforcement Material Silicon carbide (SiC) was selected as a secondary reinforcement to further improve the mechanical properties of composites. Introduction of SiC to the aluminum matrix significantly enhances the strength, the modulus, abrasive wear resistance and thermal stability. The density of SiC (3.2g/cm3) is nearer to that of aluminum alloy AA2014 (2.8g/cm3). The resistance of SiC to acids, alkalis or molten salts up to 8000C makes it a good reinforcement candidate as a secondary reinforcement for aluminum based MMC. Additionally, SiC is easily available and has good wettability with aluminum alloys [1].
2.4 Composition Selection Results of Table 4 are already discussed in previous works [24-25, 27]. Previous results showed that the addition of carbonized eggshell particles and SiC particles improves the mechanical properties of the composite as there wettability is good with AA2014 aluminium alloy. Though previous results showed that by using carbonized eggshell particles as reinforcement material, density and cost of composites were reduced as compared to SiC reinforced composites. But heat treatable property of SiC reinforced composite was found to be much better than SiC reinforced composites. Hence, in view of the above facts, an investigation was carried out to find the effects of SiC and carbonized eggshell addition on the physical and mechanical properties of AA2014/SiC/Carbonized Eggshell hybrid green metal matrix composite simultaneously. On the basis of the results based on pilot investigations, the compositions of reinforcements (SiC and Carbonized eggshell) were selected and are shown in Table 5. The total percentage of both reinforcements varies from 2.5 wt. % to 12.5 wt. % in AA2014 matrix material. If the weight percentage of reinforcement increases more than 12.5 %, then there is no more effects on physical and mechanical properties of hybrid metal matrix composite were observed.
2.5 Processing of hybrid MMCs AA 2014/carbonized eggshells/SiC hybrid green metal matrix composite used in this study was developed by electromagnetic stir casting technique at parameters of 12 ampere (current), 180s (time) and 7000C (matrix pouring temperature) respectively and immediately extruded on UTM machine at 60 MPa using cylindrical H13 tool steel die coated with graphite [20]. In the present investigation, precipitation hardening process (heat treatment technique) was employed to improve further mechanical properties. AA2014 Aluminum alloys have broad applications due to their good mechanical and physical properties [28-31]. AA2014 aluminium alloys containing Cu and small amount of Mg and Si can be heat treatable in the cast condition reinforced with chicken eggshell (ES) due to the precipitation strengthening mechanisms. One of the most familiar heat treatment is the T6 treatment, in which the constituent is solution heat
treated at approximately 530°C. During the casting of AA2014/ eggshells composite, the CaCO3, Mg and Si atoms are segregated in the primary Al phase which is typically dendritic due to solidification process. The solutionizing treatment dissolves the CaCO3, Mg and Si elements in the primary Al phase. The quenching process solutionizing capture some precipitation reaction throughout cooling and recover the vacancy fraction to give support to mobility of atoms in the ageing process and reduce residual stresses in the composites [24-25]. Heat treatment process was carried out at solutionizing time of 4.5 hour, aging temperature of 2500C and aging time of 13.5 hour respectively [3, 27].
2.6 Density and Porosity Analysis The theoretical densities of composites were calculated using a rule of mixtures as given in equation 1. Theoretical density of hybrid MMC= Wt. fraction of AA2014 x Density of AA2014 + Wt. fraction of SiC x Density of SiC + Wt. fraction of carbonized eggshell x Density of carbonized eggshell
(1)
The experimental densities of the composites were determined by means of the Archimedes principle. To obtain the density of the samples experimentally the mass of each composite was first measured. Then, the volume of each composite was obtained as shown in Figure 2. The experimental density was then calculated using the following formula [24]: Experimental density of composite = mass of composite/Volume
(2)
Porosity (P) is the percentage of the pores volume to the total volume with the volume of a substance [3]. It is defined by (3)
3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Microstructure Analysis Since, maximum specific strength and minimum cross sectional area reduction after thermal expansion were observed for AA2014/7.5% Eggshell/2.5%SiC composite. Hence, in view of the above facts, microstructures of sample designation G3 were carried out. Figure 3 (ad) shows a typical microstructure of AA2014 reinforced with 2.5 % SiC and 7.5 % carbonized
eggshell hybrid green metal matrix composites. It shows uniform distribution of carbonized eggshell and SiC particles in AA 2014 matrix. No clustering was observed in AA2014/7.5 wt. % eggshell/2.5 wt.% SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 clearly shows the interface between the AA2014 matrix and reinforcement materials (SiC particles and carbonized eggshell particles). It shows proper wettability and good interface bonding between AA 2014 matrix, SiC particles and carbonized eggshell particles respectively. Figure 4 shows the EDX pattern of typical AA 2014/7.5 %eggshells/2.5 % SiC hybrid green composite. EDX pattern of typical AA 2014/7.5 %eggshells/2.5 % SiC hybrid green composite also shows uniform distribution of eggshell and SiC in AA2014 aluminium alloy. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show no clustering (microstructure of AA2014/2.5%SiC/7.5%eggshell). Maximum tensile strength was also observed for AA2014/2.5%SiC/7.5%eggshell composite. Though, with the increasing of reinforcement percentage, mechanical properties improved. But it was observed that beyond some range of reinforcement weight percent, clustering of reinforcement (Here meaning of clustering is grouping a set of carbonized eggshell and SiC particles) observed as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows the microstructure of AA2014 reinforced with 2.5% SiC and 12.5 %eggshell composites. When clustering of reinforcement particles occurred, some air is interrupted with reinforcement particles. Due to these airs, porosity is developed at the interfaces of composites. This porosity reduces the mechanical properties. Though, density of sample designation G5 is lower than sample designation G3, but its specific strength is also lower than sample designation G3. Lower specific strength of sample designation G5 may be due to the clustering of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014 aluminium alloy as shown in Figure 5.
3.2 Density and Porosity Analysis Table 6 shows that both the theoretical and the experimental densities decreased with increasing percentage additions of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/SiC composites. Theoretical densities of SiC particles and carbonized eggshell particles were 3.21 and 2 g/cm3, respectively. Even though the density is lowest for sample G5, but sample G3 has better mechanical properties. The overall theoretical density of AA2014/Eggshell/SiC hybrid green metal matrix composite decreased with wt.% additions of carbonized eggshell particles. The
theoretical density of the composites (AA2014) decreased from 2.8 g/cm3 at 0 wt.% to 2.75 g/cm3 at 7.5 wt.% for carbonized eggshell particles and 2.5 wt.% SiC particles. The experimental density of the composites decreased from 2.78 g/cm3 at 0 wt.% to 2.73 g/cm3 at 7.5 wt.% for carbonized eggshell particles and 2.5 wt.% SiC particles. From the theoretical density analysis of AA2014/7.5 % Eggshell/2.5 % SiC hybrid green metal matrix composite, it can be observed that about 1.8% theoretical density reduced as compared to matrix alloy AA2014.
In the present investigation, red deviation bars between theoretical density and experimental density are showing percent porosity as shown in Figure 6. Shorter black deviation bar between theoretical and experimental density shows low porosity, while longer black deviation bar shows higher porosity. Higher percentage of porosity leads to specimen failure. Minimum porosity was found to be 0.72 % for AA2014/7.5%carbonized eggshell/2.5 % SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites (sample designation G3).
3.3 XRD Analysis Figure 7 illustrate XRD analysis results for sample designation G3. XRD analysis was carried out to recognize the different elements and phases present in the hybrid green metal matrix composite [23, 24]. The XRD result of AA2014/7.5 wt. % carbonized eggshells/2.5 wt. % SiC particulate hybrid green metal matrix composite confirms the presence of CaCO3, Cu, SiC, CaSiO3, Al, MnO2, Al2O3, Mg2SiO4. From XRD pattern weight percentage of composition were found to be about 4 % of CaCO3, 2 % of SiC, 1 % of CaSiO3, 1 % of Mg2SiO4, 1 % of Cu, 0.25 % of MnO2 and 0.25 % of Al2O3 respectively.
3.4 Specific Strength Analysis The specific strength of different compositions was calculated by dividing the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) by the experimental density of composites. The specific strength of AA2014/7.5 % carbonized eggshell/2.5 % SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites are shown in Table 7. It can be observed from Figure 8 that after addition of carbonized eggshell particles up
to the weight fraction of 7.5 % in AA2014/2.5 % SiC composites, specific strength of hybrid green metal matrix composite as heat treated is maximum (100.3 kN-m/Kg). Further, increasing the weight fraction of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/2.5% SiC composite, specific strength goes on decreasing and it is lowest for sample designation G25. The presence of reinforcements (carbonized eggshell/SiC) produces a significant increase in the work hardening of the material during tensile testing. This increase in work hardening is more significant at higher weight fraction of carbonized eggshell particles (presence of CaCO3, Cu, SiC, CaSiO3, Al, MnO2, Al2O3 and Mg2SiO4). But, it decreases at higher weight fraction of carbonized eggshell and SiC (more than 7.5 % of carbonized eggshell and more than 2.5% of SiC). This may be due to clustering of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/SiC composite. It can be observed that after addition of SiC particles in AA2014/Eggshell composite, heat treatable property of green metal matrix composite significantly improved. After the heat treatment process, about 7.77 % specific strength improved as compared to cast AA2014/7.5%Eggshell/2.5 % SiC green metal composite.
3.5 Thermal Expansion Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges. Thermal expansion was measured by heating the composite up to 4500C in electric furnace. The thermal expansion values of different samples are given in Table 8.
The change in dimensions of various compositions is shown in Figure 9. It is clear that the change in dimension of AA2014/7.5% carbonized eggshell/2.5 % SiC green metal matrix composites is lowest among all compositions. Though, Sample designation G13 also shows low change in dimension (from 755 to 722.4 mm2). But due to poor specific strength, it cannot be recommended for aircraft and automotive industries. A356/15%SiC/5% Fly-ash hybrid metal
matrix composite shows better mechanical properties in comparison with other compositions. The change in dimension of sample designation G3 is low in comparison with other samples. Low porosity of sample designation G3 is also responsible of low thermal expansion. Hence, AA2014/7.5% carbonized eggshell/2.5% SiC green metal matrix composites is appropriate for the various applications. 3.6 Cost Estimation The cost of AA2014 is about 300 INR (Indian Rupees), while the cost of SiC powder powder is 700 INR. The eggshell particles are available as a waste, so the eggshell particles are available free of cost [25, 26]. From Figure 10, it can be observed that cost of hybrid green metal matrix composites continuously decreases after the addition of carbonized eggshell particles in AA2014/SiC composite. Sample designation G3 (7.5% Eggshell and 2.5 % SiC) shows better specific strength and low thermal expansion. Cost of sample designation G3 was estimated 287.5 INR. Cost of sample designation G3 was found about 5.83 % lower than the AA2014 alloy. Minimum cost (272.5 INR) was observed for sample designation G5, but its specific strength is lower than sample designation G3, which is not acceptable from mechanical properties point of view.
4 Conclusions The microstructural characteristics, physical behaviour, specific strength and thermal expansion of AA2014/waste eggshell/SiC hybrid green metal matrix composites were investigated in this research. The following conclusions can be withdrawn: 1. Microstructure images show that carbonized eggshell particles and SiC particles are uniformly distributed in AA2014 aluminium alloy. 2. Maximum specific strength was found to be for sample designation G3 (reinforced with 7.5 % eggshell and 2.5 % SiC). Cost and density of AA2014/7.5% eggshell/2.5 % SiC composite were found to be 5.83 % and 1.8 % lower than matrix alloy, which is acceptable. 3. Minimum thermal expansion and porosity were also observed for sample designation G3.
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Figure 1: Photograph of; (a) eggshells, (b) eggshells powder, (c) carbonized eggshells powder.
Figure 2: Volume measurement of composites [24]
Figure 6: Density and porosity analysis of hybrid green MMCs
Figure 7: XRD results of sample designation G3
Figure 8: Specific strength of hybrid green MMCs
Figure 9: The change in dimensions of various compositions
Figure 10: Cost estimation of hybrid green MMCs
Table 1: Hybrid metal matrix composites with different reinforcements [9-19] Ref.
Matrix Material
Hybrid MMCs
(Theoretical density
(Theoretical density in g/cc)
in g/cc) . (9) (10)
Al 2219 = 2.84
Al 2219/15%SiC/3% graphite composites = 2.87
AlSi12CuMgNi = 3.3 Al Si12 Cu Mg Ni/12% Al2O3 /4% carbon fiber composites = 3.22
. (11)
Al 6061 = 2.70
Al6061/5%Al2O3/5% Graphite = 2.74
(12)
A356 = 2.68
(13)
Al 6061 = 2.70
(14)
A413 = 2.8
(15)
Al 2024 = 2.78
2024Al/ (5%Al3Zr + 5%Al2O3 np) = 2.90
(16)
Al 6063 = 2.70
Al6063/5wt%SiC/2.5wt%Al2O3/ 2.5wt% Gr composite: 2.75
(17)
Al: 2.7
(18)
LM25Al = 2.68
(19)
A356 = 2.68
A356/10%SiC/5%B4C metal matrix composite = 2.73 Al6061-7.5%FlyAsh-10%SiCp = 2.74 A413/4.5%Fly ash/4.5%B4C = 2.78
Al- 15 wt% fly ash/1.5 wt% graphite (Gr) = 2.66 LM25Al + 7.5%SiC+ 5%TiO2 = 2.79 A356/10%SiC/5% RHA metal matrix composite = 2.70
Table 2: Chemical composition of AA2014 alloy (wt %) Si 0.5-0.9
Fe 0.5
Cu 3.9 – 5.0
Mn 0.4-1.2
Mg 0.2-0.8
Zn 0.25
Ti 0.2
Ni 0.1
Cr 0.1
Al Balance
Table 3: Measured properties of AA2014 alloy Melting point Density (g/cm3) Tensile Strength (MPa) Hardness (BHN) Toughness (Joule) Ductility (percentage elongation) Fatigue Strength (MPa) for 1 x 107 cycles
6400C 2.8 185 60 12 13 90
Table 4: The chemical composition eggshell [26] Constituents
Wt. %
calcium carbonate
(94%)
magnesium carbonate
(1%)
calcium phosphate
(1%)
organic matter
(4%)
Table 5: Sample designation and reinforcement weight ratio [27] S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Sample designation G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
SiC (wt.%) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 5 5 5 5 5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 10 10 10 10 10 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
Eggshell (wt.%) 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Table 6: Theoretical and experimental density of hybrid green composites [27] S.No.
Sample Designation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
Theoretical (g/cm3) 2.79 2.77 2.75 2.73 2.71 2.80 2.78 2.76 2.74 2.72 2.81 2.79 2.77 2.75 2.73 2.82 2.80 2.78 2.76 2.74 2.83 2.81 2.79 2.77 2.75
Experimental (g/cm3) 2.75 2.74 2.73 2.70 2.66 2.77 2.74 2.71 2.68 2.66 2.77 2.74 2.71 2.68 2.66 2.77 2.73 2.70 2.64 2.60 2.79 2.75 2.70 2.68 2.66
Table 7: Specific strength of hybrid green metal matrix composites S.No.
Sample Designation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
As Cast (kN-m/Kg) 90.91 96.72 100.37 100.00 100.00 93.86 97.81 95.20 93.28 92.11 95.31 96.72 92.99 92.54 90.23 96.03 94.51 92.59 90.91 88.46 93.19 93.09 90.74 85.82 78.95
As heat treated (kN-m/Kg) 98.18 105.11 108.06 108.15 108.65 101.08 105.84 95.94 97.01 95.86 100.36 102.19 98.89 99.25 93.98 101.81 98.90 97.04 94.70 92.31 100.36 96.73 92.59 87.69 80.83
Table 8: Change in dimensions of hybrid green metal matrix composites before and after thermal expansion S.No.
Sample Designation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25
Dimension of samples before thermal expansion Length Width Cross in mm in sectional (L) mm area in (B) mm2 (A = L x B) 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750 30 25 750
Dimension of samples after thermal expansion Length Width Cross in mm in mm sectional (L) (B) area in mm2 (A = L x B) 27 29 29.5 29 28.5 29 27.5 27.5 29 28.5 28 27.5 28 28.5 27 27.5 28 28 27.5 28 27.5 27 28.5 27 26
26 24.5 24.5 24.2 24 23.5 24 24.5 24 23.5 24 23.5 25.8 24.5 25 24.5 23.5 24.5 24 24.5 24.5 24.5 24 24 24
702 710.5 722.75 701.8 684 681.5 660 673.75 696 669.75 672 646.25 722.4 698.25 675 673.75 658 686 660 686 673.75 661.5 684 648 624
