Perceptualand Motor Skills, 1992, 7 5 , 1107-1113. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1992

EFFECTS O F SUBLIMINAL BACKWARD-RECORDED MESSAGES ON ATTITUDES ' LYLE C. SWART AND CYNTHIA L. MORGAN California State University, Staanirlous Summarv -This study was designed to measure the effects of subliminal backward messages on attitudes. It was hypothesized that subliminal backward-recorded messages would influence the attitudes of listeners. Three subliminal backward-recorded messages from a popular song were used. 82 undergraduates were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: a three-message group heard a tape containing the backward messages recorded three times in succession, a six-message group heard a tape with the same backward messages recorded six times in succession, two control groups heard nonbackward recorded music. No statistically significant differences were found between the groups on a posttape attitude questionnaire. The results are discussed in terms of unconscious processing and the tricomponenc theory of attitudes and attirude change.

In 1983 the legislature of the state of Arkansas proposed that the following message be attached to all records and tapes sold in the state: "Warning: This record contains backward masking which may be perceptible at a subliminal level when the record is played forward" (Vokey & Read, 1985). Stemming from the now notorious "Cola-Cola experiment" of the 1950s (Matlin, 1983), the general public has been concerned with the possibility of their thoughts and actions being "controlled" by the use of subliminal stimuli. Pastor Gary Greenwald (Tisdall, 1983) made charges that backward recordings on some popular albums can influence listeners' behavior without their being consciously aware of it. Evidence exists which supports subliminal perception. In the context of visual subliminal experiments, two studies by Silverman are of particular interest (Silverman, 1966; Silverman & Silverman, 1964). Both studies were successful in inducing aroused emotional states through tachistoscopically presented subliminal cues. Another study showed that anxiety could be induced in subjects by having subliminal stimuli presented in a movie film (Tyrer, Lewis, & Lee, 1978). A similar study presented subliminally embedded threatening images, neutral images, and humorous images in three separate videotapes of the same sequence of computer graphic images. Self-rated anxiety measures found that the threatening-images group experienced more anxiety than their comparable control group and that the humorous images group experienced less anxiety (Robles, Smith, Carver, & Wellens, 1987). The present experiment deals with auditory subliminal stimuli and their Re uests for reprints should be sent to Cynthia L. Morgan, Department of Psychology, Lali~orniaState University, Stanislaus, Turlock, CA 91380.

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effect on attitudes. There is much controversy dealing with what effect, if any, supposed backward subliminal messages have. The controversy reached the headlines with the Judas Priest heavy metal band trial (B~llard,1990). The popular heavy metal band was implicated in a teenager's suicide because their album Stained Class allegedly contained backwards lyrics that may have reinforced desire for suicide. "The backward-masking hypothesis claims that as the music plays forward, the listener's subconscious perceives the masked message" (Bdard, 1990, p. 88). Kaser (1986), investigating the effects of auditory subliminal messages on image production and dreams, produced an auditory subliminal message by speeding up a message that was sung. Kaser believed that the message was subliminal "not because it could not be consciously heard, but because it could not be consciously understood" (p. 401). His results indicated a significant difference in dream and imagery drawings between his experimental and control groups. Kotzk and Moller (1990) found results indicating that auditory subliminal stimulation increased the GSR. Fudin and Benjamin (1991) and Urban (1992) reviewed other auditory subliminal stimulation experiments. While psychologists have ~ r o p o s e d many different theories regarding attitude formation and change, one of the foremost incorporates a systems model (Laszlo, 1972). I n ~articular,the tricomponent theory of attitudes proposes that an attitude is composed of three interacting components: (1) an affective component, (2) a cognitive component (beliefs), and (3) a behavior component (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960). The affective component (feelings and emotions) is the evaluative aspect of an attitude. The cognitive aspect is made up of the beliefs held about an attitudinal object. The behavior aspect is the intention to behave in one way or another on encountering the attitudinal object. Together these three elements form a system in which change in one promotes change in the others. The tricomponent model was validated experimentally by Breckler (1984). Subjects' attitudes toward snakes were examined, indicating the model was "statistically acceptable, its relative fit was very good, and the intercomponent correlations were moderate" (Breckler, 1984, p. 1191). Breckler concluded that, when studying attitudes, one should consider all three components. Since the three components interact (Rajecki, 1982), input and change in one of the components should produce change in the other components. Rosenberg (1960) empirically showed that the affective component can influence the cognitive component. H e measured affect and cognitions toward controversial topics both before and after experimental manipulation of subjects' affect. Subjects were given the hypnotic suggestion to take a position opposite to their own on the controversial topics Analysis indicated that the hypnotized subjects not only showed more affective change than the control

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group, they also showed more shifting in their cognitions toward the topic. Clearly, the change in the affective components helped produce change in the cognitive component (Rosenberg, 1960). The purpose of the present studies was to see what effects subliminal backward messages have on attitudes. I n light of the ethical concerns of presenting backward recorded messages, the subjects were tested using a song that contained "positive" backward recorded messages. This format is similar to what one would conceivably hear broadcast on the radio or MTV. However, instead of there being "alleged" negative backward-recorded messages in the music, the song used contained "positive" backward-recorded messages. The present experiment presented backward subliminal messages in a popular song format and measured how effective these messages were in changing attitudes. Many modern attitude theorists have proposed that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between repeated exposure to a message and attitude change. Attitudes presented in conscious, forward-presented messages have shown the greatest change when repeated approximately three times (Cacioppo & Petty, 1979). The suggestion is that information is first regarded with defensiveness, then becomes more favorable as a person thinks about the arguments (three repetitions), and finally becomes tedious as high repetition promotes boredom (Smith, 1982). Since this conscious model is the closest we have to an unconscious model, it was hypothesized that three repetitions of a backward-recorded message, in popular song format, would produce greater change among a three-repetition subliminal backward-recorded message group, a six-repetition group, and two control groups. The backward messages were a part of the song "Dark Light" by the band, Beat Farmers. This band sought to counter the alleged "negative" backward-recorded messages in songs by deliberately presenting "positive" backwardrecorded messages. Scores on an attitude-change questionnaire were the dependent variable. I t was hypothesized that, since the music in the song was pleasurable, the message when paired with the music would produce a liking for the message, with the three backward-recorded message group among the four groups showing the most attitudinal change.

METHOD Subjects The subjects were 32 men and 50 women undergraduate university volunteers randomly assigned to one of four conditions: 20 in the three-message experimental group, 2 1 in the six-message experimental group, and 2 1 and 20 subjects, respectively, in the two control groups used to match the playing time of each experimental group.

Stimuli The stimulus was produced on an audiocassette of the song "Dark

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LightH by the musical group, Beat Farmers. The experimenter made a "mini" song that consisted of repetitions of the three backward-recorded messages already contained in the song: (1) Don't take drugs, (2) Stay in school, and (3) Clean up your room. This was accomplished by recording the song backwards on a four-track OTARI Semiprofessional Multitrack tapeplayer (reel to reel) and then transposing it backwards onto an audiocassette. The backward-recorded cassette was then monitored to identify the message sequence and was consequently identified in the forward-playing mode and recorded. The backward-recorded messages were masked by simultaneously played music. Urban (1992) c d s this subliminal masking. The amplitude of the message never exceeded the amplitude of the music. The content of the backward message was subliminal. Thus the message was subliminal because it could not be consciously understood. The three backward messages, Don't take drugs, Stay in school, and Clean up your room, lasted 10.75 sec. For the three-message group this 10.75-sec. sequence was recorded three times in succession-hence three repetitions of each message. The six-message group had the 10.75-sec. sequence recorded six times in succession. Each group heard 94 sec. of nonmessage music, folIowed by the message sequence, and finally 45 more seconds of nonmessage music, all taken from Dark Light, to create a "mini song." The three-message group had a playing time of 171.25 sec.; the six-message group had a 203.50 sec. total playing time. Two control groups listening to nonmessage music from Dark Light were used to match the playing time of each of the experimental groups. The stimulus cassettes were played to the subjects through Koss K/6A headphones on a Fisher System AC/DC PH406 portable stereo. Attitudes were assessed by means of an eight-item questionnaire designed specifically for the content of the three backward messages. Six questions (Keeping my bedroom clean and neat is important; Staying in school is of primary importance to me; One should never take illegal drugs; I am opposed to people starting and then dropping out of school; I find satisfaction in keeping my home tidy; I think personal use of small amounts of marijuana should be legal) specifically covered information on the background messages, two questions per each backward-recorded message. Two additional questions were filler items asking about sports. For each backward-recorded message there were two questions designed to measure the persuasiveness of that message. Responses to all questions were on a %point scale in Likert format, with 1 being strongly disagree. Procedure

The subjects were read a set of instructions and directed to answer the questionnaire, being given unlimited time to d o so. The experimenter then instructed the subjects to put on the headphones and played the appropriate

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stimulus. After hearing the tape, subjects were once again given the questionnaire. RESULTS Analyses showed no statistically significant differences among conditions. The responses to the six message-related items on each questionnaire were added to produce a single score with a range from 6 to 54. The adjusted means for the three-message experimental group, six-message experimental group, three-message control group, and six-message control group were 39.5 (SD=4.7), 39.7 (SD=4.3), 38.7 ( S D = 6 . 4 ) , and 38.7 (SD=4.5), respectively. An analysis of covariance was performed, with the pretest scores as the covariate. No statistically significant differences were observed between conditions. DISCUSSION The present experiment provided no support for the idea that subliminal backward-recorded messages can influence the attitudes of listeners without their awareness. There are several factors one must consider. The lack of statistical significance indicates that the subliminal backward messages had no effect on changing attitudes. The lack could be explained by the use of identical questionnaires for both the pre- and posttest; however, after the experiment was completed, the subjects were asked by the experimenter whether they were answering the posttest with an open mind or were simply repeating their answers from the pretest. All subjects said they could not remember their pretest answers with certainty and were answering the posttest in accordance with their feelings at the time. This observation suggests that the use of identical questions had no effect on the outcome of the current experiment. Another important factor was the complexity of the backward messages given. I t has been reported that subjects given subliminal presentation of the word "cheese" made significantly more word associations to the word cheese than a group given a supraliminal "cheese" message or a control group (Spence & Holland, 1962). I n another study, the words Hershey's Chocolate were presented subliminally to see if sales could be increased through subliminal advertising. The Hershey advertisement had no bearing on the brand of chocolate the subjects purchased (George & Jennings, 1975). Similarly, attempting to replicate the famous Coke "experiment," Hawkins (1970) found that experimental subjects reported being thustier than the control group (no subliminal Coke message) but their thirst was not brand-specific. Applied to the present experiment, the three backward-recorded messages-Don't take drugs, Stay in school, and Clean up your room-may be too complex in nature for the unconscious to comprehend. Further, most backward messages supposedly dubbed into songs are usually more complex

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than "Hershey's Chocolate" and therefore may be too complex to comprehend. Another important factor involves Rosenberg's (1960) findings. Since there is no reason to doubt the validity of Rosenberg's finding of the affectual component's ability to influence the cognitive component, the lack of statistical significance can be best explained by the message not being perceived. Were the message not perceived, it could not be paired with the music, as hypothesized, to produce a positive affective state, so attitudes would not change. The tricomponent theory of attitudes proposes that the most effective program of attitude change would be one that actively produces change in each of the three components, thereby producing the greatest possible change in the over-all attitude. Since the backward messages are designed to produce over-all change by direct input into only one component (affective), it is doubtful that the over-all attitude would be changed much, even if the message was successfully perceived. Considering the results, it becomes apparent that mass public persuasion through use of subliminal backward-recorded messages is a doubtful proposition at best. Further, when one considers that most "backward messages" are not dubbed into a song intentionally but rather are highly subjective interpretations that listeners consciously seek to make (Vokey & Read, 1985), the probability of unconscious manipulation becomes even more remote. REFERENCES BILLARD, M (1990) Heavy metal goes on trial. Rolling Stone, July 12-26, 83-84, 87-88, 132. BRECKLER, S J. (1984) Empirical validation of affect, behavior, and cognition as distinct components of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Prjchology, 47, 1191-1205. CACIOPPO, J. T., & PETTY,R. E. (1979) Effects of message repetition and position on cognitive response, recall, and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 97-109.

FUDIN,R., & BENJAMIN,C. (1991) Review of auditory subliminal psychodynamic activation experiments. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 1115-1136. GEORGE,S. G . , & JENNINGS, L. B. (1975) Effect of subliminal stimuli on consumer behavior: negative evidence. Perceptz~aland Motor Skills, 41, 847-854. HAWKINS, D. (1970) The effects of subliminal stimulation on drive level and brand preference. Jotirnal ofMarketing Research, 7, 322-325. KASER,V. A. (1986) The effects of an auditory subliminal message upon the production of images and dreams. Journal o/ Nervous and Mental Disease, 1 7 4 , 397-407. KOTZB, I-I. F., & MOLLER,A. T. (1990) Effect of auditory subhmnal stimulation on GSR. Psychological Reports, 67, 93 1-934. LASZLO,E. (1972) The relevance ofgeneral systems theory. New York: George Braziller. MATLIN,M. W. (1983) Perception. Boston, M A : ALlyn & Bacon. RAJECKI, D. W. (1982) Attitudes: themes and advances. Sunderlnnd, MA: Sinauer Assoc. ROBLES,R., SMITI-I,R., CARVER, C. S., & WELLENS,A. R. (1987) Influence of subliminal visual images on the experience of anxiety. Personalio and Social Psychology Bulletin, 113, 399-410.

ROSENBERG, M. J. (1960) Cognitive reorganization in response to the hypnotic reversal of attitudinal affect. Journal of Personalio, 28, 39-63. ROSENBERG, M. J., & HOVLAND, C . I. (1960) CO nitive, affective and behavioral components , J. McGuire, R. P. Abelson, & J. W. of attitude. In M. J. Rosenberg, C. I. ~ o v f a n d W.

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Brehm (Eds.), Attitude organization and change: an analysis of consistency among attitude components. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer. Press. Pp. 1-14. SILVERMAN,L. H. (1966) A techni ue for the study of psychodynamic relationships; the effects of subliminally presentel aggressive stimuli on the production of pathological thinking in a schizophrenic population. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 30, 103-111. SILVERMAN, L. H., & SILVERMAN, D . K. (1964) A clinical-experimental approach to the study of subliminal stimulation. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 69, 158-172. SMITH, M. J. (1982) Persuasion and human action. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. SPENCE,D. P., & HOLLAND, B. (1962) The restricting effects of awareness: a paradox and an explanation Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 64, 163-174. TISDALL, P. (1983) M~xedmessages. Science, 7, 84-85. TYRER,P., LEWIS,1'. & LEE, I. (1978) Effects of subliminal and superliminal stress on syrnptoms of anxiety. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 166, 88-95. URBAN,M. J. (1992) Auditory subliminal stimulation: a re-examination. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 515-541. VOKEY,J. R., & READ,J. D. (1985) Subliminal messages: between the Devil and the Media. American Psychologist, 40, 1231-1239.

Accepted September 28, 1992

Effects of subliminal backward-recorded messages on attitudes.

This study was designed to measure the effects of subliminal backward messages on attitudes. It was hypothesized that subliminal backward-recorded mes...
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