Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research Publish Ahead of Print DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000373
Effects of psyching-up on sprint performance
Authors Sarra Hammoudi-Nassib1,2, Sabri Nassib1,2, Moktar Chtara1,2, Walid Briki3, Anis
Affiliations 1
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Chaouachi1,2, David Tod4, Karim Chamari1,5.
Tunisian Research Laboratory ''Sports Performance Optimization'' National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS), Tunis, Tunisia. University of Manouba, ISSEP Ksar Saîd, Tunis, Tunisia.
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Laboratory ACTES
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(EA 3596), University of French West Indies and Guyana, Pointe -à-
Pitre, Guadeloupe, France
Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth.
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Aspetar, Research and Education Centre, Aspetar, Qatar Orthopedic and Sports Medicine Hospital.
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Corresponding author
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Anis Chaouachi, PhD
Tunisian Research Laboratory ''Sports Performance Optimisation'' National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS) Bp263, Ave Med Ali Akid, 1004 El Menzah, Tunis, Tunisa
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Tel: +216 21 17 69 40
Fax: +216 71 70 97 89 E-mail:
[email protected] Copyright Ó Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. All rights reserved.
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RUNNING HEAD: Psyching-up and sprinting
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EFFECTS OF PSYCHING-UP ON SPRINT PERFORMANCE
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ABSTRACT The present research aimed at examining whether the psyching-up (PU) strategies improve
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performance in 30-m sprinting. Sixteen male sprinters (age 20.6 ± 1.3 years, body mass 77.5 ±
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7.1 kg, height 180.8 ± 5.6 cm) participated in this study. Before each experimental session, the
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Hooper Index was used to monitor the subjects feeling for quality of sleep of the previous night,
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perceived quantity of stress, delayed onset muscle soreness, and fatigue. After completing general
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and specific warm-up, participants had to rate their degree of self-confidence. Then, they were
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asked to follow one of these four conditions: Imagery (experimental PU condition), Preparatory
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arousal (experimental PU condition), Attention-placebo (control condition), and Distraction
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(control condition) during the final 30 seconds of the rest period right before performing a 30-m
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sprint. Participants separately and randomly performed all conditions. Results showed that while
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the imagery and preparatory arousal strategies contributed to increase the performance in the
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short-distance sprints (from 0 to 10-m), the imagery strategy contributed to increase the
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performance in the 30-m sprints. These findings support the general view that the PU strategies
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could improve athletic performance.
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Key Words: psyching up, imagery, preparatory arousal, velocity, performance
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INTRODUCTION It is common that athletes use pre-competitive strategies to enhance their performance.
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These strategies, called psyching up (PU) strategies, have elicited the sport psychologists’ interest
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ever since authors showed their impact on sport performance (8, 13, 16, 28, 32, 36, 38, 40).
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Athletes can use a large range of behavioral or cognitive techniques designed to psych
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themselves up. More specifically, researchers have found that PU may increase the muscular
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endurance (8,16,38), strength (4, 13, 28, 36, 38, 40), power (8,31,39), acceleration (11,16) and
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the athletic performance (1, 11, 16, 17,33). The effects of the PU strategies on the maximal
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strength and local muscular endurance during simple or isolated dynamic contraction would
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result from a series of factors which may be classified as having central, peripheral, and
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mechanical influences. (17). However, although the effect of PU strategies on the performance to
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simple tasks is now well documented (8, 13, 16, 28, 32, 36, 38, 40), the effect of these strategies
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on the actual athletic performance has received limited empirical attention. The purpose of the
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present study was to examine the PU strategies effect on the actual athletic performance.
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Some authors displayed the effects of PU strategies on athletic performance (16, 33).
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However, their findings revealed differences. Studies found that only the Imagery (i.e.,
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visualizing oneself performing a task as best of one’s ability) (16) or Preparatory arousal (i.e.,
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charging-up for maximum performance by getting made, aroused and pumped-up) (16) was
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associated with higher levels of grip strength, although these two PU strategies have been
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identified by other authors as the most effective PU strategies in enhancing strength performance
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(4,13,28,36,38,40). However, these studies present two major limitations. First, they generally
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used untrained samples of individuals when investigating the PU effect on the strength
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production―where the PU effect was often robust (7). Thus, it is not clear whether PU has a
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beneficial effect for trained individuals (7, 33). Second, research was generally focused on simple
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tasks performance (e.g., handgrip, leg extension, bench press, sit-ups, press ups, pull-ups, and the
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standing broad jump) as experimental tasks (7,,8, 13).
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Based on athletic performance over 60 and 100 yards, Caudill and Allen (8) found that
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when participants used the Preparatory arousal, Attentional focus, Self-efficacy strategies,
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participants recorded higher levels of performance than when participants used the Distraction
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and Attention placebo. This indicates a significant PU main effect with faster running times.
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However, the Caudill and Allen’s study used sprint distances that most athletes rarely use in real
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competitions. In concrete, rugby union players, for example, sprint over 1-20 meters and do not
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reach top speeds (11,12). For most team sport athletes, acceleration has more influence on
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performance than top speed. Research examining the influence of PU on acceleration and sprint
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performance over short distances, that replicate actual distances covered in a game, will extend
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knowledge and yield information to help athletes.
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Consequently, both to generalize any conclusions about the PU effect on performance and
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to apply findings to real competitive situations, the present research did take into account all of
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these limitations in (a) using samples of athletes ―who are trained individuals―, (b) focusing on
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the actual athletic performance, and (c) to use short sprint distances. Indeed, a large range of sport
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competitions such as soccer, rugby, athletic races, rowing, etc., require high levels of strength
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production and acceleration. For example, some authors showed that the strongest athletes are the
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most effective in sprinting (1, 11, 22, 41). This reinforces the necessity to focus on the actual
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athletic performance and short sprint distances. Moreover, the present study also attempted to
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compare the strategies of imagery and preparatory arousal―which have been recommended as
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important strategies enhancing performance in a number of previous studies (8, 13, 16, 28, 33,
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36, 38, 40)―in order to shed the light about their potential effects on the actual athletic
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performance.
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The present study used the 30-m sprint as study context in this experiment because (a) it
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is representative of sprint distances covered during competition in multiple sports (e.g., soccer,
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rugby), (b) it mainly requires high levels of strength (1, 22, 33) and acceleration (11,16), (c) it is a
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compound sport-specific skill regularly trained to improve athletic performance, and then related
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to success (3, 6, 11-12) and (d) it lends itself well for rigorous analyses. Indeed, in the present
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study, the performance was analyzed in examining distinct phases into the 30-m sprint: which is
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subdivided in initial acceleration phase (0-10m), phase of maximum speed]. Regarding the
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hypotheses, it was expected that the use of these PU strategies right before the 30-m short sprints
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(i.e., experimental task) should increase the performance on these sprints in comparison with the
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control conditions, because it was shown that the imagery and preparatory arousal strategies
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increased the strength production (13, 16, 40) .
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METHODS
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Experimental Approach to the Problem To determine whether PU strategies may be effective to improve 30-m sprint performance
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using a within-participants design, a randomized experimental design was used. To address the
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hypothesis that the PU should have a significant effect upon 30-m sprint performance, the current
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within-subject study examined the effects of different strategies used during the 30-m sprint
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performance. Prior to each 30-m sprint test, participants engaged in 1 of 4 interventions. The
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interventions were counterbalanced and randomized on separate days to avoid any order effect.
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These experimental conditions included two psych-up conditions (i.e., imagery and preparatory
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arousal conditions) and two control conditions (i.e., attention-placebo control and distraction
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conditions). Subjects were asked to engage in the control condition to prevent them from
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psyching-up (e.g., (32).
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Subjects
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The protocol of the study was approved by the Ethic Committee of the National Centre of
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Medicine and Science in Sports of Tunisia before the commencement of the assessments. Each
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participant signed an informed consent before taking part in the study. Sixteen male sprinters (age
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20.6 ± 1.3 years, body mass 77.5 ± 7.1 kg, height 180.8 ± 5.6 cm) competing at a regional level,
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volunteered to participate in this study. They were sports science students pursuing degrees in
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Exercise Science and Physical Education at the University Of Manouba (ISSEP), Tunis. Their
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average experience was 7.2 ± 1.7 years and the average of their weekly training duration was
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between 6-8 hours. Before the experiment, none of the subjects had ever specifically performed
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PU with the aim of improving motor performance. They were therefore given detailed
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instructions to perform PU strategies and control conditions accurately and efficiently. At the
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completion of the Sessions, participants engaged in one of the four conditions in a counter-
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balanced, randomized order. No information about the purposes of the study was given to the
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subjects until after they completed the experiment.
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Psyching-up Conditions In the imagery condition, subjects had to imagine that they were performing trials as best
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they could with their performances improving over each trial. They received the following
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instructions, which were based on previous research (33, 40):
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You have 30 s during which I would like you to visualize yourself performing
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sprints as best you can. Please, close your eyes and imagine yourself doing sprint
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as fast as possible. Visualize yourself setting a new personal best on each trial.
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In the preparatory arousal condition, on the other hand, subjects had to be in aroused position.
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They received the following instructions, again based on previous research (33): You have 30 s during which I would like you to “emotionally charge-up”. Psych
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yourself up for maximum performance by getting mad, aroused, pumped-up, and
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charged-up.
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Control Conditions
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In the attention-placebo control, subjects were asked to focus on and estimate their own
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heart rate. They were then given bogus feedback indicating that their estimate was accurate and
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they could expect to perform well. This control procedure has been already used in previous
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research (8, 33) and was aimed to make believe subjects that they would perform well in their
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trails without giving them a chance to use a psyching-up strategy.
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following instructions:
Subjects received the
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You have 30-sec during which I would like you to estimate your current heart
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rate, and then I will measure it. Please estimate your heart rate now.
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In the distraction condition, subjects were asked to engage in a mental task that prevented them
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from psyching-up. Subjects received the following instructions, taken from previous research
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(33): You have 30-sec during which I would like you to count backward out loud from
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1,000 in groups of 7; for example, 1,000; 993; 986; 979…. and so on.
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Procedures
During all the experimental sessions, the athletes were asked to wear the same shoes on
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each testing day and were given standardized instructions and verbal encouragements to perform
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to the best of their ability. Before being tested, the athletes were given the same breakfast,
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consisting of one cake, a glass of orange juice and water which was maintained during the period
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of the protocol to be under the same test conditions for not obtaining misleading results. The
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experiment included two phases followed by a final debriefing.
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familiarization phase, while the second phase corresponded to the experimental sessions.
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The first phase was a
Familiarization phase: This phase familiarized subjects with the experimental material and
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informed them about the experiment methodological details. This session was treated as a control
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day in which the subjects performed a maximal sprint. The subjects were not asked to use any
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specific psychological intervention during the control day. Subjects were instructed that the
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experiment included four sessions separated each other by 48 h, and that each session included a
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series of sprint of 30-m after a warming-up. They were also asked to avoid high-intensity
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physical training for 24 h before testing. This aimed to prevent the influence of residual fatigue
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from interfering with the test performance
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Experimental phase:
Upon their arrival, subjects started a standardized warming-up
including three steps (35). First, subjects performed a 5 min self-paced jog/run general warm-up
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followed by 4 minutes of active rest, which consisted of walking on the track. Second, subjects
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completed the dynamic stretching warming-up during 15–17 min. Third, subjects performed
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incremental intermittent sprints during 5 min.
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After the warming-up, subjects performed two baseline (pre-intervention) test measures of
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30 m sprints on an indoor track (Mondo, SportsFlex, 10 mm thickness tartan track; Mondo
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America Inc., NJ, USA) as base-line measure before the experimental test. Then, subjects
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received a specific instruction, delivered according to the assigned condition, and they were
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asked to achieve as best they could for the sprints of 30-m.
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During each phase, the same researchers were present throughout the tests. All tests were
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conducted at the same time of the day for each subject (between 09:30 am and 11:00 am), to
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avoid any diurnal variation, and under standardized environmental conditions (24±1°C of
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temperature and 43±2% of relative humidity). No medical problem appeared during the study.
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Final debriefing: Subjects was debriefed about the goal of the study once all experimental
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sessions were finished.
Moreover, subjects received their own performance of each test
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performed during the study.
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Measures Subjective rating of stress, fatigue, muscles soreness, and last-night’ sleep: Before each
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experimental session, subjects had to record subjective rating of stress, fatigue, muscles soreness,
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and last-night’ sleep (19) on a scale of 1-7 from ‘’very very low or good’’ (point 1) to ‘’very
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very high or bad’’ (point 7), point 4 being ‘’average’’. These rating scales has previously been
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shown to provide an efficient means to monitoring both overtraining and staleness (19).
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Self-Efficacy Scale (SES): Before the PU condition subjects had to rate their degree of
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confidence by recording a number from 0 to 100 using the Self efficacy scales (2). This consists
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of recording the strength of their efficacy beliefs on a 100-point scale, ranging in 10-unit intervals
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from 0 ("Cannot do"); through intermediate degrees of assurance, 50 ("Moderately certain can
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do"); to complete assurance, 100 (“Highly certain can do”).
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Performance: Straight running sprint was assessed using photocell beams (Brower Timing
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Systems, Salt Lake City, UT; accuracy of 0.01 seconds) set at 50 cm height at 0, 10, 20, and 30-m
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from the starting line. The subjects started when ready after having obtained from the
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experimenter a period of at maximum 5sec to start whenever they felt free for doing so. Subjects
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started from a standing start 0.5-m behind the first timing gate, thus avoiding triggering the
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electronic gate prematurely with any move of the lower or upper limbs. The start of the sprint
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was taken in a consistent order and at the sound of the experimenters. Acceleration was assessed
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for a distance of 10-m, with the players beginning in a stationary position. Maximal velocity was
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recorded for the last 20-m of the 30-m sprint. Total 30-m performance was also considered.
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Rating Perceived effort (RPE): After the completion of the experimental test, the RPE
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scale (14) was used to rate the subjects’ perceived effort. A rating of 0 was associated with no
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perceived effort (rest) and a rating of 10 was considered to be maximal perceived effort and
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associated with the most stressful exercise ever performed.
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Statistical Analyses
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Before using parametric tests, the assumption of normality was verified using
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Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Reliability of the measures (between each of the baselines measures
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of sprints’ phases performance during the 4 conditions) was assessed with a Cronbach model
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interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) via 1-way ANOVA, with a value of 0.7–0.8 being
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questionable and 0.9 indicating high reliability (37), and the standard error of measurement
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(SEM) according to the method of Hopkins (20). To determine possible main effects of psyching-
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up, 2-way ANOVAs with repeated measures (4 conditions x 2 time points) was used to determine
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if significant differences existed between the 4 conditions (i.e., Imagery, Preparatory arousal,
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Distraction, and Attention placebo) and testing (pre-psyching–up and post-psyching–up). When
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significant effects were present, Bonferroni post-hoc analyses were performed. The effect size
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was calculated for all ANOVAs with the use of a partial eta-squared (9). In addition to the
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comparison analyses, Cohen’s d, smallest worthwhile change (SWC), and likelihood of clinical
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meaningfulness were calculated for 10, 20, and 30-m sprint distances (21). The Cohen’s d is
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calculated from the mean change divided by the SD of the data; thresholds for qualitative
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descriptors of Cohen’s d were set at,