PsychoIogical Reports, 1991, 69, 779-786.
O Psychological Reports 1991
EFFECTS O F HUMOROUS STIMULI AND SENSE O F HUMOR ON DISCOMFORT ' DEBORAH A. HUDAK, J. ALEXANDER DALE, MARY A. HUDAK Allegheny CoIkge DOUGLAS E. DEGOOD Uniuersify of Virginia Summary.-The effects of humor on increasing discomfort thresholds were tested with Transcutaneous End Nerve Stimulation (TENS). Undergraduate students (n = 31) with high or low scores on Martin and Lefcourt's Situational Humor Questionnaire were randomly assigned to a humor or nonhumor condition. Discomfort thresholds for TENS were assessed before and during treatment. There was a significant increase in discomfort thresholds in the humorous treatment compared to the nonhumorous condition. Evidence was found for subjects to smile "wryly" (an increase in zygomatic and corrugator tensions) more during humorous stimuli than nonhumorous stimuli when they were waiting to be stimulated with the TENS.
The severity and duration of discomfort and pain is affected by interactions among endogenous physiological mechanisms, personality, and the social environment. A negative interpretation of a stressful event can increase anxiety, which in turn can increase pain and discomfort; in contrast, relaxation tends to decrease pain and discomfort (Elton, Stanley, & Burrows, 1983). While the endorphin system is a built-in mechanism for pain control, which is activated during high ,arousal, expectations and coping ability influence the level of arousal and anxiety, and thus the level of pain (Elton, et al., 1983). Coping with pain is a complex set of cognitions and behaviors with many facets (Turk, Meichenbaum, & Genest, 1983). A sense of humor may be a primary personality variable associated with effective coping ability (Martin & Lefcourt, 1984); the availability of humorous stimuli may also be helpful in coping with pain (Cogan, Cogan, Waltz, & McCue, 1987). The positive affect associated with humor has both psychological and physiological benefits. A number of theorists have acknowledged humor as an adaptive coping mechanism (e.g., Allport, 1950; Dixon, 1980; Freud, 1960). According to O'Connell (1976) the humorist "is skilled in rapid perceptual-cognitive switches in frames of reference" (p. 327). This ability to change perspective is believed to enable the humorist to gain "distance" from the threat of a problem and thus to decrease negative affect (Martin & Lefcourt, 1984). Martin and Lefcourt (1983) and Labott and Martin (1986)
'Request reprints from J. Alexander Dale, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Allegheny College, Meadville, PA 16335.
780
D. A. HUDAK, ETAL.
found that use of humor ameliorated the effects of negative life experiences on mood disturbance. Physiologically, humor may alleviate stress by decreasing physical tension. Laughter benefits the autonomic system by initially stimulating, then decreasing muscle tension, reducing muscle-related pains (Fry & Salameh, 1987). Similar effects have been noted in the cardiovascular system on systolic and diastolic blood pressure (Fry & Savin, 1988). Physical well-being is enhanced by laughter through stimulation of the diaphragm, thorax, circulatory, and endocrine systems. In addition, muscles in the face, arms, legs, and stomach are exercised (Fry & Salameh, 1987). In fact, zygomatic facial activity (smiling) is an obvious measure which has been used to assess the involvement of subjects in a humorous situation (Yovetich, Dale, & Hudak, 1990; Danzer, Dale, & Klions, 1990). Subsequent to the general muscle tension increasing, muscle tension decreases as the body's energy supply is diverted to the abdomen, thus weakening other muscles and causing them to relax. Following laughter, a short period of relaxation occurs during which respiration and heart rate decrease, blood pressure declines, and muscles relax (Fry & Salameh, 1987; Fry & Savin, 1988). Cognitive effects of humor are important as well. Cousins (1983) identified the abatement of feelings of panic, with attendant negative physiological consequences, as the key to understanding the benefits of humor. Humor relieves heightened arousal associated with the anticipation and experience of a stressful event (Shurcliff, 1968; Yovetich, et al., 1990). This benefit of humor was illustrated by Cogan, et al. (1987), who found that subjects in a laughter-inducing condition experienced increased discomfort thresholds (decreased discomfort) to subsequent ischemic pain from a blood pressure cuff. The present investigation involved a test of a similar hypothesis that humor may decrease concurrent discomfort. A number of medical procedures that are performed for the benefit of the patient are known to produce discomfort. One such procedure is transcutaneous end nerve stimulation (TENS), in which mild electric currents are thought to stimulate large nerve fibers to gate sensation of pain from small fibers (Gersh & Wolf, 1985; Melzack, 1974). The present study tested the change in discomfort levels to TENS before and during a humorous or nonhumorous condition. Tolerance of the discomfort of TENS stimulation was expected to increase during the humor condition. Further, it was hypothesized that subjects with a strong sense of humor [high scores on Martin and Lefcourt's (1984) Situational Humor Response Questionnaire] would have a greater increase in discomfort threshold than subjects with a weaker sense of humor (low scores on the questionnaire). It was also predicted that subjects in the humorous condition would have less facial frowning activity and more facial smiling activity during stimulation than subjects in a nonhu-
HUMOR AND DISCOMFORT
781
morous condition. These effects were expected to be more marked in those subjects with a strong sense of humor than those without.
Subjects The subjects were 31 undergraduates who scored high (M = 70.94, SD = 7.68) or low (M = 51.92, SD = 4.5) on Martin and Lefcourt's (1984) questionnaire. Subjects were randomly assigned to the humor group (n = 17) or the nonhumor group (n = 14) so that the groups included a nonhumorous condition with weak sense of humor (n = 7, questionnaire M = 52.71, SD = 5.74), a humorous condition with low sense of humor (n = 7, questionnaire M = 50.42, SD = 3.15), a nonhumorous condition with a strong sense of humor (n = 7, questionnaire M = 74.28, SD = 4.54), and a humorous condition with a strong sense of humor (n = 10, questionnaire M = 69.5, SD = 9.18).
Procedure Subjects were individually tested for discomfort thresholds, measured by a TENS unit, before and during viewing of a videotape. Two conditions were employed, a humorous condition with a segment from the videotape "Bill Cosby Himself" and a control condition with a segment from the videotape "Annuals and Hanging Baskets" on the planting of annuals. (Tapes were used with permission of the distributors.) Subjects' facial muscle activity (right side corrugator and zygomatic) was monitored during viewing of the videotape. Electromyogram facial muscle activity in microvolts RMS was recorded from silver-silver chloride Beckman electrodes using Redux electrode cream. A Grass Model 7 system amplified physiological signals. The interface to an IBM XT was a Tekmar LabTender system. Two electrodes were taped onto the forehead and two on the cheek, using placement described by Fridlund and Caccioppo (1986). Two EKG-type plate electrodes from the TENS unit were placed on the supine surface of the forearm. The TENS stimuli were composed of continuous 8-sec., 32-hz galvanic pulses from a Staodyn VaraIPulse pulsed Galvanic stimulator. Stimulation started at 17 dial units and was increased by 1 unit until dscomfort was reported. Discomfort thresholds were assessed with the TENS unit prior to viewing of the film. Following the 8 sec. of stimulation the computer was programmed to present the question, "Is the stimulation too tingly and uncomfortable?" via a Healthkit voice simulator. If the subject responded "no," the TENS unit voltage was increased by units of one for each presentation of a new stimulus, until the subject responded "yes," after which time the videotape was started. Following the initial five minutes of the videotape, the discomfort threshold assessment was repeated. Facial activity was monitored from the start of the tape. Difference scores of TENS level achieved during the videotape minus
782
D. A. HUDAK, ETAL.
TENS level before the videotape were evaluated with a Mann-Whitney U test because of the large variability within the data. Similar difference scores were calculated for the physiological data to assess changes from the prevideotape condition to the during-videotape condition and to provide a pard e l to the TENS analyses. A 2 (Humor vs Nonhumor) x 2 (High vs Low Sense of Humor) x [2(final 2 stimulations) x 4(Baseline, Baseline, Stimulation, Recovery Periods)] mixed-design analyses of variance was used to analyze facial muscle tension changes. The periods were four 5-sec. intervalstwo before, one during, and one after-of each of the last two TENS stimulations. In addition, the intervals before TENS stimulation were averaged (means) for a separate analysis of variance on the baseline periods as a function of the groups' variables.
Discomfort Thresholds The subjects viewing the humorous videotape had significantly higher thresholds for discomfort (less discomfort) than those subjects viewing the nonhumorous videotape, based on an analysis of change scores calculated for thresholds for discomfort from the pre- and during-videotape measures (Mann-Whitney U test; Z = 1.73, p < .05, see Fig. 1).In Fig. 1 the effect of videotapes is contributed largely by the subjects with the low scores on sense of humor. While the subjects with high scores on sense of humor in both videotape conditions show equivalent, moderate threshold increases in both, the former subjects show an increase in threshold in the humorous condition and a decrease in the nonhumorous condition. The difference between the sense of humor groups' changes is not significant (2 = .57, p > .lo). The main g
0.4
r L I--
r ec z =E 0
0.2
-
0.0
0
:: a E i m
-0.2
-
.- 2
-0.4
-
m -Ic
-0.6
-
-0.8
-
2 m z
5
f
-1.0
HSOH
LSOH
HSOH
LSOH
Humor Group Nonhumor Group FIG. 1. Mean changes in discomfort thresholds (TENS) in treatment units from videotape to during videotape as a function of humor or nonhumor in the content of the tape and as a function of high or low sense of humor (SOH)
vie!::
HUMOR AND DISCOMFORT
783
effect of videotape condition on change in threshold must be due largely to the decrement in thresholds for subjects with low scores on sense of humor in the nonhumorous condition. Facial EMG Only two TENS stimulations could be analyzed because some subjects indicated discomfort after only two increments of TENS intensity. To keep an equal number of trials for each subject, all analyses present physiological data from the last two TENS trials. The subjects with a strong sense of humor in the group who saw the humorous videotape increased their smiling or zygomatic muscle tension immediately before but not during the TENS stimulation, more than subjects in the other groups (see Fig. 2; F,,,, = 10.47, p < .05). This difference was most evident on the second to last stimulation. The increase in smiling was calculated as a difference score by subtracting the prevideotape zygomatic data from the zygomatic data during the videotape. This analysis was in parallel with the analysis for thresholds. The data were separated into two 5-sec. baseline periods, a 5-sec. TENS stimulation period and a recovery period. This effect of the humorous videotape was noticeable on the second to last stimulation and not present on the last stimulation (see Fig. 2; F,,,, = 4.26, p .lo). 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 -2 -3 -4
-
Baseline Baseline Stimulation
Recovery
Next to Last Stimulation
Baseline Besaline Stimulation Recovery
Final Stimulation
FIG. 2. Mean differences in zygomatic muscle tension from pi-evideocape to during videotape (in microvolts RMS) as a function of humor ( * , 0) or nonhumor (A,A) in the content of the vjdeotape and as a function of high ( , A ) or low (0,A) sense of humor across two 5-sec. basehes, a 5-sec. stimulation, and a 5-sec. recovery period for the second to last stimulation and the last TENS stimulation
784
D. A. HUDAK, ETAL.
For the subjects with a strong sense of humor in the group watching the humorous videotape, there was also an increase in frowning immediately prior to the second to last stimulation (see Fig. 3; F,,, = 4.78, p < .05) and this effect was not evident in the group with the low scores on sense of humor (F,,2, = .91, p > .lo). 12 11 10
---
7 6 5 4 9 8
3 2
-
A/@\ A
0 -1
-2 -3 -4
I
I
I
I
Baseline Baseline Stimulation Recovery
Next to Last Stimulation
I
I
I
I
Baseline Baseline Stimulation Recovery
Final Stimulation
FIG. 3. Mean differences i n corrugator muscle tension from prevideotape to during videotape as a £unction of humor .( , 0 ) or nonhumor (A, A ) videotape and as a function of hi h ( a , A) or low (0, A ) sense of humor across two 5-sec. baselines, a 5-sec. stimulation, 5-sec. recovery period for the second last stimulation and the last TENS stimulation
ants
Subjects in the humor groups maintained or slightly increased discomfort thresholds, while subjects (particularly those weak in sense of humor) in the nonhumor groups decreased discomfort thresholds. Therefore humor may be an effective means of maintaining coping with discomfort. The absence of humor (particularly for those scoring low on sense of humor) was associated with an increase in sensitivity to discomfort. The finding that humor or a strong sense of humor affects discomfort extends Cogan, et al.'s (1987) conclusion that humor may reduce subsequent discomfort to include the conclusion that humor may affect ongoing discomfort as well. I t was evident that the present effect was largely based on the increased sensitivity of the subjects who score low on sense of humor and did not have the advantage of having anything humorous available to help them cope with the discomfort from the TENS stimulations. This is similar to the Yovetich, et al. (1990) finding that subjects who scored low on sense of humor and did not Listen to a tape had the highest heart rates in anticipation of electric shock of the three groups tested (no tape, humorous tape, and nonhurnorous
HUMOR AND
DISCOMFORT
785
tape). In the present situation the detrimental effect of having a low sense of humor extended to subjects in the nonhumorous condition. The increase in zygomatic tensions (smiling) prior to the TENS stimulation for subjects who were in the humorous videotape condition is similar to the finding of Yovetich, et al. (1990), who found that a group listening to a humorous track smiled more during the anticipation of shock than a group listening to no tape or to a nonhumorous tape. In the present study, more smiling occurred for those who scored high on sense of humor and watched the humorous tape, although the F for the interaction with sense of humor fell just short of the desired significance. The humorous condition or a strong sense of humor appears to have reduced the level of discomfort experienced. Those observations would be consistent with the conclusions of Yovetich, et al. (1990), who found that subjects in a threatening situation experienced significantly less anxiety when exposed to humor than to nonhumor. They found that the group who scored low on sense of humor and were shown no tape were the most anxious in terms of having an increased heart rate. In the present study similar phenomena may have appeared in that the only group who showed an increase in sensitivity to discomfort were those who scored low on sense of humor and were shown the nonhumorous videotape. Perhaps a sense of humor has a protective function in the absence of humorous stimuli. It is also possible that with little sense of humor, groups may find humorous stimuli can serve as a protection against discomfort. The positive effect of humor in a negative situation is also consistent with work by Danzer, et al. (1990) who reported that subjects who experienced induction of a depression were less depressed after exposure to humor than to nonhumor. The increases in corrugation of the forehead noted in the corrugator difference measures prior to the TENS stimulation for the group shown the humorous videotape, especially the group who scored high on sense of humor, may indicate that these subjects were not truly smiling at that time but that the smiles were "wry" or a mixture of humor with anxiety (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). This wry emotional expression may have been appropriate as subjects were about to receive TENS stimulations which they were informed would escalate until they felt them to be uncomfortable. Under these circumstances it is perhaps a suitably ironic finding that the corrugation effect was more clearly established than the smiling effect. REFERENCES ALLPORT,G. W. (1950) The individualand his religion. New York: Macmillan. COGAN, R., COGAN,D., W a r n , W., & MCCLIE,M. (1987) Effects of laughter and relaxation on discomfort thresholds. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10, 139-144. Cousws, N. (1983) Therapeutic value of laughter. integrative Psychiatry, 3, 112-114. DANZER,A , , D u ,J. A,, & KLIONS, H. L. (1990) Effect of exposure to humorous stimuli on induced depression. Psychological Reports, 66, 1027-1036.
786
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DIXON,N. F. (1980) Humor: a cognitive alternative to stress? In I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety. Vol. 7. Washington, DC: Hemisphere. Pp. 281289. EKMAN,I?, & FRIESEN,W. (1975) Unmasking the face. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ELTON,D., STANLEY, G., & B m o w s , G. (1983) Psychological control of pain. New York: Grune & Stratton. FREUD,S. (1960) Jokes and their relation to the unconscious. New York: Norton. FRIDLLJND, A. J., & CACCIOPPO, J. T. (1986) Guidelines for electmmyographic research. Psychophysiology, 23, 567-589. FRY,W. F., & SWH, W. A. (1987) Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: advances in the clinical use of humor. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange. FRY,W. F., & SAW, W. M. (1988) Mirthful laughter and blood pressure. Humor, 1, 49-62. GERSH,M. R., & WOLF,S. L. (1985) Applications of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in the management of patients with pain: state of the art update. Physical T h e w , 65, 314-334. h o r n , S. M., & m m , R. B. (1986) The stress-moderating effects of weeping and humor. Paper presented at the 94th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. f i ~ m R., A,, & LEFCOURT, H. M. (1983) Sense of humor as a moderator of the relation between stressors and moods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1313-1324. ~ T M R., A., & LEFCOURT, H. M. (1984) Situational Humor Response Questionnaire: quantitative measure of sense of humor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 145-155. MELZACK, R. (1974) Psychological concepts and methods for the conml of pain. Advances in Neurology, 4, 275-280. O'CONNELL,W. E. (1976) Freudian humor: the eupsychia of everyday life. In A. J. Chapman & H. Foot (Eds.), Humour and laughter: theory, research, and applications. London: Wiley. Pp. 313-330. SHURCLIFF, A. (1968) Judged humor, arousal, and the relief theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 360-363. Turn, D. C., ~ I C H E N B A UD., M ,& GENEST,M. (1983) Pain and behavioral medicine: a cognitive-behavioral perspective. New York: Guilfod. YOVETICH,N. A,, D m , J. A,, & HUDAK,M. A. (1990) Benefits of humor in reduction of threat-induced anxiety. Psychological Reports, 66, 51-58. Accepted October 2, 1991.
O Psychological Reports 1991
EFFECTS O F HUMOROUS STIMULI AND SENSE O F HUMOR ON DISCOMFORT ' DEBORAH A. HUDAK, J. ALEXANDER DALE, MARY A. HUDAK Allegheny CoIkge DOUGLAS E. DEGOOD Uniuersify of Virginia Summary.-The effects of humor on increasing discomfort thresholds were tested with Transcutaneous End Nerve Stimulation (TENS). Undergraduate students (n = 31) with high or low scores on Martin and Lefcourt's Situational Humor Questionnaire were randomly assigned to a humor or nonhumor condition. Discomfort thresholds for TENS were assessed before and during treatment. There was a significant increase in discomfort thresholds in the humorous treatment compared to the nonhumorous condition. Evidence was found for subjects to smile "wryly" (an increase in zygomatic and corrugator tensions) more during humorous stimuli than nonhumorous stimuli when they were waiting to be stimulated with the TENS.
The severity and duration of discomfort and pain is affected by interactions among endogenous physiological mechanisms, personality, and the social environment. A negative interpretation of a stressful event can increase anxiety, which in turn can increase pain and discomfort; in contrast, relaxation tends to decrease pain and discomfort (Elton, Stanley, & Burrows, 1983). While the endorphin system is a built-in mechanism for pain control, which is activated during high ,arousal, expectations and coping ability influence the level of arousal and anxiety, and thus the level of pain (Elton, et al., 1983). Coping with pain is a complex set of cognitions and behaviors with many facets (Turk, Meichenbaum, & Genest, 1983). A sense of humor may be a primary personality variable associated with effective coping ability (Martin & Lefcourt, 1984); the availability of humorous stimuli may also be helpful in coping with pain (Cogan, Cogan, Waltz, & McCue, 1987). The positive affect associated with humor has both psychological and physiological benefits. A number of theorists have acknowledged humor as an adaptive coping mechanism (e.g., Allport, 1950; Dixon, 1980; Freud, 1960). According to O'Connell (1976) the humorist "is skilled in rapid perceptual-cognitive switches in frames of reference" (p. 327). This ability to change perspective is believed to enable the humorist to gain "distance" from the threat of a problem and thus to decrease negative affect (Martin & Lefcourt, 1984). Martin and Lefcourt (1983) and Labott and Martin (1986)
'Request reprints from J. Alexander Dale, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Allegheny College, Meadville, PA 16335.
780
D. A. HUDAK, ETAL.
found that use of humor ameliorated the effects of negative life experiences on mood disturbance. Physiologically, humor may alleviate stress by decreasing physical tension. Laughter benefits the autonomic system by initially stimulating, then decreasing muscle tension, reducing muscle-related pains (Fry & Salameh, 1987). Similar effects have been noted in the cardiovascular system on systolic and diastolic blood pressure (Fry & Savin, 1988). Physical well-being is enhanced by laughter through stimulation of the diaphragm, thorax, circulatory, and endocrine systems. In addition, muscles in the face, arms, legs, and stomach are exercised (Fry & Salameh, 1987). In fact, zygomatic facial activity (smiling) is an obvious measure which has been used to assess the involvement of subjects in a humorous situation (Yovetich, Dale, & Hudak, 1990; Danzer, Dale, & Klions, 1990). Subsequent to the general muscle tension increasing, muscle tension decreases as the body's energy supply is diverted to the abdomen, thus weakening other muscles and causing them to relax. Following laughter, a short period of relaxation occurs during which respiration and heart rate decrease, blood pressure declines, and muscles relax (Fry & Salameh, 1987; Fry & Savin, 1988). Cognitive effects of humor are important as well. Cousins (1983) identified the abatement of feelings of panic, with attendant negative physiological consequences, as the key to understanding the benefits of humor. Humor relieves heightened arousal associated with the anticipation and experience of a stressful event (Shurcliff, 1968; Yovetich, et al., 1990). This benefit of humor was illustrated by Cogan, et al. (1987), who found that subjects in a laughter-inducing condition experienced increased discomfort thresholds (decreased discomfort) to subsequent ischemic pain from a blood pressure cuff. The present investigation involved a test of a similar hypothesis that humor may decrease concurrent discomfort. A number of medical procedures that are performed for the benefit of the patient are known to produce discomfort. One such procedure is transcutaneous end nerve stimulation (TENS), in which mild electric currents are thought to stimulate large nerve fibers to gate sensation of pain from small fibers (Gersh & Wolf, 1985; Melzack, 1974). The present study tested the change in discomfort levels to TENS before and during a humorous or nonhumorous condition. Tolerance of the discomfort of TENS stimulation was expected to increase during the humor condition. Further, it was hypothesized that subjects with a strong sense of humor [high scores on Martin and Lefcourt's (1984) Situational Humor Response Questionnaire] would have a greater increase in discomfort threshold than subjects with a weaker sense of humor (low scores on the questionnaire). It was also predicted that subjects in the humorous condition would have less facial frowning activity and more facial smiling activity during stimulation than subjects in a nonhu-
HUMOR AND DISCOMFORT
781
morous condition. These effects were expected to be more marked in those subjects with a strong sense of humor than those without.
Subjects The subjects were 31 undergraduates who scored high (M = 70.94, SD = 7.68) or low (M = 51.92, SD = 4.5) on Martin and Lefcourt's (1984) questionnaire. Subjects were randomly assigned to the humor group (n = 17) or the nonhumor group (n = 14) so that the groups included a nonhumorous condition with weak sense of humor (n = 7, questionnaire M = 52.71, SD = 5.74), a humorous condition with low sense of humor (n = 7, questionnaire M = 50.42, SD = 3.15), a nonhumorous condition with a strong sense of humor (n = 7, questionnaire M = 74.28, SD = 4.54), and a humorous condition with a strong sense of humor (n = 10, questionnaire M = 69.5, SD = 9.18).
Procedure Subjects were individually tested for discomfort thresholds, measured by a TENS unit, before and during viewing of a videotape. Two conditions were employed, a humorous condition with a segment from the videotape "Bill Cosby Himself" and a control condition with a segment from the videotape "Annuals and Hanging Baskets" on the planting of annuals. (Tapes were used with permission of the distributors.) Subjects' facial muscle activity (right side corrugator and zygomatic) was monitored during viewing of the videotape. Electromyogram facial muscle activity in microvolts RMS was recorded from silver-silver chloride Beckman electrodes using Redux electrode cream. A Grass Model 7 system amplified physiological signals. The interface to an IBM XT was a Tekmar LabTender system. Two electrodes were taped onto the forehead and two on the cheek, using placement described by Fridlund and Caccioppo (1986). Two EKG-type plate electrodes from the TENS unit were placed on the supine surface of the forearm. The TENS stimuli were composed of continuous 8-sec., 32-hz galvanic pulses from a Staodyn VaraIPulse pulsed Galvanic stimulator. Stimulation started at 17 dial units and was increased by 1 unit until dscomfort was reported. Discomfort thresholds were assessed with the TENS unit prior to viewing of the film. Following the 8 sec. of stimulation the computer was programmed to present the question, "Is the stimulation too tingly and uncomfortable?" via a Healthkit voice simulator. If the subject responded "no," the TENS unit voltage was increased by units of one for each presentation of a new stimulus, until the subject responded "yes," after which time the videotape was started. Following the initial five minutes of the videotape, the discomfort threshold assessment was repeated. Facial activity was monitored from the start of the tape. Difference scores of TENS level achieved during the videotape minus
782
D. A. HUDAK, ETAL.
TENS level before the videotape were evaluated with a Mann-Whitney U test because of the large variability within the data. Similar difference scores were calculated for the physiological data to assess changes from the prevideotape condition to the during-videotape condition and to provide a pard e l to the TENS analyses. A 2 (Humor vs Nonhumor) x 2 (High vs Low Sense of Humor) x [2(final 2 stimulations) x 4(Baseline, Baseline, Stimulation, Recovery Periods)] mixed-design analyses of variance was used to analyze facial muscle tension changes. The periods were four 5-sec. intervalstwo before, one during, and one after-of each of the last two TENS stimulations. In addition, the intervals before TENS stimulation were averaged (means) for a separate analysis of variance on the baseline periods as a function of the groups' variables.
Discomfort Thresholds The subjects viewing the humorous videotape had significantly higher thresholds for discomfort (less discomfort) than those subjects viewing the nonhumorous videotape, based on an analysis of change scores calculated for thresholds for discomfort from the pre- and during-videotape measures (Mann-Whitney U test; Z = 1.73, p < .05, see Fig. 1).In Fig. 1 the effect of videotapes is contributed largely by the subjects with the low scores on sense of humor. While the subjects with high scores on sense of humor in both videotape conditions show equivalent, moderate threshold increases in both, the former subjects show an increase in threshold in the humorous condition and a decrease in the nonhumorous condition. The difference between the sense of humor groups' changes is not significant (2 = .57, p > .lo). The main g
0.4
r L I--
r ec z =E 0
0.2
-
0.0
0
:: a E i m
-0.2
-
.- 2
-0.4
-
m -Ic
-0.6
-
-0.8
-
2 m z
5
f
-1.0
HSOH
LSOH
HSOH
LSOH
Humor Group Nonhumor Group FIG. 1. Mean changes in discomfort thresholds (TENS) in treatment units from videotape to during videotape as a function of humor or nonhumor in the content of the tape and as a function of high or low sense of humor (SOH)
vie!::
HUMOR AND DISCOMFORT
783
effect of videotape condition on change in threshold must be due largely to the decrement in thresholds for subjects with low scores on sense of humor in the nonhumorous condition. Facial EMG Only two TENS stimulations could be analyzed because some subjects indicated discomfort after only two increments of TENS intensity. To keep an equal number of trials for each subject, all analyses present physiological data from the last two TENS trials. The subjects with a strong sense of humor in the group who saw the humorous videotape increased their smiling or zygomatic muscle tension immediately before but not during the TENS stimulation, more than subjects in the other groups (see Fig. 2; F,,,, = 10.47, p < .05). This difference was most evident on the second to last stimulation. The increase in smiling was calculated as a difference score by subtracting the prevideotape zygomatic data from the zygomatic data during the videotape. This analysis was in parallel with the analysis for thresholds. The data were separated into two 5-sec. baseline periods, a 5-sec. TENS stimulation period and a recovery period. This effect of the humorous videotape was noticeable on the second to last stimulation and not present on the last stimulation (see Fig. 2; F,,,, = 4.26, p .lo). 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 -2 -3 -4
-
Baseline Baseline Stimulation
Recovery
Next to Last Stimulation
Baseline Besaline Stimulation Recovery
Final Stimulation
FIG. 2. Mean differences in zygomatic muscle tension from pi-evideocape to during videotape (in microvolts RMS) as a function of humor ( * , 0) or nonhumor (A,A) in the content of the vjdeotape and as a function of high ( , A ) or low (0,A) sense of humor across two 5-sec. basehes, a 5-sec. stimulation, and a 5-sec. recovery period for the second to last stimulation and the last TENS stimulation
784
D. A. HUDAK, ETAL.
For the subjects with a strong sense of humor in the group watching the humorous videotape, there was also an increase in frowning immediately prior to the second to last stimulation (see Fig. 3; F,,, = 4.78, p < .05) and this effect was not evident in the group with the low scores on sense of humor (F,,2, = .91, p > .lo). 12 11 10
---
7 6 5 4 9 8
3 2
-
A/@\ A
0 -1
-2 -3 -4
I
I
I
I
Baseline Baseline Stimulation Recovery
Next to Last Stimulation
I
I
I
I
Baseline Baseline Stimulation Recovery
Final Stimulation
FIG. 3. Mean differences i n corrugator muscle tension from prevideotape to during videotape as a £unction of humor .( , 0 ) or nonhumor (A, A ) videotape and as a function of hi h ( a , A) or low (0, A ) sense of humor across two 5-sec. baselines, a 5-sec. stimulation, 5-sec. recovery period for the second last stimulation and the last TENS stimulation
ants
Subjects in the humor groups maintained or slightly increased discomfort thresholds, while subjects (particularly those weak in sense of humor) in the nonhumor groups decreased discomfort thresholds. Therefore humor may be an effective means of maintaining coping with discomfort. The absence of humor (particularly for those scoring low on sense of humor) was associated with an increase in sensitivity to discomfort. The finding that humor or a strong sense of humor affects discomfort extends Cogan, et al.'s (1987) conclusion that humor may reduce subsequent discomfort to include the conclusion that humor may affect ongoing discomfort as well. I t was evident that the present effect was largely based on the increased sensitivity of the subjects who score low on sense of humor and did not have the advantage of having anything humorous available to help them cope with the discomfort from the TENS stimulations. This is similar to the Yovetich, et al. (1990) finding that subjects who scored low on sense of humor and did not Listen to a tape had the highest heart rates in anticipation of electric shock of the three groups tested (no tape, humorous tape, and nonhurnorous
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tape). In the present situation the detrimental effect of having a low sense of humor extended to subjects in the nonhumorous condition. The increase in zygomatic tensions (smiling) prior to the TENS stimulation for subjects who were in the humorous videotape condition is similar to the finding of Yovetich, et al. (1990), who found that a group listening to a humorous track smiled more during the anticipation of shock than a group listening to no tape or to a nonhumorous tape. In the present study, more smiling occurred for those who scored high on sense of humor and watched the humorous tape, although the F for the interaction with sense of humor fell just short of the desired significance. The humorous condition or a strong sense of humor appears to have reduced the level of discomfort experienced. Those observations would be consistent with the conclusions of Yovetich, et al. (1990), who found that subjects in a threatening situation experienced significantly less anxiety when exposed to humor than to nonhumor. They found that the group who scored low on sense of humor and were shown no tape were the most anxious in terms of having an increased heart rate. In the present study similar phenomena may have appeared in that the only group who showed an increase in sensitivity to discomfort were those who scored low on sense of humor and were shown the nonhumorous videotape. Perhaps a sense of humor has a protective function in the absence of humorous stimuli. It is also possible that with little sense of humor, groups may find humorous stimuli can serve as a protection against discomfort. The positive effect of humor in a negative situation is also consistent with work by Danzer, et al. (1990) who reported that subjects who experienced induction of a depression were less depressed after exposure to humor than to nonhumor. The increases in corrugation of the forehead noted in the corrugator difference measures prior to the TENS stimulation for the group shown the humorous videotape, especially the group who scored high on sense of humor, may indicate that these subjects were not truly smiling at that time but that the smiles were "wry" or a mixture of humor with anxiety (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). This wry emotional expression may have been appropriate as subjects were about to receive TENS stimulations which they were informed would escalate until they felt them to be uncomfortable. Under these circumstances it is perhaps a suitably ironic finding that the corrugation effect was more clearly established than the smiling effect. REFERENCES ALLPORT,G. W. (1950) The individualand his religion. New York: Macmillan. COGAN, R., COGAN,D., W a r n , W., & MCCLIE,M. (1987) Effects of laughter and relaxation on discomfort thresholds. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10, 139-144. Cousws, N. (1983) Therapeutic value of laughter. integrative Psychiatry, 3, 112-114. DANZER,A , , D u ,J. A,, & KLIONS, H. L. (1990) Effect of exposure to humorous stimuli on induced depression. Psychological Reports, 66, 1027-1036.
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DIXON,N. F. (1980) Humor: a cognitive alternative to stress? In I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety. Vol. 7. Washington, DC: Hemisphere. Pp. 281289. EKMAN,I?, & FRIESEN,W. (1975) Unmasking the face. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ELTON,D., STANLEY, G., & B m o w s , G. (1983) Psychological control of pain. New York: Grune & Stratton. FREUD,S. (1960) Jokes and their relation to the unconscious. New York: Norton. FRIDLLJND, A. J., & CACCIOPPO, J. T. (1986) Guidelines for electmmyographic research. Psychophysiology, 23, 567-589. FRY,W. F., & SWH, W. A. (1987) Handbook of humor and psychotherapy: advances in the clinical use of humor. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange. FRY,W. F., & SAW, W. M. (1988) Mirthful laughter and blood pressure. Humor, 1, 49-62. GERSH,M. R., & WOLF,S. L. (1985) Applications of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in the management of patients with pain: state of the art update. Physical T h e w , 65, 314-334. h o r n , S. M., & m m , R. B. (1986) The stress-moderating effects of weeping and humor. Paper presented at the 94th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. f i ~ m R., A,, & LEFCOURT, H. M. (1983) Sense of humor as a moderator of the relation between stressors and moods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1313-1324. ~ T M R., A., & LEFCOURT, H. M. (1984) Situational Humor Response Questionnaire: quantitative measure of sense of humor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 145-155. MELZACK, R. (1974) Psychological concepts and methods for the conml of pain. Advances in Neurology, 4, 275-280. O'CONNELL,W. E. (1976) Freudian humor: the eupsychia of everyday life. In A. J. Chapman & H. Foot (Eds.), Humour and laughter: theory, research, and applications. London: Wiley. Pp. 313-330. SHURCLIFF, A. (1968) Judged humor, arousal, and the relief theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 360-363. Turn, D. C., ~ I C H E N B A UD., M ,& GENEST,M. (1983) Pain and behavioral medicine: a cognitive-behavioral perspective. New York: Guilfod. YOVETICH,N. A,, D m , J. A,, & HUDAK,M. A. (1990) Benefits of humor in reduction of threat-induced anxiety. Psychological Reports, 66, 51-58. Accepted October 2, 1991.
