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Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnpl20
Effects of aqueous extracts of Acacia albida stem bark on Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi a
a
a
Uche Samuel Ndidi , Ismaila Alhaji Umar , Aminu Mohammed , a
a
Cosmas Samuel , Amos Oladiran Oladeru & Rahinat Nimma a
Yakubu a
Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria Published online: 25 Nov 2014.
Click for updates To cite this article: Uche Samuel Ndidi, Ismaila Alhaji Umar, Aminu Mohammed, Cosmas Samuel, Amos Oladiran Oladeru & Rahinat Nimma Yakubu (2014): Effects of aqueous extracts of Acacia albida stem bark on Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi, Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.981184 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.981184
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
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Natural Product Research, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.981184
SHORT COMMUNICATION Effects of aqueous extracts of Acacia albida stem bark on Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi Uche Samuel Ndidi*, Ismaila Alhaji Umar, Aminu Mohammed, Cosmas Samuel, Amos Oladiran Oladeru and Rahinat Nimma Yakubu Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
(Received 21 August 2014; final version received 21 October 2014)
The effect of aqueous extract of Acacia albida stem bark was investigated in Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi. The extract showed highest reduction in parasitemia at the dose of 600 mg/kg body weight (bw). A dose of 300 mg/kg bw improved packed cell volume the most by 14.35%. The group treated with 150 and 600 mg/kg bw of the extract showed significant decrease (P , 0.05) in alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels which were lower than those of the group treated with diminazene aceturate. The group treated with 150 mg/kg bw of the extract showed the least urea, albumin and protein level and lowest relative organ weight. There was a significant difference (P , 0.05) in the levels of catalase and Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances in liver and kidney of the animals in the infected-untreated group and the extracts-treated groups. The results of this study show that the extracts of A. albida have antitrypanosomal activity against T. evansi infection. Keywords: parasitemia; Trypanosoma evansi; Acacia albida; aqueous extract; stem bark
1. Introduction Trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma evansi is the most widely distributed of the pathogenic African animal trypanosomosis (Luckins & Dwinger 2004). The major characteristics of trypanosomosis include fever, anaemia, cachexia, oedema, tissue and organ degenerative changes. Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of the disease (Igbokwe et al. 1998). T. evansi has a wide range of hosts and is pathogenic to most domestic livestock and laboratory animals in which it causes Surra disease (Wolkmer et al. 2010). Its infection
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
2
U.S. Ndidi et al.
constitutes one of the major veterinary problems worldwide (Omer et al. 2004). It is an important single cause of economic losses, causing morbidity of up to 30.0% and mortality of around 3.0% in camels in Ethiopia (Tekle & Abebe 2001). The parasite is cosmopolitan wherever camels are reared, and other animals such as goat and sheep herded with camels are likely to be infected with T. evansi. Trypanosomosis in camels is endemic in most camel herds, and 95% of camel trypanosomosis in Africa has been associated with T. evansi (Njiru et al. 2001). Control measures for protozoan diseases such as Surra rely on treatment and vector control and, to a much lesser extent, on chemoprophylaxis. There is the introduction of novel aromatic diamidines, a new category of antitrypanosomal drugs (Soeiro et al. 2005; Wilson et al. 2005). However, the known chemotherapeutic agents used for the treatments of Surra are frequently toxic, unaffordable and unavailable for most rural dwellers. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, plants have been used traditionally for centuries and are still widely used to treat illnesses (Peter et al. 2009), which necessitated the research. Earlier work in our laboratory has shown that the aqueous extract of the stem bark of Acacia albida has significant in vitro antitrypanosomal activity against T. evansi (Umar et al. 2014). Therefore, there is need to investigate the effect of A. albida on rats infected with T. evansi.
2. Results and discussion Figure 1 shows the effect of the aqueous extract of the stem bark of A. albida on the level of parasitemia in the infected rats. From the chart, it is seen that all the extracts-treated groups reduced the level of parasitemia at day 18 post infection. The significant decrease in parasitemia in the animals treated with the different concentrations of the extract, therefore, further supports the antitrypanosomal effect of the plant in vitro (Umar et al. 2014). Table S1 captures the effect of the extracts on aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), urea, albumin and protein. Table S1 shows that there is a significant decrease (P , 0.05) in the serum ALT, AST and urea levels in all the treated groups as compared with those in the infected-untreated group. However, serum ALT decreased only in the rats treated with 150 and 600 mg/kg body weight (bw) of the extracts only compared with the untreated control group. Our reports are in agreement with the report of Awad et al. (2014). Increase in AST and ALT activity as well as increase in urea level leading to decreased kidney function has been reported in T. Evansi-infected camels (Hilali et al. 2006). The decrease in urea level is, therefore, an indication of restoration of kidney function. A significant increase
Figure 1. Changes in parasitemia following treatment with aqueous extract of A. albida stem bark.
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
Natural Product Research
3
(P , 0.05) was observed in the albumin level in the extract group treated with 600 mg/kg bw when compared with that in the infected-untreated group. On the other hand, only the group treated with 150 mg/kg bw showed a significant decrease (P , 0.05) in protein concentration. Earlier reports have shown that there was a significant increase in total protein and globulins of camels, buffalo and rabbits infected with T. evansi, while the albumin was reduced (Orhue et al. 2005; Hilali et al. 2006). These observations were also seen in our work. From Table S2 it was discovered that the extracts significantly decreased (P , 0.05) the relative weight of the liver, kidney and spleen, with the exception of the group treated with 300 mg/kg bw extract when compared with the weight of those of the infected-untreated group. Some reports indicate that trypanosomes can cause tissue inflammation (Damayanti 1993), which may have been the cause of increased size of the organs. Our report, therefore, suggests that the extract reversed the inflammatory effect of the infection in the animals’ organs. In Table S2 we also observed that groups treated with 300 and 600 mg/kg bw extract showed a significant decrease (P , 0.05) in the liver and kidney catalase levels and a significant increase in the level of liver and kidney Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) compared with those in the infected-untreated group. The findings of Wolkmer et al. (2009) and DaSilva et al. (2012) show that T. evansi infection is associated with increase in the levels of endogenous enzyme such as catalase and malondialdehyde, which has been attributed to inflammatory response against the parasite. Table S2 also shows that the group treated with 300 mg/kg bw extract had the highest increase in packed cell volume (PCV) (14%), while the groups treated with 150 and 600 mg/kg bws of the extracts reduced the PCV by 3.8% and 12%, respectively compared with the infected untreated that reduced the PCV by 25%. Research has shown that T. evansi infection is accompanied by significant decrease in PCV (Adamu et al. 2008). Our extract, therefore, showed improvement in the PCV when compared with that in the infecteduntreated group, indicating that the aqueous extract of A. albida has the ability to ameliorate the anaemia that accompanies T. evansi infection. 3. Conclusion The results of this study show that the aqueous extracts of A. albida have in vivo antitrypanosomal activity against T. evansi infection. It can also ameliorate the complications of T. evansi infection. Supplementary material Experimental details relating to this paper are available online, alongside Tables S1 – S2. References Adamu S, Ibrahim NDG, Nok AJ, Esievo KAN. 2008. Sialyltransferase activity probably counteracts that of sialidase as one possible mechanisms of natural recovery or stabilization of erythrocyte mass in trypanosome-infected animals – a perspective. Afr J Biotech. 7:4992– 5001. Awad FMA, Mohamed MA, Osman AY, Abu-Hassan ZA, Ibrahim N. 2014. In vivo assesment of anti-trypanasomal effect of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) in rabbits. IOSR J Agric Vet Sci. 7:45– 54. Damayanti R. 1993. Identification of Trypanosoma evansi in infected rat tissues by immunohistochemical methods. Penyakit Hewan. 25:11–13. Da Silva AS, Paim FC, Santos RC, Sangoi MB, Moresco RN, Lopes ST, Jaques JA, Baldissarelli J, Morsch VM, Monteiro SG. 2012. Nitric oxide level, protein oxidation and antioxidant enzymes in rats infected by Trypanosoma evansi. Exp Parasitol. 132:166–170. Hilali M, Abdel-Gawad A, Nassar A, Abdel-Wahab A. 2006. Hematological and biochemical changes in water buffalo calves (Bubalus bubalis) infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Vet Parasitol. 139:237 –243. Igbokwe IO, Lafon JY, Umar IA, Hamidu LJ. 1998. Erythrocyte and hepatic glutathione concentrations in acute T. brucei infections of rats. Trop Vet. 16:81–83.
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
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U.S. Ndidi et al.
Luckins AG, Dwinger RH. 2004. Non tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomiasis. In: Maudin I, Holmes PH, Miles MA, editors. The trypanosomiasis. Trowbidge: CABI Publishing; p. 269– 281. Njiru ZK, Ole-Mapeny IM, Ouma JO, Ndungu JM, Olaho Mukani W. 2001. Prevalence of trypanosomosis in camel calves: a pilot study in Laikipia District of Kenya. Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop. 53:183–186. Omer RA, Elamin SMM, El Nahas AE, Aradaib IE. 2004. PCR for detection of Echinococus granulosus hydatid cysts collected from camels (Camelus dromerarius). Sudan J Vet Sci Anim Husb. 43:139–143. Orhue NEJ, Nwanze EAC, Okafor A. 2005. Serum total protein, albumin and globulin levels in Trypanosoma bruceiinfected rabbits: effect of orally administered Scoparia dulcis. Afr J Biotech. 4:1152– 1155. Peter O, Magiri E, Auma J, Magoma G, Imbuga M, Murilla G. 2009. Evaluation of in vivo antitrypanosomal activity of selected medicinal plant extracts. J Med Plants Res. 3:849–854. Soeiro MN, De Souza EM, Stephens CE, Boykin DW. 2005. Aromatic diamidines as antiparasitic agents. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 14:957– 972. Tekle T, Abebe G. 2001. Trypanosomosis and helminthoses: major health problems of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the southern rangelands of Borena. Ethiop J Camel Pract Res. 8:39–42. Umar IA, Ndidi US, Mohammed A, Anaedum VC, Zambuk UU, Umar AU, Bello MA. 2014. In vitro antitrypanosomal activity, antioxidant property and phytochemical constituents of aqueous extracts of nine Nigerian medicinal plants. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 4:348–355. Wilson WD, Nguyen B, Tanious A, Mathis J, Hall C, Stephens E, Boykin DW. 2005. Dications that target the DNA minor groove: compound design and preparation, DNA interactions, cellular distribution and biological activity. Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents. 5:389–408. Wolkmer P, Da Silva AS, Traesel CK, Paim FC, Cargnelutti JF, Pagnoncelli M, Picada ME, Monteiro SG, Lopes ST. 2009. Lipids peroxidation associated with anemia in rats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Vet Parasitol. 165:41–46. Wolkmer P, Lopes ST, Franciscato C, Da Silva AS, Traesel CK, Siqueira LC, Pereira ME, Monteiro SG, Mazzanti CM. 2010. Trypanosoma evansi: cholinesterase activity in acutely infected Wistar rats. Exp Parasitol. 125:251 –255.
Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnpl20
Effects of aqueous extracts of Acacia albida stem bark on Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi a
a
a
Uche Samuel Ndidi , Ismaila Alhaji Umar , Aminu Mohammed , a
a
Cosmas Samuel , Amos Oladiran Oladeru & Rahinat Nimma a
Yakubu a
Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria Published online: 25 Nov 2014.
Click for updates To cite this article: Uche Samuel Ndidi, Ismaila Alhaji Umar, Aminu Mohammed, Cosmas Samuel, Amos Oladiran Oladeru & Rahinat Nimma Yakubu (2014): Effects of aqueous extracts of Acacia albida stem bark on Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi, Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.981184 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.981184
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions
Natural Product Research, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.981184
SHORT COMMUNICATION Effects of aqueous extracts of Acacia albida stem bark on Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi Uche Samuel Ndidi*, Ismaila Alhaji Umar, Aminu Mohammed, Cosmas Samuel, Amos Oladiran Oladeru and Rahinat Nimma Yakubu Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
(Received 21 August 2014; final version received 21 October 2014)
The effect of aqueous extract of Acacia albida stem bark was investigated in Wistar albino rats infected with Trypanosoma evansi. The extract showed highest reduction in parasitemia at the dose of 600 mg/kg body weight (bw). A dose of 300 mg/kg bw improved packed cell volume the most by 14.35%. The group treated with 150 and 600 mg/kg bw of the extract showed significant decrease (P , 0.05) in alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels which were lower than those of the group treated with diminazene aceturate. The group treated with 150 mg/kg bw of the extract showed the least urea, albumin and protein level and lowest relative organ weight. There was a significant difference (P , 0.05) in the levels of catalase and Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances in liver and kidney of the animals in the infected-untreated group and the extracts-treated groups. The results of this study show that the extracts of A. albida have antitrypanosomal activity against T. evansi infection. Keywords: parasitemia; Trypanosoma evansi; Acacia albida; aqueous extract; stem bark
1. Introduction Trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma evansi is the most widely distributed of the pathogenic African animal trypanosomosis (Luckins & Dwinger 2004). The major characteristics of trypanosomosis include fever, anaemia, cachexia, oedema, tissue and organ degenerative changes. Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of the disease (Igbokwe et al. 1998). T. evansi has a wide range of hosts and is pathogenic to most domestic livestock and laboratory animals in which it causes Surra disease (Wolkmer et al. 2010). Its infection
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
2
U.S. Ndidi et al.
constitutes one of the major veterinary problems worldwide (Omer et al. 2004). It is an important single cause of economic losses, causing morbidity of up to 30.0% and mortality of around 3.0% in camels in Ethiopia (Tekle & Abebe 2001). The parasite is cosmopolitan wherever camels are reared, and other animals such as goat and sheep herded with camels are likely to be infected with T. evansi. Trypanosomosis in camels is endemic in most camel herds, and 95% of camel trypanosomosis in Africa has been associated with T. evansi (Njiru et al. 2001). Control measures for protozoan diseases such as Surra rely on treatment and vector control and, to a much lesser extent, on chemoprophylaxis. There is the introduction of novel aromatic diamidines, a new category of antitrypanosomal drugs (Soeiro et al. 2005; Wilson et al. 2005). However, the known chemotherapeutic agents used for the treatments of Surra are frequently toxic, unaffordable and unavailable for most rural dwellers. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, plants have been used traditionally for centuries and are still widely used to treat illnesses (Peter et al. 2009), which necessitated the research. Earlier work in our laboratory has shown that the aqueous extract of the stem bark of Acacia albida has significant in vitro antitrypanosomal activity against T. evansi (Umar et al. 2014). Therefore, there is need to investigate the effect of A. albida on rats infected with T. evansi.
2. Results and discussion Figure 1 shows the effect of the aqueous extract of the stem bark of A. albida on the level of parasitemia in the infected rats. From the chart, it is seen that all the extracts-treated groups reduced the level of parasitemia at day 18 post infection. The significant decrease in parasitemia in the animals treated with the different concentrations of the extract, therefore, further supports the antitrypanosomal effect of the plant in vitro (Umar et al. 2014). Table S1 captures the effect of the extracts on aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), urea, albumin and protein. Table S1 shows that there is a significant decrease (P , 0.05) in the serum ALT, AST and urea levels in all the treated groups as compared with those in the infected-untreated group. However, serum ALT decreased only in the rats treated with 150 and 600 mg/kg body weight (bw) of the extracts only compared with the untreated control group. Our reports are in agreement with the report of Awad et al. (2014). Increase in AST and ALT activity as well as increase in urea level leading to decreased kidney function has been reported in T. Evansi-infected camels (Hilali et al. 2006). The decrease in urea level is, therefore, an indication of restoration of kidney function. A significant increase
Figure 1. Changes in parasitemia following treatment with aqueous extract of A. albida stem bark.
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
Natural Product Research
3
(P , 0.05) was observed in the albumin level in the extract group treated with 600 mg/kg bw when compared with that in the infected-untreated group. On the other hand, only the group treated with 150 mg/kg bw showed a significant decrease (P , 0.05) in protein concentration. Earlier reports have shown that there was a significant increase in total protein and globulins of camels, buffalo and rabbits infected with T. evansi, while the albumin was reduced (Orhue et al. 2005; Hilali et al. 2006). These observations were also seen in our work. From Table S2 it was discovered that the extracts significantly decreased (P , 0.05) the relative weight of the liver, kidney and spleen, with the exception of the group treated with 300 mg/kg bw extract when compared with the weight of those of the infected-untreated group. Some reports indicate that trypanosomes can cause tissue inflammation (Damayanti 1993), which may have been the cause of increased size of the organs. Our report, therefore, suggests that the extract reversed the inflammatory effect of the infection in the animals’ organs. In Table S2 we also observed that groups treated with 300 and 600 mg/kg bw extract showed a significant decrease (P , 0.05) in the liver and kidney catalase levels and a significant increase in the level of liver and kidney Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) compared with those in the infected-untreated group. The findings of Wolkmer et al. (2009) and DaSilva et al. (2012) show that T. evansi infection is associated with increase in the levels of endogenous enzyme such as catalase and malondialdehyde, which has been attributed to inflammatory response against the parasite. Table S2 also shows that the group treated with 300 mg/kg bw extract had the highest increase in packed cell volume (PCV) (14%), while the groups treated with 150 and 600 mg/kg bws of the extracts reduced the PCV by 3.8% and 12%, respectively compared with the infected untreated that reduced the PCV by 25%. Research has shown that T. evansi infection is accompanied by significant decrease in PCV (Adamu et al. 2008). Our extract, therefore, showed improvement in the PCV when compared with that in the infecteduntreated group, indicating that the aqueous extract of A. albida has the ability to ameliorate the anaemia that accompanies T. evansi infection. 3. Conclusion The results of this study show that the aqueous extracts of A. albida have in vivo antitrypanosomal activity against T. evansi infection. It can also ameliorate the complications of T. evansi infection. Supplementary material Experimental details relating to this paper are available online, alongside Tables S1 – S2. References Adamu S, Ibrahim NDG, Nok AJ, Esievo KAN. 2008. Sialyltransferase activity probably counteracts that of sialidase as one possible mechanisms of natural recovery or stabilization of erythrocyte mass in trypanosome-infected animals – a perspective. Afr J Biotech. 7:4992– 5001. Awad FMA, Mohamed MA, Osman AY, Abu-Hassan ZA, Ibrahim N. 2014. In vivo assesment of anti-trypanasomal effect of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) in rabbits. IOSR J Agric Vet Sci. 7:45– 54. Damayanti R. 1993. Identification of Trypanosoma evansi in infected rat tissues by immunohistochemical methods. Penyakit Hewan. 25:11–13. Da Silva AS, Paim FC, Santos RC, Sangoi MB, Moresco RN, Lopes ST, Jaques JA, Baldissarelli J, Morsch VM, Monteiro SG. 2012. Nitric oxide level, protein oxidation and antioxidant enzymes in rats infected by Trypanosoma evansi. Exp Parasitol. 132:166–170. Hilali M, Abdel-Gawad A, Nassar A, Abdel-Wahab A. 2006. Hematological and biochemical changes in water buffalo calves (Bubalus bubalis) infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Vet Parasitol. 139:237 –243. Igbokwe IO, Lafon JY, Umar IA, Hamidu LJ. 1998. Erythrocyte and hepatic glutathione concentrations in acute T. brucei infections of rats. Trop Vet. 16:81–83.
Downloaded by [Selcuk Universitesi] at 14:30 10 February 2015
4
U.S. Ndidi et al.
Luckins AG, Dwinger RH. 2004. Non tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomiasis. In: Maudin I, Holmes PH, Miles MA, editors. The trypanosomiasis. Trowbidge: CABI Publishing; p. 269– 281. Njiru ZK, Ole-Mapeny IM, Ouma JO, Ndungu JM, Olaho Mukani W. 2001. Prevalence of trypanosomosis in camel calves: a pilot study in Laikipia District of Kenya. Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop. 53:183–186. Omer RA, Elamin SMM, El Nahas AE, Aradaib IE. 2004. PCR for detection of Echinococus granulosus hydatid cysts collected from camels (Camelus dromerarius). Sudan J Vet Sci Anim Husb. 43:139–143. Orhue NEJ, Nwanze EAC, Okafor A. 2005. Serum total protein, albumin and globulin levels in Trypanosoma bruceiinfected rabbits: effect of orally administered Scoparia dulcis. Afr J Biotech. 4:1152– 1155. Peter O, Magiri E, Auma J, Magoma G, Imbuga M, Murilla G. 2009. Evaluation of in vivo antitrypanosomal activity of selected medicinal plant extracts. J Med Plants Res. 3:849–854. Soeiro MN, De Souza EM, Stephens CE, Boykin DW. 2005. Aromatic diamidines as antiparasitic agents. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 14:957– 972. Tekle T, Abebe G. 2001. Trypanosomosis and helminthoses: major health problems of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the southern rangelands of Borena. Ethiop J Camel Pract Res. 8:39–42. Umar IA, Ndidi US, Mohammed A, Anaedum VC, Zambuk UU, Umar AU, Bello MA. 2014. In vitro antitrypanosomal activity, antioxidant property and phytochemical constituents of aqueous extracts of nine Nigerian medicinal plants. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 4:348–355. Wilson WD, Nguyen B, Tanious A, Mathis J, Hall C, Stephens E, Boykin DW. 2005. Dications that target the DNA minor groove: compound design and preparation, DNA interactions, cellular distribution and biological activity. Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents. 5:389–408. Wolkmer P, Da Silva AS, Traesel CK, Paim FC, Cargnelutti JF, Pagnoncelli M, Picada ME, Monteiro SG, Lopes ST. 2009. Lipids peroxidation associated with anemia in rats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Vet Parasitol. 165:41–46. Wolkmer P, Lopes ST, Franciscato C, Da Silva AS, Traesel CK, Siqueira LC, Pereira ME, Monteiro SG, Mazzanti CM. 2010. Trypanosoma evansi: cholinesterase activity in acutely infected Wistar rats. Exp Parasitol. 125:251 –255.
