DRUG

Drug

Delivery

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

Systems. 6. Transdermal Drug Delivery Vasant

V. Ranade,

PhD

Transdermal drug delivery system has been in existence for a long time. In the past, the most commonly applied systems were topically applied creams and ointments for dermatological disorders. The occurrence of systemic side-effects with some of these formulations is indicative of absorption through the skin. A number of drugs have been applied to the skin for systemic treatment. In a broad sense, the term transdermal delivery system includes all topically administered drug formulations intended to deliver the active ingredient into the general circulation. Transdermal therapeutic systems have been designed to provide controlled continuous delivery of drugs via the skin to the systemic circulation. The relative impermeability of skin is well known, and this is associated with its functions as a dual protective barrier against invasion by micro-organisms and the prevention of the loss of physiologically essential substances such as water. Elucidation of factors that contribute to this impermeability has made the use of skin as a route for controlled systemic drug delivery possible. Basically, four systems are available that allow for effective absorption of drugs across the skin. The microsealed system isa partition-controlled delivery system that contains a drug reservoir with a saturated suspension of drug in a water-miscible solvent homogeneously dispersed in a silicone elastomer matrix. A second system is the matrix-diffusion controlled system. The third and most widely used system for transdermal drug delivery is the membrane-permeation controlled system. A fourth system, recently made available, is the gradient-charged system. Additionally, advanced transdermal carriers include systems such as iontophoretic and sonophoretic systems, thermosetting gels, prodrugs, and liposomes. Many drugs have been formulated in transdermal systems, and others are being examined for the feasibility of their delivery in this manner (e.g., nicotine antihistamines, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, contraceptives, anti-arrhythmic drugs, insulin, antivirals, hormones, alpha-interferon, and cancer chemotherapeutic agents). Research also continues on various chemical penetration enhancers that may allow delivery of therapeutic substances. For example, penetration enhancers such as Azone may allow delivery of larger-sized molecules such as proteins and polypeptides.

A

lthough some drugs have that cannot be eliminated

inherent in any

side dosage

effects form,

many drugs exhibit undesirable behaviors that are specifically related to a particular route of administration. One recent effort at eliminating some of the problems of traditional dosage forms is the transdermal delivery system. Oral administration of drugs initially

been more ables

through

powders

practiced since recently, through came into being

extracts

and

liquids

1991;31:401-418

ter has

been

acceptable

understanding been used

of localized

for

skin

since

the

Transdermal are els

specifically and have

development

of a bet-

of sterility. Topical application centuries mostly in the treatment

diseases.

Local

only that the drug permeate to treat the diseased state with little or no systemic

has

before recorded history, and tablets and capsules. Injectabout 130 years ago, but have

From the Action Medical Marketing Co. Libertyville, Illinois. Address for reprints: Vasant V. Ranade, PhD, 1219 Deer Trail, Libertyville, IL 60048. For reprint requests, please send a self-addressed stamped envelope.

J Cbbn Pharmacol

only

delivery designed been used

treatment

requires

the outer layers and it is hoped this accumulation.1

systems,

on the

to obtain systemic in the U.S. since

other

of skin

occurs hand,

blood levthe 1950s;

only recently have these systems been refined. Transdermal permeation or percutaneous absorption can be defined as the passage of a substance, such as a drug, from the outside of the skin through its various layers there is systemic

into the accumulation

bloodstream. of a drug,

Any time unwanted

401

RANADE

side effects or toxic effects can occur. Certainly, each dosage form has its unique place in medicine, but some attributes of the transdermal delivery system provide distinct advantages over the traditional methods

of attaining

systemic

levels

of drugs.

Cleary

has listed important advantages and disadvantages the transdermal delivery systems. The advantages are that the system 1) avoids chemically hostile environment,

2) does

not

have

GI distress

of GI

or other

physiologic contraindications of oral route, 3) provides adequate absorption of drugs with some oral absorption promptly, 4) increases patient compliance, 5) avoids first-pass effect, 6) allows effective use of drugs with short biological half-lives, 7) allows administration of drugs with narrow therapeutic window, 8) provides controlled plasma levels of potent drugs, and 9) interrupts drug input promptly when

toxicities 1) drugs

occur.

Disadvantages

of this

include that require high-blood not be administered, 2) adhesive may well to all types of skin, 3) drug or drug may

cause

skin

irritation

system

4)it

is un-

comfortable to wear, and 5) system may not be economical.1’2 In the development of transdermal delivery systems, a series of interrelated elements must be taken into consideration. These factors can be classified into five basic areas: bioactivity of the drug, skin characteristics formulation, adhesion, and system design. The transport of drugs through the skin is complex

since

many

ation. To simplify skin structure and molecule skin and

and

its

factors

influence

it somewhat, its properties,

their

perme-

one can look at 1) 2) the penetrating

physical-chemical

relationship 3) the platform

to or

the delivery platform, delivery system carrying the penetrant, and 4) the combination of skin, the penetrant, and the delivery systems as a whole. This article discusses each of these factors, their complexities, and their interdependencies in the development of transdermal delivery

systems.3’4

STRUCTURE

OF

HUMAN

SKIN

Human skin consists of two distinct layers, the stratified avascular cellular epidermis and an underlying dermis of connective tissue. A fatty subcutaneous layer resides beneath the dermis. Hairy skin develops hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and the highly vascularized dermis supports the apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, which pass through pores in the epidermis to reach the skin surface. In respect of drug permeation, the most important tissue in this

complex

402

membrane

#{149} J Clln Pharmacol

is the stratum

1991;31:401-418

corneum

or horny

ageal way). The appendages

sional

times

may

and

be

for large

important

polar

at short

molecules. the intact

diffu-

For drugs stratum cor-

that penetrate directly across neum, entry may be transcellular or intercellular. For many years, for polar molecules, the probable way was through the hydrated keratin of the corneocyte. However, it now seems more likely that the

dominant lipid,

levels cannot adhere formulation

or sensitization,

layer, which usually provides the rate-limiting or slowest step in the penetration process.5 The transport mechanisms by which drugs cross the intact skin are still not elucidated despite many years of investigation. The possible macro routes comprise the transepidermal pathway (across the horny layer either intracellularly or intercellularly) or via the hair follicles and sweat glands (the append-

path with

the

routes The

(Figure relative

pends

on many

is the

polar

lipid

chains

region

of the

providing

intercellular the

nonpolar

1).b0

importance factors

of these that

permeation (steady-state physicochemical properties ample, its pKa, molecular affinity,

and

its

integrity

and

thickness

solubility

alternatives

include

the

de-

time-scale

of

vs. transient diffusion), the of the penetrant (for exsize, stability and binding and

partition

of the stratum

sity of sweat glands and follicles, tabolism, and vehicle effects.

skin

coefficient),

corneum,

den-

hydration,

me-

In developing a topical system, a stable preparation of controlled-chemical potential, with the correct partition coefficient relative to the drug reservoir, and any device membrane and the skin layers is needed.

In particular,

for the

type

livery device that incorporates membrane, the flux across this enough so that the underlying This

is a severe

impermeability layer

is not

restriction

because

of the stratum made

as a sink,

of transdermal

the

de-

a rate-controlling barrier should be low skin acts as a sink. of the

general

corneum.

If the horny

skin

patient

of the

will

control drug input and variable consequences will follow due to the significant biological variability that exists among people and from skin site to skin site. In the future, new penetration enhancers will have to be designed and manufactured and their delivery should be dovetailed with that of the drug so that they precede medicament entry. In this way, the resistance of the horny layer could be reduced so that the tissue does perform as a sink. Many pharmacologically active drugs have the incorrect physio-

chemical properties to partition into the skin, and an important effort in the future will be devoted to synthesizing suitable prodrugs to optimize the partition coefficient, stratum corneum: vehicle. In developing new drug entities, more attention should be paid to

TRANSDERMAL

DRUG

DEL IVERY

IA:

Cornettn

Stratum

Viable

Epidermis papillary layer

Dermis

reticular layer

Subcutaneous

Connective

Tissue

Figure 1. Basic diagram of skin structure (reprinted with permission Controlled Release, Vol 1 Longer and Wise (eds.) 1984; 207.)

producing chemicals with low melting points (preferably liquids at biological temperatures) and to include penetration-enhancer groups in the active molecule. Light, oxygen, and bacteria degrade the microenvironment of the skin surface. For example, skin microflora can degrade nitroglycerine and steroid esters. Predictably, occlusive systems such as the transdermal delivery devices, when applied for several days, will cause problems with changes in skin flora, with maceration and irritation of the skin since prolonged application can shut down the sweat glands.16

In transversing the skin, the drug must partition into the stratum corneum and diffuse through this impermeable barrier. The molecules will interact with many potential binding sites, possibly forming a reservoir operating for days or even weeks. Free drug eventually reaches the interface between the stratum corneum and the viable epidermis, where the medicament must partition into this water-rich tissue. There is a potential problem in that a drug or a prodrug that is designed to partition from a vehicle into the horny layer may have difficulty leaving the stratum corneum to enter the epidermis. For very

DRUG

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

from

CRC

Press

Inc.,

Boca

Raton

Fl, from

Medical

Applications

of

lipid-soluble drugs, clearance from the viable tissue may replace diffusion through the stratum corneum as the rate-limiting step.15 Living skin is a storehouse of enzymes that may have catalytic activities of 80-90% as efficient as those formed in the liver. Hydrolytic, oxidative, reductive, and conjugative reactions can all take place. One reason why the activities approach those in the liver is the extreme dilution at which molecules cross the viable epidermis. The process positions them open to attack, although this is counterbalanced by the much greater permeation rates compared with those operating within the stratum corneum. Metabolism may alter permeation pharmacokinetics, activating prodrugs and destroying active drug while generating active and inactive metabolites. A future possibility would be to incorporate enzyme inhibitors into the devices to protect the drugs. In epidermis, the drug meets pharmacologic receptors as it permeates to the epidermal/dermal boundary where it partitions into the dermis. Since both viable tissues consist mainly of water, it is preferable that the partition coefficient be approximately one, provided that there are no different binding sites in close proximity on either side of the interface. The

403

RANADE

sensitization reactions will probably always occur in time to a fraction of the patient population when any chemical is delivered via an unusual route, i.e., one to which the body is not accustomed. This phenomenon of sensitization has been observed with clonidine, and it may occur with other drugs, enhancers enzyme inhibitors, adhesives, and vehicle components in general.17’18 After the penetrant partitions into the dermis, additional receptor, metabolic, and depot sites may intervene as the drug moves to a blood capillary, partitions into the wall, exits into the blood. The lymph system may also aid in drug elimination. A portion of the penetrant may even partition into the subcutaneous fat and the underlying muscle to form further depots, even though this would appear unlikely based on theoretic considerations.19’2#{176} The aforementioned scheme is complex although it has been simplified by representing the process as one of simple unidirectional transport; in practice, the sequence is more complicated. Factors playing their part include the inhomogeneity of the stratified tissues, the interruption of the stratum corneum by hair follicles and sweat glands, and the division of basal cells their transport through the horny layer and their loss from the surface. Additionally, drugs penetrate the skin under dynamic conditions. Thus, the medicament, vehicle components, and occlusive hydration effects may progressively change the skin barrier. Sweat, sebum, and cellular debris may enter the product, changing its physico-chemical characteristics. Volatile solvents may evaporate and emulsions can crack or invert when rubbed into the skin. Such processes will alter the chemical potential of the drug and may even develop supersaturated solutions. -

Theoretical

Advantages

of the

Transdermal

S J ClIn Pharmacol

1991;31:401-418

-

tion can be valuable for drugs indices those for which the the plasma is near the clinical -

with

toxic

low

therapeutic

concentration

in

level. that it would

Some investigators claim be easy to terminate therapy by simple removal of a topical device so as to interrupt medicament delivery. However, the stratum corneum would continue to deliver molecules to the viable tissues for some time after device removal, at a declining rate as governed by the properties of the drug reservoir. This is another consequence of the long response times of horny layer membranes.

Route

It is usual to contrast the percutaneous route with oral delivery as the latter regime provides the most popular way for delivering medicaments in general. Transdermal input of a drug would eliminate several variables that make gastrointestinal absorption a problem. These factors include the dramatic changes in pH as the molecule moves from gastric acid with a pH as low as 1 to the intestine with a pH of up to 8. Other variables that may be obviated include gastric emptying, intestinal motilities and transit times, the operation of human and bacterial enzymes, and the influence of food on drug absorption. Via skin, the drug enters the systematic circulation without first passing into the portal system and traversing the liver. The route therefore avoids the

404

‘first-pass’ phenomenon by which the liver can significantly reduce the amount of intact agent that passes into the systemic circulation. Additionally, the medicament avoids the enzymes that are present in the gut wall. However, as emphasized earlier, the skin itself possesses a metabolic capability. For a correctly formulated product, the percutaneous input of a drug can control administration and thus limit pharmacologic action; indeed the corresponding oral or injectable formulation may well elicit several effects that include toxic reactions. Patient compliance may be helped by the continuity of input of drugs with short half-lives. (Figure 2) Transdermal administration under suitable rate control could minimize pulse entry into the bloodstream undesirable side-effects being particularly associated with peak plasma levels. However, a more difficult matter is to deliberately provide a controlled on/off action because intact skin membranes are intrinsically slow-response systems with prolonged lag times, at least when shunt diffusion via the appendages is neglible. Percutaneous administra-

ITRANSDERMAL

I

#{149}

_____________ DELIVERY STRATUM

SYSTEM CORNEUM

EPIDERMIS DERMIS

DEPOT SITE

4...__ U

SITE OF

SITE METABOLITE

4lIp;’

‘“

ACTION

BL000 CAPILLARY ELIMINATION

Figure 2. Process of transdermal mission from S. Krager AG Design of Chemical Structure Prob Dermatol 1978; 7:121.)

Basel, for

permeation (reprinted with perSwitzerland, from Higuchi T, optimal dermal delivery, Curr

TRANSDERMAL

Optimization

of Percutaneous

Absorption

When formulators develop dermatologic preparations for optimum bioavailability, they employ two main methods of approach either singly or combined. The first scheme formulates the vehicle or device so that the drug has the maximum tendency to leave the base and to partition into the skin. The formulator does not intend that the vehicle components should affect the physicochemical properties of the stratum corneum. Thus, the vehicle design promotes drug release by simply optimizing chemical potential of the medicament. However, even the most innocuous of vehicles tends to change the nature of the stratum corneum if only by hydrating it. The alternative strategy incorporates materials known as penetration enhancers into the formulation. These are chemicals that enter the skin, dynamically and reversibly altering it to promote the penetration of drug. The desirable attributes of such enhancers have been listed by Barry5 and they include the following: 1) they should be pharmacologically inert, interacting with no receptors in the skin or in the body generally, 2) the enhancer should be neither toxic, irritating nor allergenic, 3) the onset of enhancer activity and the duration of effect should be predictable, controllable, and suitable, 4) the skin should show an immediate and full recovery for its normal barrier property when the enhancer leaves the tissue, 5) the accelerant should promote penetration into the skin without developing significant problems of loss of body fluids, electrolytes or other endogeneous materials, 6) the chemical should be compatible with a wide range of drugs and pharmaceutical adjuvants, 7) where appropriate, the substance should be a suitable solvent for the drugs, 8) for traditional formulations, the material should spread well on the skin and it should have a suitable skin ‘feel’, 9) the chemical should formulate into creams, ointments, gels, lotions, suspensions, aerosols, skin adhesives, and delivery devices, 10) it should be odorless, tasteless, colorless, and relatively inexpensive.21 Theory

for Penetration-Enhancer

Activity

It seems that in most situations the crucial events occur in the intercellular spaces within the stratum corneum and the main sites associated with the bilayer lipid structure. Many penetration enhancers will interact with the polar head groups of the lipid via hydrogen bonding and ionic interactions. The consequent disturbance of the hydration spheres of the lipids and alterations in head group interactions will upset the packing at the head region. This dis-

DRUG

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

DRUG

DELIVERY

turbance may decrease the retarding action that this domain imposes on the diffusion of polar penetrants. A second response may be to increase the volume of the aqueous layer so that more water enters the tissue. This swelling provides a greater cross-sectional area for polar diffusion and a larger fractional volume of ‘free’ water as distinct from the structured water at the lipid interface. This modification may also happen with simple hydration water itself is a good penetration enhancer. The disturbance of the interfacial structure will tend to alter the packing of the lipid tails such that the lipid hydrophobic route becomes more disordered and more easily traversed by a lipid-like penetrant. In addition to any effect a penetration enhancer has on the aqueous region by increasing its water content, there can be a direct action whereby the domain temporally changes its bulk chemical constitution. Thus, with high concentration of solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide, propylene glycol, or ethanol in a vehicle or device, so much may penetrate into the aqueous region of the tissue that it becomes a better solvent for molecules such as hydrocortisone and estradiol. In other words, the operational partition coefficient now favors an elevated drug concentration in the skin. The solvent diffuses out into the dermis followed by the drug diffusing down its concentration gradient.22 Penetration enhancers can insert between the hydrophobic tails of the bilayer, upsetting their packing and following easier diffusion for lipid penetrants. This alteration in lipid packing can reflect back to provide an element of disorder at the polar-head group region of the intercellular domain, promoting polar route permeation. An important feature of the activity of certain penetration enhancers is the correct choice of a cosolvent for materials such as Azone and cis-unsaturated oleic acid. For these enhancers to reach the polar surface of the lipid bilayer in relatively large amounts, they may need a material such as propylene glycol. This alters the polarity of the aqueous region and increases its solubilizing ability for lipidlike materials; the cosolvent may also change head group packing. Then, the polar heads of the oleic acid and Azone insert between the head groups of the lipid and the enhancer tails flip over to insert between the hydrophobic groups of the membrane lipids, thus increasing the fluidity of the lipid domain. Azone is so water insoluble that under extreme conditions it may move fully into the internal region of the lipid to provide maximum disordering. This cooperation between the elements of cosolvent -

systems

operates

particularly

with

azone/propylene

405

RANADE

glycol mixtures. Not only does propylene glycol aid the penetration of Azone into the stratum corneum, but Azone also increases the flux of propylene glycol through the skin, which further increases the amount of Azone in the tissue. When dramatic effects occur such that the resistance of the horny layer reduces to that of an equivalent thickness of viable tissue, even more drastic disorder in the intercellular domain may be suspected. It is believed that the biomolecular structure completely breaks down, and the components from globular micelles are dispersed in a relatively extensive continuous phase rich in polar or aprotic solvent. This situation would permit drug penetration at rates that are several orders of magnitude greater than those operating in the unaffected horny layer. The final stage in this process would be the dissolution of the lipid to form a homogeneous phase with little resistance to molecular diffusion. This extreme disruption would occur only in the presence of high concentrations of molecules with good solvent properties for lipid components. If, for a particular penetrant, the intracellular route provided a significant permeation pathway, the enhancer could interact with whatever lipid remains within the corneocyte. With regard to keratin fibrils, there is a need to consider the typical spread of interactions which materials such as the aprotic solvents (e.g., dimethylsulfoxide) and surfactants undergo with proteins. These mechanisms include interactions with polar groups, relaxation of binding forces, and alterations in helix conformations. Pore routes may form through this tissue. Most investigators no longer accept the fact that the transcellular route presents a significant pathway for molecular diffusion through the stratum corneum, though presumably the corneocyte may sequester and retain certain molecules within its structure. The aforementioned theory is not exclusive and has concentrated on agents that are delivered in amounts that alter the permeability of the stratum corneum without producing frank damage. However, aprotic solvents such as dimethylsufoxide at high concentrations may damage the skin or produce gross structural changes in it, whereas the high osmotic activity of the sulfoxide may induce channels in the stratum corneum and so form a continuous network throughout the tissue. Incidentally, human skin shows great variation in permeability and in respect of its modification by enhancers. The human population may be divided into a minimum of two subgroups one is susceptible to enhancer activity and the other much less so. Within each subset, there is the usual biologic variability. A large-scale -

406

5

J ClIn Pharmacol

1991;31:401-418

investigation permeabilities DEVELOPMENT THERAPEUTIC Transdermal

to find would

such a biomodal be informative.5

OF THE SYSTEM Penetration

distribution

of

TRANSDERMAL

of Drugs

In the last 45 years or so, many terms have been used to describe one of the objectives of a transdermal delivery system, i.e., penetration of a substance from the outside of skin through the skin and into the bloodstream. Rothman described this as percutaneous absorption.1 Others have used different terms such as sorption, persorption, permeation, and penetration. All of these relate to passively driven mass transfer; some terms such as sorption, have other conflicting meanings. No matter how it is referred to, absorption through the skin involves passive diffusion through the outer and middle structure of the skin until the systemic circulation is attained.2325 The skin is stratified histologically into the stratum corneum, epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue, and as such it can be considered as a laminate of barriers. This laminate consists of the stratum corneum, the viable epidermis, and a portion of the dermis. For most purposes, the subcutaneous tissue can be considered not to be involved in percutaneous absorption, or it may act as a potential depot. Permeation can occur dy diffusion via: 1) transcellular penetration, through the stratum corneum, 2) intercellular penetration, through the stratum corneum, and 3) transappendageal penetration, especially including the sebaceous pathway of the pilosebaceous apparatus and the aqueous pathway of the salty sweat glands. The first two mechanisms require further diffusion through the rest of the epidermis and dermis. The third mechanism allows diffusional leakage into the epidermis and direct permeation into the dermis.263#{176} Formulation The formulation of the transdermal systems is essential for providing suitable delivery rates of drugs. The components of the system impact on the rate the drug is released to the skin and on the adherence of the device to the skin, and thus on the design of the final product. The drug must be incorporated into some type of physical structure that serves as a reservoir and which provides for diffusive “communication” of the drug with the surface of the skin. This physical structure or laminar construction serves as a “platform” for the drug. The platform could consist of 1) a

TRANSDERMAL

liquid, 2) a semisolid, 3) a nonflowing (three dimensional stable) material, or 4) a combination of any of these. A liquid by itself is rather impractical for any extended wearing. However, if well-contained, it could be made useful. The semisolid platform, exemplified by the traditional ointment or semisolid gel material, with containment, is truly acceptable for wearing on the skin. Even without containment, such materials are ideal for spreading over irregular surfaces. A three-dimensionally stable material (such as a polymeric film or rubbery gel) has a discrete size and shape and can be easily held in hand. This type can be called “solid-state” platform. The “solid-state” delivery system is more amenable for wearing and removing from the skin. On the other hand, it may not as easily conform to the application area, and complete system-to-skin contact is less certain. Platforms thus consist of materials that are either liquid, semisolid, or solid state. Some investigators have referred to these platforms as either monoliths, slabs, reservoirs, vehicles, films, polymer matrixes, or just matrixes. A matrix can be totally amorphous and of varying viscosities, or crystalline, or some of the both. If a barrier or some material is placed in the path of the diffusing molecule so that it controls the rate of flux of the drug, it will be referred to as a membrane or film. Hwang and Kammermeyer38 have classified membranes in terms of their nature, structure, application, or mechanism of action. The nature of a membrane can be said to be either natural (such as skin or intestinal walls) or synthetic, (such as polymeric films). Defining membranes structurally, they can be either porous (such as microporous polymeric films, filters etc.) or nonporous (such as films of polyethylene, vinyl, or other polymers commonly used in packaging). The analysis of data on matrixor film-diffusion can be presented in several formats. The most common methods are to observe either the cumulative amount of a drug that permeates or by the rate that it diffuses out of or through a matrix or membrane. Depending on the system selected, the drug will have a particular release rate profile curve. Mathematical diffusion models have been reviewed extensively and are useful references.3137 Adhesion The modern transdermal product is a unique delivery system in that it is worn on the skin. This requires good skin contact over the total area of application, and ease of applying and removing the transdermal patch. Also, if the transdermal delivery system is made of two or more laminating structures,

DRUG

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

DRUG

DELIVERY

good bonding between these layers must take place. Other parts of the system must not adhere well, such as the release liner (peel-away strip that is removed). If the drug is to be formulated into the adhesive itself, care must be taken to see that the drug or any adhesives do not influence the adhesive properties of the adhesive. Along with an understanding of the effect of the formulation on drug release, one has to consider tradeoffs with optimized adhesive properties. A good understanding of adhesion, adhesive properties, and adhesive materials, particularly in relation to pressure-sensitive adhesives, is helpful when dealing with these materials. Although the literature provides little specific information on pressure-sensitive adhesives, there are some reviews on the practical aspects, and others on the theoretical aspects of adhesives. Generally, the adhesive-cohesive properties, peel strength, tack, and creep qualities of adhesives are basic properties used in formulating suitable pressure-sensitive adhesives. The basic construction of pressure-sensitive tapes has been reviewed in the literature. The facestock or backing can be a material that is occlusive (serves as a barrier, such as vinyl, polyethylene, polyester films, etc.) or nonocclusive (allows water and gases to readily flow through, such as nonwoven or porous films). The backing serves as a platform or carrier for the adhesive and is essential for application to and removal from the skin.39’40 The adhesive layer is pressure sensitive and the anchor of the system. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) definition of a pressure-sensitive adhesive is a viscoelastic material that, in solvent-free form, remains permanently tacky.43 Such material will adhere instantaneously to most solid surfaces with the application of very slight pressure. The adhesive can be removed from a surface such as the skin or release liner without leaving a residue. The pressure-sensitive adhesives (called adhesive mass) commonly used in medical applications are based on natural or synthetic rubbers, polyacrylates, or silicone. The release liner (also called release paper or peel-away strip) is a sheet that serves as a protectant and/or carrier for an adhesive film or mass, which is easily removed from the adhesive mass before use. The release liner consists of either paper, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyester, or other polymeric films with a light coating of such compounds as silicones, long chain-branched polymers, chromium complexes, fluoro chemicals, or various hard polymers.41-42 Bioactivity Other drugs

dosage forms to the systemic

that are intended regions of the body

to deliver often pro-

407

RANADE

vide highly fluctuating levels in the blood and tissues, especially after repeated dosing. The transdermal method offers an alternative where such problems do not exist. To determine if the transdermal route is indeed a workable alternative, one must ask what problems exist with the current dosage forms of a particular drug. In most cases, the therapeutic effect of a drug is related to drug concentration. There is an upper and lower limit of a drug that will establish a “therapeutic window.” In this range, the diseased state can be treated with minimal side effects. Some drugs may have nominal inherent side effects in this window but reach toxic proportions when higher levels are achieved. When levels go below the therapeutic threshold, the drug essentially becomes ineffective (e.g., at a subtherapeutic level). Ideally, a drug delivery system should provide drug levels within the limits of the therapeutic window. To achieve systemic levels from a transdermal delivery system, the drug must first dissolve in the matrix and migrate from the matrix through the skin and into the capillary plexus. Pharmacokinetic treatment of percutaneous absorption in the literature concentrates largely on drugs that permeate into rather than through the skin. However, Beckett et al.45 compared the transdermal route with the oral route of four ephedrine derivatives. They showed that metabolites were formed in lesser amounts and that the combination of unchanged drug plus its metabolites was less using the percutaneous route. Riegelman also showed the skin is rate limiting and indicated that by adjusting the drug loading, vehicle components, and surface area, prolonged steadystate blood levels can be sustained.81 The use of pharmacokinetic parameters provides a useful tool for the development of transdermal systems. It can allow one to establish what steady-state fluxes of the drug are needed to reach a therapeutic level systematically (therapeutic window). Pharmacokinetic parameters are also important from the biopharmaceutics point of view as part of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration review for market approval to support drug labeling. Further, the system must show reproducibility of plasma levels and that these levels are within the therapeutic limits of a standard dosage form. EXAMPLES

OF TRANSDERMAL

APPLICATIONS

Transdermal systems such as Nitrodur and Nitrodisc are referred to as monolithic systems because they contain the drug as a semisolid solution or dispersion. With these systems, the drug reservoir is manufactured by dissolution of all components, including the polymer that serves as the matrix, with subse-

408

#{149} J ClIn Pharmacol

1991;31:401-418

quent casting and drying. In some cases, the solvent may form the continuous phase of the matrix, and processing may involve mixing high-viscosity fluid at elevated temperature before forming the gelled matrix either in sheet form or as a solid cylinder. The individual units must then be punched from the sheet or sliced cylinder.46 Once the drug reservoir that has the specified surface area is obtained, it must be assembled together with the system backing, peripheral adhesive, and protective liner. This process is the most labor intensive, and consequently, the most expensive part of the manufacturing process. Undoubtedly, in the future, monolithic systems will be manufactured by more continuous processes such as extrusion, injection molding, and laminating lines.8285 Transderm-Nitro (Summit, Div. of CIBA, Summit, NJ) and Transderm-Scop (CIBA, Summit, NJ) are examples of membrane-controlled transdermal systems. Their methods of manufacture are somewhat different, however, in that the former is a product of technologies that originated in the packaging industry, referred to as form-fill seal, whereas the latter system derives purely from lamination processes. The technologies for both processes are well established, having been applied for some time in the food and cosmetics industry. Hence, these processes make it possible to produce pharmaceutical products under GMP regulations (Figure 3). In the case of form-fill seal systems, the formulation of the drug reservoir can be accomplished by techniques that are used in the pharmaceutical industry. With the processes of lamination, however, dosing of the drug reservoir and heat sealing must be refined and adapted somewhat before the overall manufacturing process becomes general and routine. Nevertheless, this technology may be closer to finding a place in pharmaceutical production than those technologies needed for efficient production of monolithic systems. Hormones. The female reproductive hormones, estradiol and progesterone or synthetic gestagens are obvious choices for transdermal delivery. Estradiol is particularly promising because its oral administration causes a large fraction of the dose to be converted in the liver to the less active metabolite, estrone. Transdermal administration avoids most hepatic metabolism and results in therapeutic blood levels of estradiol at total doses much lower than those required by oral administration. Cardiovascular system lend ministration

drugs. themselves of drugs

Diseases of the cardiovascular readily to transdermal adbecause of the nature of the

TRANSDERMAL

Adhesive

DRUG

system. It seems likely, however, that both and propranolol administered transdermally have some efficacy in reducing the blood sure.47’

Device

Backing

1: .

.

:

l’s-

Drug-Containing

Device

Backing Rate-Controlling

.-

Matrix

Containing

Drug

‘s-Adhesive

Reservoir

Device

Backing 4-

-Drug-Containing Reservoir

Antihistamines.

Rate-Controlling “Adhesive

diseases. is generally

of transdermal Pharmaceutical in Drug Delivery

Drug treatment a protracted

delivery Technology Systems-I

devices

of hypertension process, often

(reprinted magazine. The 987 Conference

and requiring

with LatPro-

angina con-

tinuous use for several years. As such, compliance with the established regimen is important and can be a problem-particularly with hypertension because the disease is often asymptomatic giving the patient no incentive to take their medication on time. The two beta blockers, timolol and propranolol, have been studied in their free-base forms in skin permeation models and have been shown to provide sufficient skin permeability to obtain significant blood levels. Both of these compounds are used in oral form to treat hypertension and angina. Neither of these is cardioselective, and several of the hepatic metabolites of propranolol are active beta-adrenergic antagonists. Timolol has been introduced in an ocular formulation for the treatment of ocular hypertension (glaucoma). It has a potential advantage in this application because it lacks a membrane-stabilizing effect that produces local anesthesia. It is not yet known what significance local anesthesia at the site of application may have on the acceptance of a transdermal

DRUG

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

There

may

be a need

for continuous

delivery of both over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription antihistamines, particularly in the treatment of certain allergies. At least one firm is develop-

Membrane

Figure 3. Types permission from est Developments ceedings, p. 27.)

timolol would pres-

Analgesics. Compounds used to control pain continue to be of interest to many folks in the medical and pharmaceutical communities. It is important, however, to understand when a transdermal delivery system, or any controlled delivery system for that matter, is an advantage in the control of pain. Clearly the amelioration of acute pain requires fast onset of action and probably is not an appropriate use of transdermal therapy. Still, control of chronic pain may well lend itself to transdermal therapy. At least one group has studied transdermal delivery of salicylates. It appears, however, that dosing requirements may prove too great for common nonnarcotic analgesics. At the same time, many fundamental questions regarding the development of tolerance during continuous dosing must be answered before any transdermal analgesics can become a reality.49

Adhesive

Monolithic

DELIVERY

ing a transdermal delivery system for chlorpheniramine. The primary advantage’ of continuous transdermal delivery of antihistamines is the possibility of maintaining histamine-receptor antagonism while reducing the occurrence of CNS side effects such as drowsiness. Because chiorpheniramine has a relatively long half-life, it is believed that its transdermal administration may not provide major ad-

vantages in dosing the interval, unless the system can be designed to last more than 1 day. Substantial benefit in minimizing the side effects, however, may well overcome modest benefits in duration of effect. The primary drawback to transdermal administration of anti-histamines, particularly the tertiary amines, is the possibility of skin irritation and/or hypersensitization. These problems must be addressed early in the development phase. Central nervous system drugs. In a paper that described skin permeability of physostigmine, a cholinesterase inhibitor, the authors studied a transdermal system that delivered the drug at a sufficient rate through pig skin, in vivo, to inhibit the breakdown of acetylcholine by 30% to 40% over 4 days. This mode of treatment could have far-reaching effects for certain dementias involving central acetylcholine deficit, including Alzheimer’s disease. One must, however, be cautious, because physostigmine

409

RANADE is not specific to the CNS and peripheral side effects must be carefully controlled. Nonetheless, this system provides a convenient means of delivering physostigmine at a controlled rate to the systemic circulation bypassing hepatic metabolism over a long period. It should prove useful in studying the treatment of these diseases and their responses to cholinestrase inhibition. Table I contains a partial list of transdermal controlled-release products and devices. -

-

Iontophoresis. An alternate through the skin that seems of interest is iontophoresis.

way to drive drugs to be enjoying a revival In this method, a battery

is connected

to two

electrodes

on the

skin.

If ionized

drug is placed in contact with one electrode, it will migrate under the influence of the voltage gradient through the skin and enter the systemic circulation. Very large enhancements can be obtained in this way (Figure 4). The earliest patents describing the essential features of iontophoresis date back to the 1890s, although apparently their objective was to shock their subjects rather than drug them. The first modern device appeared in 1972, and advances since then have enabled smaller and smaller devices to be built. The newest devices, from Drug Delivery Systems, have a built-in battery layer and are comparable in size to a

TABLE I Partial List of Transdermal Drug

Scopolamine

Trade

(Hyoscine)

Controlled-Release

Name

Type of Device

Transderm-Scop Kimite Patch Transderm-Nitro Deponit

Nitroglycerine*

lsosorbide-Dinitrate Clonidine Estradiol

Products and Devices Indication

Reservoir

Motion Angina Angina

Nitro-Dur

Reservoir Mixed monolithic reservoir Monolithic

Angina

Nitrodisc

Monolithic

Angina

NTS Frandol Tape Catapress-TTS Estraderm

Monolithic Monolithic Reservoir Reservoir

Angina Angina

sickness

Hypertension and ethanol

Hormone

treatment

t t t t

Hormone Hormone

treatment treatment

enhancer Estradiol esters Testosterone Timolol

-

Propranolol

-

-

-

Fentanyl

Duragesic

Glycol Salicylate Methyl Salicylate

-

Chlorpheniramine Diphenhydramine

-

Zenol

Physostigmine Insulin

-

Nicotine

-

Albuterol

-

Cardiovascular Opioid Analgesic

t

Analgesic

t

Antihistamine

f

Antihistamine Cholinergic

-

Cardiovascular

t t

Diabetes Aid to Smoking

I’ t t

Bronchodilator

Cessation Piroxicam

Ketorolac

-

(Toradol)

-

Arthritis

Non-narcotic analgesic

Flurbiprofen Indomethacin Bufuralol

Zepolas Indomethin

Bupranolol

-

-

I

-

t

Anti-inflammatory Anti-inflammatory

Angina,

hypertension

Angina, hypertension, antiglaucoma

* Other trade names are Diafusor, Minit ran, Nitriderm, Deponit, Millistrol Tape, and Herzer. t In research and development.

410

#{149} J ClIn Pharmacol

1991;31:401-418

Nitrol

Patch,

Nitrocine,

agent

TRANSDERMAL

Battery

111111

Solution

Salt

of Cithode

\ Skin

Solution

4

A’

lNa

Current

Figure 4. Schematic phoresis (reprinted ogy magazine. The -1987 Conference

diagram illustrating with permission from

the principles Pharmaceutical

Latest

in Drug

Developments

Proceedings,

Delivery

of iontoTechnol-

Systems

p. 31.)

normal transdermal patch. The patents in this area so far deal with device design and do not specify particular drugs. There is considerable potential for innovative work in this specialized area.5#{176} The iontophoretic system currently marketed (Phoresor, Motion Control Inc., Salt Lake City, UT) uses a continuous, waveless, unidirectional current of low voltage (DC). All ions are either positive or negative. For a drug to be phoresed, it must be ionizable, and its polarity must be determined. The drug is then injected into a reservoir in the active pole (electrode). This electrode is smaller than the inactive or indifferent electrode to concentrate the effects of the drug. When the pads are placed, they should be as directly opposite each other as possible (that is, on either side of the elbow). When the system

is activated,

the

drug

is driven

out

of the

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

DELIVERY

amount of drug that is delivered would be 80 mA/ mm. lontophoresis is currently used for treatment of acute musculoskeletal and neuromuscular inflammatory problems, using a mixture of lidocaine and dexamethasone or dexamethasone alone. Lidocaine alone is also used for local anesthesia. Many drugs are being studied for the feasibility of their delivery via iontophoresis. They are listed in Table II. Other Transdermal Systems. Lectec Corporation (Eden Prairie, MN) has developed a solid state, hydrophilic reservoir system that uses body heat and humidity to hydrate the skin and allows the diffusion of drug through the skin for systemic absorption. Health-C hem Corporation (New York, NY) has developed a transdermal laminar system that releases drug by using different polymers in the reservoir and protective layers. The Zetachron Company has developed its own transdermal system that can slow down skin permeation of drugs that are highly permeable. This is very useful in transdermally delivering low-dose, potent drugs such as antihypertensive and antianginal agents. Its transdermal systems are believed to be easier to manufacture than conventional transdermal patches. The Elan Company (Ireland) has developed two transdermal systems, Dermaflex and Panoderm. Both of these systems are to be worn like bracelets. The active ingredients are absorbed from the bracelet by electrical impulses. The Moleculon Biotech Company (Cambridge, MA) has developed a poroplastic membrane system. This system is a molecular sponge that can hold within its pores a large quantity of solid solubilized compounds. This membrane system is very flexible.

TABLE II

active

pole toward the inactive pole. The inactive pole, being the opposite polarity of the drug, will therefore attract, allowing the drug to be distributed to the tissues between the two electrodes. Human skin has a limited tolerance for flow of electric current, therefore the unit must be turned on and off slowly to avoid muscle stimulation. Turning the unit on or off suddenly, changing the electrode placement, or changing the polarity while the unit is running may cause the patient to receive a shock. When lower voltages are used, the patient will have less sensation of penetration, but the level of drug penetration will also be lower. The amount of drug that is delivered is equal to the current that is applied times duration of treatment. The recommended treatment time is 20 minutes, and the recommended maximum current is 4 mA. Therefore, the

DRUG

DRUG

Drug Lidocaine Dexamethasone Hydrocortisone Acetic acid

Iodine

Use Anesthesia Arthritis Arthritis

Calcified tendinitis Scar tissue removal

Penicillin

Burns

Salicylates

Arthritis,

Histamine Hyaluronidase Lithium Magnesium Calcium

Peripheral vascular Edema Gouty arthritis Arthritis Myospasm

myalgias

Copper

Fungal

Zinc

Scars, adhesions Calcifications

Acetate

disease

infections

411

RANADE

It can

alter

pounds

release

to deliver

rate drugs

by from

adding a few

various hours

com-

pirical.

to months.

Finally, some examples of skin applications are: 1) pressure-sensitive adhesive compositions containing chlorhexidine or PVP-1 and iodine as antimicrobial agents and for administering Tretinoin for acne,86 2) topical treatments for dermatologic conditions, e.g., tricyclic antidepressants such as imipramine, amitryptyline, and doxepin for pruritis and anthracenone derivatives for psoriasis, and87 3) antiphiogistic analgesic adhesive that contains indomethacin for arthritis.88 RECENT

ADVANCES

Very

few

studies

have

involved

systematic

evaluation of enhancer congeners. The enhancer congeners that have been evaluated by Chow and Hseih include surfactants of alkyl sulfates, saturated fatty

acids,

double

fatty

bonds,

numbers

alcohols

with

unsaturated

of double

different

fatty

bonds

at

configurations, carbon numbers

numbers

acids

different

with

of

equal

positions

or

with with

different various

and cyclic compounds and sizes.53

4. sary they skin.

Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs) are necescomponents in transdermal systems because ensure intimate contact of the device with the PSAs are used in many system designs that can

1. Transdermal drug absorption can be enhanced to a degree by various chemical and physical methods. Chemical enhancers exert their influence on lipids in the stratum corneum as well as on lower der-

be configured using an adhesive overlay face adhesive, adhesive matrix, and multilaminated PSA matrix. The science and engineering involved in the selection, formulation, and optimization of PSA properties is critical to the successful development of

mal

en-

transdermal

the

the

layers

and

hancers

seem

stratum

corneum,

possibly to

capillary

promote

whereas

seems to be important In addition, the effect

beds.

the

penetration

diffusional

in the lower layers that the chemical

Physical of

permeation

conditions over

in chemical

of the skin. enhancers

needed. lontophoresis methods because

it

apparently offers better control of transdermal drug delivery. However, it requires a device separate from and in addition to the drug delivery reservoir and therefore often is considered cumbersome to use and uncertain from a regulatory standpoint. This is an important consideration for companies that attempt to commercialize such a product. Rolf in this discussion, has also described some examples of amphoteric enhancers such as sodium lauryl sulfate, lauryl amine oxide, Azone, (Laurocapram, Nelson Research Corp., Irvine, CA.) decylmethyl sulfoxide, lauryl 2.

ethoxylate Using the

cell

and octanol.51 or the cylinder

method,

al. have evaluated the rate of release and of trinitrine from a membrane reservoir delivery system. Both methods yielded sults in terms of the quantity of drug unit area per hour and thus ensure a quality method

control of the system. Regardless used, the drug release is zero-order

Aiache

et

dissolution transdermic the same rereleased per satisfactory of the at 1 hour

after diffusion and thereafter. The authors conclude that the method proposed by the supplier (the cylinder method) is validated against that described by the pharmacopoeia.52 3. Despite the great need for effective transdermal permeation enhancers, the search is still largely em-

412

#{149} J Clin Pharmacol

1991;31:401-418

Adverse

excipients,

interactions

cosolvents,

and

between

permeation

en-

hancers in reservoir or matrix-type systems can compromise the performance of the adhesive, resulting in system failure.54 5. The skin is a vital metabolic and immunocompetent organ that serves as the first line of defense of the body against environmental attack. Certain

might have on the activity of the drug in the delivery device must always be considered. Further, a means of enhancement that can provide reproducible transdermal delivery through a variety of skins under various has an advantage

systems.

drug,

chemicals, however, are capable of producing immediate and delayed hypersensitivity reactions within the skin by interacting directly or indirectly with viable cells in the epidermis and dermis. These cells also contain receptors for many autocoids and cytokines, which makes the cells susceptible to appropriate concentrations of drugs and other structurally analogous xenobodies. For these reasons, the delivery of drugs through the skin might produce adverse reactions cussed

whole

by affecting responsive work regarding the

skin

phorbol gens.55

and

isolated

esters,

cells. biologic

epidermal

potent

drugs,

Dunn has response

disof

keratinocytes irritants,

to

and

mito-

6. The article by Pfister illustrates how silicone pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA5) can be customized to accommodate specific drug, material, and coating requirements tems. Physicochemical and their end-use

and also

cohesive describes

of transdermal properties properties such

strength how

are characterized. The article these properties can be varied by altering silanol functionally,

either chemically resin-to-polymer ratio, physically by adjusting -

or

-

relationships

between

lease kinetics ing formulations suggested.56

are

delivery sysof silicone PSAs as tack, adhesion,

choice coating

silicone

addressed to optimize

of solvent thickness.

PSAs

and

-

or

Finally,

drug

re-

and methods of developsystem performance are

TRANSDERMAL

7. Because of the side effects that are associated with the oral administration of tetra-hydrocannabinol (THC), Touitou et al. tested the use of the skin as a noninvasive portal for the sustained delivery of the drug. Rat skin was found to be approximately 13 times more permeable than human skin. Autoradiographs showed that after 24 hours, the drug was concentrated in the stratum corneum, in the upper epidermis, and around the hair follicles, which suggests that THC penetrates through the lipophilic pathways.57 8. Touitou et al. tested the permeation enhancement properties of n-decyl methyl sulfoxide (decyl MSO) in the presence of water and propylene glycol in vitro through hairless mouse skin. 5-Fluorouracil and idoxuridine were used as test drugs because of their respective hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. Results showed that the enhancement of permeation of decylMSO occurred only in an aqueous medium and only at concentrations greater than the critical micelle concentrations.58 9. Ashton et al. investigated the influence of sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and Brij 36T on the thermodynamic activity of methyl nicotinate in aqueous gels. The permeability of skin in vivo was assessed by measuring the time required for nicotine esters and hexyl nicotinate in aqueous gels. The time required for SLS gels to cause erythema correlates with the in vitro release rates. Because SLS is considered to be a powerful penetration enhancer, the results of this study indicate that these two surfactants exert their influences in different ways.59 10. Key Pharmaceuticals (Miami, FL) has received approval to market Nitro-Dur II (nitroglycerine) Transdermal Infusion System for prevention of severe angina pectoris. Applied once a day to the chest or upper arm, it delivers nitro-glycerine for a full 24 hours. 11. Cygnus Research, (Redwood City, CA) in collaboration with Family Health International, is developing a weekly contraceptive patch. Patches would be replaced weekly for 3 weeks, and a drug-free patch worn on week 4. 12. Forest Laboratories (St. Louis, MO) has formulated nitroglycerine in a transdermal polymer gel. The gel, which Forest will market itself, is applied in liquid form to the skin where it quickly dries and is absorbed. 13. A transdermal formulation of ketoprofen for orthopaedic use is being developed by Hisamatsu for the treatment of osteoarthritis, tenditis, and bursitis. The formulation comprises a flexible pad and adhesive layer that contains the water-based drug. 14. MacroChem has filed a patent application for enhancing the transdermal delivery of minoxidil.

DRUG

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

DRUG

DELIVERY

This technology will be employed in the Dermelec product of the company a transdermal device to be worn and adjusted by patients to control the rate and amount of dosage. 15. Beiersdorf is developing a transdermal patch that contains moxonidine for the chronic treatment of hypertension. The patch is designed to liberate a therapeutic 24-hour dose of moxonidine for a duration of 7 days. 16. Transdermal delivery of glibenclamide from the polymeric matrices of Eudragit, ethylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, polyvinyl pyrrolidone carboxymethyl cellulose, and polyvinyl acetate with plasticizers was studied. It was observed that the permeation rate was enhanced depending on the type and the concentration of the enhancers. The advantage of using enhancer combination was also observed.60 17. Occlusion of skin under a transdermal patch may facilitate the occurrence of adverse dermal reactions. To minimize such reactions, the authors have developed a novel system that is ultrathin, breathable (oxygen and moisture permeable), and has excellent conformability to the skin. This system is ideally suited for topical application of medications, such as anti-inefective, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal agents, and for transdermal delivery of relatively nontoxic and nonvolatile drugs. They investigated a patch construction incorporating chlorhexidine diacetate for use as an antiseptic dressing for wound and other applications.61 18. During the course of work on the development of a transdermal levonorgestrel (LN) delivery system, the authors investigated a number of permeation enhancers that could be used in conjunction with ethanol to achieve therapeutically effective fluxes of LN through the intact stratum corneum. The effectiveness of this enhancer for 5-fluorouracil, estradiol, and hydrocortisone was also studied.62 19. The article by Bodde et al63 focuses on two aspects of transdermal peptide delivery: transepidermal penetration and intra(epi)dermal biotransformation, taking the example of desenkephalin endorphin, a highly potent neuropeptide. In vitro studies with this peptide using both intact human skin samples and cultured human skin cells, showed transdermal fluxes (without enhancers). From these results, it is anticipated that the transdermal delivery of small peptides, even hydrophilic ones, is a distinct possibility. 20. Based on the long-term physical and chemical stability results, a transdermal contraceptive (TCS) formulation was selected. Extensive effort was devoted to the development of process and equipment for the scale-up manufacturing of TCS patches. A -

413

RANADE

continuous operation-type fabrication machine (SFM) was designed. The patches so fabricated were evaluated by measuring their weight variation, content uniformity as well as the release and skin permeation rates of levonorgestrel and estradiol against the patches prepared by hand-operated, compressioncoated (HCC) process, which was used in the formulation development phase. 21. A transdermal delivery system for verapamil was developed and applied for a 24-hour period on the chest skin of eight healthy male volunteers. The plasma concentration was monitored during 48 hours after the onset of system application. Not only verapamil, but its active metabolite (norverapamil) also were detected in the plasma. The plasma concentration reached a steady-state within about 10 hours after the system application. The clinical data was found to be predictable from the in vitro penetration study using hairless mouse skin by the help of computer simulation technique.65 22. A transdermal polymeric delivery system for hydromorphone was developed. Various penetration enhancers such as isopropylmyristate, 1-dodecylazacycloheptan-2-one (Azone), hexamethylene palmitamide, hexamethylene lauramide, aliphatic acids, alcohols, and esters were incorporated in the polymer matrix. The rate of drug penetration across hairless mouse skin increased and the time-lag decreased as the enhancer concentration increased. Hexamethyl lauramide improved the penetration of hydromorphone most significantly among the enhancers that were investigated. 23. The transdermal route offers several advantages over other routes of administration. However, a key problem is the low permeability of skin to most drugs. Low-skin permeabilities require impractically large devices if useful drug delivery rates are to be achieved. Potent drugs that are effective at low dosage rates, and hence, do not demand large devices, are promising candidates for the transdermal delivery route. Levonorgestrel (LN) is one such drug and is capable of suppressing ovulation.67 24. A multilaminate-type transdermal drug delivery (mTDD) system was recently developed for controlled administration of various drugs. The skin permeation rates of progestins and other drugs were found substantially enhanced, to varying degrees, by releasing different types of skin permeation enhancers from the surface adhesive layers to modify the skin permeability of drug. 25. BIOTEK (Burlington, VT) has developed a Universal Transdermal Delivery System, which is highly versatile and adaptable to a wide variety of drugs and dosing requirements. Its unique features include a macroporous non-rate controlling membrane, a viscous liquid base as a solvent for the drug,

414

#{149} J ClIn Pharmacol

1991;31:401-418

and suspended drug microparticles as reservoirs. After application, the system maintains a thin film of drug solution in direct contact with the skin, providing for skin occlusion. The system is compatible with enhancers and additives, and its delivery rate and duration are controllable by formulation variables. The system has been evaluated in vitro and in vivo for the simultaneous delivery of estradiol and levonorgestrel.69 26. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs) are used in transdermal drug delivery systems, in part because of the excellent biocompatibility and the high permeability of this class of materials. BIO-PSA(R) 355 silicone pressure sensitive adhesive is well suited as a contact adhesive in reservoir type delivery systems. Its properties are somewhat compromised, however, when co-formulated with amine-functional agents. BIO-PSA(R) Q72920 was developed to exhibit amine-resistance. PSA either functions as contact adhesive or may potentially act as a drug-loaded adhesive matrix, a conceptually simple, yet technologically complex drug delivery system. Preliminary suitability of BIOPSA(R) Q7-2920 as a drug-loaded matrix was determined by characterizing the release kinetics of nitroglycerine, indomethacin, estradiol, progesterone, propranolol and testosterone from the PSA, and testing the adhesive tape properties (release, adhesion and tack) of the drug-loaded matrices as a function of time.7#{176} 27. Since the adhesive matrix material can decrease the release rate of the active ingredient, it was believed to be non-adhesive diffusion matrix system by use of its improved delivery characteristics, while at the same time, maintaining direct contact with the skin. There are already transdermal systems on the market where the non-adhesive diffusion matrix is placed directly on the skin and held in place, i.e., by surrounding adhesive stripe. However, since it is known that in several cases the area of the non-adhesive matrix is large to maintain this type of matrix in an intimate contact with the skin, it was decided intentionally to develop transdermal systems showing, besides the improved delivery characteristics, especially a significantly better skin contact. A transdermal drug delivery system containing textile fabrics was developed.71 28. Actibase (Schering Corp., Kenilworth, NJ) is an optimized vehicle of propylene glycol, propylene glycol stearate, white wax, and white petrolatum used in the topical formulation of betamethasone dipropionate.93 29. Erythromycin that was formulated with a hydroalcoholic solution composed of ethanol and propylene glycol seems to be effective, as does tetracycline, (e.g., Topicycline, Proctor & Gamble, Cincin-

TRANSDERMAL

nati, OH) formulated with the enhancer decyl methyl sulfoxide.93 30. Actiderm (Bristol Myers Squibb, Princeton, NJ), a patch that does not contain any drug, was recently introduced for use as an occlusive dressing. The patch is placed over topically applied corticosteroids to enhance their efficacy by promoting hydration of the stratum corneum. This treatment leads to enhanced percutaneous absorption and prolonged activity, thus minimizing the need for high-potency steroidsY4 31. Hercon has developed the laminated reservoir system for the controlled-release transdermal delivery of agents to the systemic circulation, achieving steady-state blood levels for extended periods while minimizing side-effects. The system is thin and flexible and consists of 2 to 4 layers including a backing membrane, the drug reservoir, a rate-controlling membrane and an adhesive that holds the system to the skin. The system is suited to compounds that require 1-day or 7-day frequency of delivery. Hercon has signed agreements with several pharmaceutical companies to develop and/or market its polymeric transdermal system for selected products that include antiarthritics, antiemetics, antihistamines, beta-blockers, antihypertensives, antiasthmatics, antiaddictives, calcium antagonists, tranquilizers, and hormonal agents. CONCLUSION There are many factors to be considered in designing a delivery system for a drug to be applied to the skin. Certain aspects such as drug stability, physical stability of the formulation, irritation and sensitization properties, preservation, and aesthetic acceptability are all critical parameters. None of these considerations can be neglected in developing a new drug for transdermal delivery. There is little doubt that the vehicle can grossly affect drug bioavailability, and thus, influence the clinical efficacy of the drug. Unfortunately, there is no blueprint that can be followed to ensure development of an optimal product. Much depends on the specific pharmacologic properties of the drug, its physical-chemical properties, and its clinical function. In addition, there can be no assurance that maximizing drug penetration into the skin is, in every case, synonymous with optimizing drug delivery. Topical products are applied to the skin that has been completely stripped of its barrier properties and also to skin that is anatomically intact and enormously resistant to drug diffusion. These two situations only define the extremes as far as the diffusional resistance of skin is concerned. It should be recognized that the same topical product cannot DRUG

DELIVERY

SYSTEMS

DRUG

DELIVERY

be ideal, in terms of drug bioavailability, for every type of skin disease or for every patient.7274 There is no doubt that the physicochemical properties of the drug determine the ease or difficulty with which it passes through the skin barrier. However, in view of recent evidence, the vehicle must be regarded as something more than an elegant diluent in which the drug is placed to ensure its uniform contact with the skin surface. If the intent is to manipulate the diffusion rate of a drug across the skin, there are two general mechanisms by which this might be accomplished. One is to change the degree of interaction between drug and vehicle, i.e., affect the thermodynamic activity of the drug. The other is to produce changes in the stratum corneum that will affect its diffusional resistance. In general terms, one can describe these two approaches as involving either drug-vehicle interactions or vehicle-barrier interactions. Both effects are generally involved, and distinction of the specific mechanism may be difficult. Careful characterization of the physical properties of the delivery system and the solubility and the partitioning properties of the drug in this system will aid considerably in analyzing subsequent in vitro and in vivo penetration data that involves human skin. There seems to be little question that the skin owes its principal barrier properties to the thin layer of keratinized, epithelial cells that comprise the “dead” surface layer of the epidermis. This layer of flattened, closely packed cells is known as the stratum corneum or the horny layer. For the great majority of substances, diffusion through the stratum corneum represents the rate-limiting step in percutaneous absorption. Almost all substances that are used as drugs can be expected to penetrate even intact skin to some degree. Even particles of more than macromolecular size appear to pass through skin, although the rates are infinitesimally small. Characteristically, the penetration rate of most drugs will be small and only a fraction of the total dose that is applied to the skin will reach the systemic circulation and be excreted. Obviously if a finite rate of absorption occurs, the drug will ultimately be completely absorbed if it remains on the skin surface. In practice, much of the drug, along with the debris of the vehicle in which it was applied, will be removed by contact with dressings, clothing, and other objects or simply be washed off by the patient. Because the skin is a complex, biological barrier that is not yet fully understood, generalizations about its relative permeability to different types of compounds must be made with considerable caution. Transdermal therapy appears to be on the brink of a rapid expansion for the rate-controlled administration of potent, non-allergenic agents with suitable physicochemical properties, where current methods

415

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of administration cause problems. One unreasonably optimistic estimate is that by the midl99Os, 70% or more of all drugs will be delivered by the transdermal patch system. However, because of the constraints that arise from drug potency, skin permeability, or topic reaction, transdermal administration may not become the preferred dosage route for a high percentage of drugs. There are additional problems with, for example, cutaneous metabolism and the fact that a small volume of the skin has to suffer the entire body load of a drug. Possibilities for the future include making more use of prodrugs, penetration enhancers, and specific non-toxic enzyme inhibitors to diminish drug degradation. There is a definite need for a significant expansion in research work on the fundamentals of skin metabolism as it effects drug destruction and prodrug activation.7578 A challenge for drug therapy in the future is to efficiently deliver the peptide drugs that arise from the biotechnology revolution. At present, simple application to the skin of a peptide in a vehicle would produce suitable clinical effects. One possible approach would be to develop delivery devices that would synchronize the insertion of a suitable penetration enhancer into the stratum corneum together with the peptide. Another possibility would be to employ iontophoresis, a technique that has been used for a number of ionic drugs, and possibly combine it with the use of suitable penetration enhancers.79’80’89’9#{176} Alternately, drug molecules could be redesigned to achieve higher skin penetration. Most drugs in the market today were not only structured to elicit a particular pharmacologic response, but also designed to have suitable solubilities, particularly with respect to oral and parenteral dosage forms. More lipid soluble molecules (prodrugs) could be made from currently approved drugs to provide a more favorable prognosis for the transdermal approach in cases in which the drugs do not have the requisite physicochemical attributes.91’92’95 The author thanks Dr. Jacob J. Plattner for his helpful ments, Mr. Bipin K. Shah for his support, and Usha Ranade help in the preparation of the manuscript.

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of a new hydrocolof steroid-respon-

enhancers Part II system

compatible design con-

Drug delivery systems. 6. Transdermal drug delivery.

Transdermal drug delivery system has been in existence for a long time. In the past, the most commonly applied systems were topically applied creams a...
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